Ishvara (Sanskrit:ईश्वर,romanized: Īśvara) is a concept inHinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.[1][2] In ancient texts of Hindu philosophy, depending on the context,Ishvara can mean supreme Self, ruler, lord, king, queen or husband.[1] In medieval era Hindu texts, depending on the school of Hinduism,Ishvara means God, Supreme Being, personal God, or specialSelf.[2][3][4]InShaivism,Ishvara is an epithet ofShiva.[5][6][7][8] InVaishnavism it is synonymous withVishnu, like in his epithet ofVenkateswara.[9] In traditionalBhakti movements,Ishvara is one or more deities of an individual's preference (Iṣṭa-devatā) from Hinduism's polytheistic canon of deities. In modern-day sectarian movements such asArya Samaj andBrahmoism,Ishvara takes the form of a monotheistic God.[10] In theYoga school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" or "spiritual inspiration".[11] InAdvaita Vedanta, Ishvara is themanifested form of Brahman.[12]
The root of the word Ishvara comes fromIsh (ईश्īś-) meaning "capable of" and "owner, ruler, chief of".[13] The second part of the wordIshvara isvara (वरvara), which means depending on context, "best, excellent, beautiful", "choice, wish, blessing, boon, gift", and "suitor, lover, one who solicits a girl in marriage".[14] The composite word,Ishvara literally means "owner of best, beautiful", "ruler of choices, blessings, boons", or "chief of suitor, lover".
As a concept,Ishvara in ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts variously means God, Supreme Being, Supreme Self, Shiva, a king or a ruler, a husband, the god of love, one of the Rudras and the number 'eleven'.[5][6][15]
The wordĪśvara does not appear inRigveda.[16] However, the verbīś- does appear in Rigveda, where the context suggests that the meaning of it is "capable of, able to".[16] It is absent inSamaveda, is rare inAtharvaveda, but it appears inSamhitas ofYajurveda. The contextual meaning, however as the ancient Indian grammarianPāṇini explains, is neither god nor supreme being.[16]
The wordIshvara appears in numerous ancientDharmasutras. However, thereIshvara does not mean God, but meansVedas.[17]Ishvara in Dharmasutras could alternatively mean king, with the context literally asserting that the Dharmasutras are as important asIshvara (the king) on matters of public importance".[17]
The term is used as part of the compoundsMaheshvara ("The Great Lord") andParameshvara ("The Supreme Lord") as the names ofVishnu andShiva. InMahayana Buddhism it is used as part of the compound "Avalokiteśvara" ("lord who hears the cries of the world", but seeetymology section there), the name of abodhisattva revered for his compassion. When referring to divine as female, particularly inShaktism, the feminineIshvari is sometimes used.[18]
InAdvaita Vedanta school, Ishvara is a monistic Universal Absolute that connects and is the Oneness in everyone and everything.[19][20]
Among the six systems ofHindu philosophy,Samkhya andMimamsa do not consider the concept ofIshvara, i.e., a supreme being, relevant.Yoga,Vaisheshika,Vedanta andNyaya schools of Hinduism discuss Ishvara, but assign different meanings.
Isvara is a metaphysical concept in Yogasutras.[21] It does not mention deity anywhere, nor does it mention any devotional practices (Bhakti), nor does it giveIshvara characteristics typically associated with a deity.[21] In Yoga school of Hinduism, states Whicher, Isvara is neither a creator God nor the universal Absolute ofAdvaita Vedanta school of Hinduism.[3] Whicher also notes that some theistic sub-schools of Vedanta philosophy of Hinduism, inspired by the Yoga school, explain the termIshvara as the "Supreme Being that rules over the cosmos and the individuated beings".[3][22] Malinar states that in Samkhya-Yoga schools of Hinduism,Isvara is neither a creator-God, nor a savior-God.[23]
Bhakti sub-schools refer to Isvara as a Divine Lord, or the deity of specific Bhakti sub-school.[24] Modern sectarian movements have emphasized Ishvara as Supreme Lord; for example,Hare Krishna movement considers Krishna as the Lord.[25] In traditional theistic sub-schools of Hinduism, such as theVishishtadvaita Vedanta of Ramanuja andDvaita Vedanta of Madhva, Ishvara is identified as Lord Vishnu/Narayana, that is distinct from theprakriti (material world) andpurusha (Self).
These variations inIshvara concept is consistent with Hinduism's notion of "personal God" where the "ideals or manifestation of individual's highest Self values that are esteemed".[26] Schools of Hinduism leave the individual with freedom and choice of conceptualizing Ishvara in any meaningful manner he or she wishes, either in the form of "deity of one's choice" or "formlessBrahman (Absolute Reality, Universal Principle, true special Self)".[4][2][27][28]
Samkhya is called one of the major atheistic schools of Hindu philososphy by some scholars.[11][29][30] Others, such asJacobsen, believe Samkhya is more accurately described as non-theistic.[31] Yet others argue that Samkhya has been theistic from its very beginnings until medieval times.[32] Isvara is occasionally affirmed but most often denied in the Samkhya school of Hinduism;[33] for example, arguments are advanced in theSamkhya Pravachana Sutra and its commentaries against the existence of Isvara, chiefly that a being that is both a creator and free cannot exist.[34]
TheYogasutras of Patanjali, the foundational text of theYoga school of Hinduism, uses the termIshvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra's release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what isIsvara? These commentaries range from definingIsvara from a "personal god" to "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".[11][35] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept ofIsvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".[36]
Patanjali definesIsvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष,puruṣa-viśeṣa)",[37]
Sanskrit:क्लेश कर्म विपाकाशयैरपरामृष्टः पुरुषविशेषईश्वरः ॥२४॥
– Yoga Sutras I.24
This sutra adds the characteristics ofIsvara as that special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट,aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश,klesha), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म,karma), one's life fruits (विपाक,vipâka), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).[38][39]
Patanjali's concept of Isvara is neither a creator God nor the universal Absolute ofAdvaita Vedanta school of Hinduism.[3][22]
TheVaiśeṣika school of Hinduism, as founded by Kanada in the 1st millennium BC, neither required nor relied onIshvara for itsatomistic naturalism philosophy. To it, substances andparamāṇu (atoms) were eternal; they moved and interacted based on impersonal, eternaladrsta (अदृष्ट, invisible) laws of nature.[40][41] The concept ofIshvara, among others, entered into Vaisheshika school many centuries later in the 1st millennium AD.[40][42] This evolution in ideas aimed to explain how and why its so-called "atoms" have a particular order and proportions. These later-age ancient Vaiśeṣika scholars retained their belief that substances are eternal, and added Ishvara as another eternal who is also omniscient and omnipresent (not omnipotent). Ishvara did not create the world, according to this school of Hindu scholars, but He only created invisible laws that operate the world and then He becomes passive and lets those hidden universal laws do their thing.[40] Thus, Vaisheshika's Ishvara mirrorsDeus otiosus ofDeism. Vaisheshika school'sIshvara, statesKlaus Klostermaier, can be understood as an eternal God who co-exists in the universe with eternal substances and atoms, but He "winds up the clock, and lets it run its course".[40]
EarlyNyaya school scholars considered the hypothesis of Ishvara as a creator God with the power to grant blessings, boons and fruits. However, the early Nyaya scholars rejected this hypothesis, though not the existence of God itself, and were non-theistic.[43][44] Over time, the Nyaya school became one of the most important defenders of theism in Hindu philosophy.[45]
In Nyayasutra's Book 4, Chapter 1 examines what causes production and destruction of entities (life, matter) in universe. It considers many hypotheses, includingIshvara. Verses 19–21, postulates Ishvara exists and is the cause, states a consequence of postulate, then presents contrary evidence, and from contradiction concludes that the postulate must be invalid.[46]
सिद्धान्तसूत्र :ईश्वरः कारणम्, पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात्
पूर्वपक्षसूत्र : न, पुरुषकर्माभावे फ्लानिष्पत्तेः
सिद्धान्तसूत्र : तत्कारितत्वादहेतुःProposition sutra:Ishvara is the cause, since we see sometimes human action lacks fruits (results).
Prima facie objection sutra: This is not so since, as a matter of fact, no fruit is accomplished without human action.
Conclusion sutra: Not so, since it is influenced by him.— Nyaya Sutra, IV.1.19 – IV.1.21[46]
Centuries later, the 5th century CE Nyaya school scholar Prastapada revisited the premise of Ishvara. He was followed byUdayana, who in his textNyayakusumanjali, interpreted "it" in verse 4.1.21 of Nyaya Sutra above, as "human action" and "him" as "Ishvara", then he developed counter arguments to prove the existence of Ishvara.[47] In developing his arguments, he inherently definedIshvara as efficient cause, omnipotent, omniscient, infallible, giver of gifts, ability and meaning to humanity, divine creator of the world as well as the moral principles, and the unseen power that makes thekarma doctrine work.[47][48]
Mīmāṃsā scholars of Hinduism questioned what isIshvara (God)?[49] They used theirpramana tools to cross-examine answers offered by other schools of Hinduism. For example, when Nyaya scholars stated God is omnipotent, omniscient and infallible, that the world is the result of God's creation which is proved by the presence of creatures, just like human work proves human existence, Mimamsa scholars asked, why does this God create the world, for what reason? Further, they added, it cannot be because of Ishvara's love for human beings because this world – if Ishvara created it – is imperfect and human Selfs are suffering in it. Mimamsa scholars of Hinduism raised numerous objections to any definition of Ishvara along with its premises. They deconstructed justifications for the concept ofIshvara and considered it unnecessary for a consistent philosophy and moksha (spiritual liberation).[49][50]
TheAdvaita Vedanta school of Hinduism proclaims that at the empirical level Ishvara is the cause of the universe and the one who awards the fruits of every action. He is defined as the one without likes and dislikes, as well embodied with compassion (vaiṣamya Nairgghṛṇya doṣa vihīnaḥ). Ishvara is that which is "free fromavidyā (ignorance), free fromahaṃkṛti (ego-sense), free frombandhana (bondage)", a Self that is "pure, enlightened, liberated".[19][20] Having accepted and established Ishvara, Advaita Vedanta proclaims that the real nature of Ishvara (existence, consciousness and bliss) is non different from the real nature of an individual. This gives room in Advaita Vedanta to show the nature of Ishvara as both the material and instrumental cause of this universe and the individual who is limited in his own capacities as unreal and declare that there is oneness between the two having negated the qualities. This establishes Ishvara as 'saguṇa' or with attributes from the empirical existence and 'nirguṇa' from the absolute sense. This oneness is accepted only at the level of 'mukti' or ultimate realization and not at the 'vyavahara' or empirical level. At the absolute level there is no otherness nor distinction betweenJiva (living being) andIshvara, and any attempts to distinguish the two is a false idea, one based on wrong knowledge, according to Advaita Vedanta.[51]
ईश्वरः अहम्
Ishvara, I am.— Adi Shankara, Upadesasahasri 2.3.1, 2.10.8[19]
Other Advaitin Hindu texts resonate with themonist views of Adi Shankara. For example, Isa Upanishad, in hymn 1.5-7, states Ishvara is "above everything, outside everything, beyond everything, yet also within everything"; he who knows himself as all beings and all beings as himself – he never becomes alarmed before anyone. He becomes free from fears, from delusions, from root cause of evil. He becomes pure, invulnerable, unified, free from evil, true to truth, liberated like Ishvara.[52][53]
When the universe is not manifest, Shankara conceives of Ishvara as abiding in a state of dreamless sleep. The universe's manifestation occurs when Ishvara is in a dreaming state, wherein Ishvara is visualizing the universe owing to its memory of previous creations. Just as the state of dreaming is dependent on memory (not separate from the mind), the universe does not have an existence separate from Ishvara. Ishvara's knowledge is thus a necessary condition for the existence of the universe.[54]
Ishvara, inVishishtadvaita Vedanta sub-school of Hinduism, is a composite concept of dualism and non-dualism, or "non-dualism with differentiation".[55] Ishvara, Vishishtadvaitin scholars such as the 11th centuryRamanuja state, is the supreme creator and synonymous withBrahman.[56] Equated with Vishnu in Vishishtadvaita or one of hisavatar,[57] he is both the material and efficient cause, transcendent and immanent.[55] Ishvara manifests in five forms, believe Vishishtadvaitins:para (transcendent),vyuha (emanations),vibhava (incarnations),antaryamin (dwells inside), andarca (icons).[58] According to this sub-school, states John Grimes, Ishvara possesses six divine qualities:jnana (knowledge),bala (strength),aisvarya (lordship),sakti (power),virya (virility) andtejas (splendor).[58]
Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita concepts provided the foundation for several Bhakti movements of Hinduism, such as those bySri Aurobindo[59] and has been suggested as having influenced Basava'sLingayatism.[60]
The Dvaita (dualism) sub-school of Vedanta Hinduism, founded by 13th century Madhva, definesIshvara as creator God that is distinct fromJiva (individual Selfs in living beings).[61]Narayana (Vishnu) is considered to beIshvara, and theVaishnavism movement arose on the foundation developed by Dvaita Vedanta sub-school.[9]
Ishvara (God) is a complete, perfect and the highest reality to Dvaitins, and simultaneously the world is a separate reality for them, unlike competing thoughts in other sub-schools of Vedanta.[9] InDvaita sub-school,Jiva (individual Self) is different, yet dependent onIshvara (God). Both possess the attributes of consciousness, bliss and existence, but the individual Self is considered atomic, while God is all encompassing. The attributes ofJiva struggle to manifest, while of God it is fully manifested.[61]
Madhva states there are five permutations of differences betweenJiva (individual Self) andIshvara (God): between God and Self, between God and matter, between Self and matter, between one Self and another Self, and between one material thing and another material thing. The differences are both qualitative and quantitative.[62] Unlike Advaita Vedantins who hold that knowledge can lead to Oneness with everyone and everything as well as fusion with the Universal Timeless Absolute, to the state ofmoksha in this life, Dvaita Vedantins hold that moksha is possible only in after-life if God so wills (if not, then one's Self is reborn). Further, Madhva highlights that God creates individual Self, but the individual Self never was and never will become one with God; the best it can do is to experience bliss by getting infinitely close to God.[62]
The world, calledMaya, is held as the divine will of Ishvara.[61]Jiva suffers, experiences misery and bondage, state Dvaitins, because of "ignorance and incorrect knowledge" (ajnana). Liberation occurs with the correct knowledge and attainment unto Lord Narayana.[61] It is His grace that gives salvation according to Dvaita sub-school, which is achievable by predominance ofsattvaguna (moral, constructive, simple, kindness-filled life), and therefore Dvaitins must live adharmic life while constantly remembering, deeply lovingIshvara.[61]
Acintya bhedābheda is a sub-school ofVedanta representing the philosophy ofinconceivable one-ness and difference, in relation to the creation, Prakriti, and the creator, Ishvara (Krishna).[63][64]
InSanskritachintya means 'inconceivable',bheda translates as 'difference', andabheda translates as 'one-ness'. Self (their English phrase for the Sanskrit word:jiva) are considered parts of God, and thus one with Him in quality, and yet at the same time different from Him in quantity. This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference.[65]
Caitanya's philosophy of acintya-bhedābheda-tattva is understood to be part of a progression to devotionaltheism.Rāmānuja had agreed withŚaṅkara that the Absolute is one only, but he had disagreed by affirming individual variety within that oneness.Madhva had underscored the eternal duality of the Supreme and thejiva: he had maintained that this duality endures even after liberation. Caitanya, in turn, specified that the Supreme and the jīvas are "inconceivably, simultaneously one and different" (acintya-bheda-abheda).[66]
Cārvāka, another atheist tradition insramana, was materialist and a school ofphilosophical scepticism. They rejected all concepts ofIshvara as well as all forms of supernaturalism.[67][68][69]
Hence, he called his philosophy Achintya Bhedabhed vad, or Inconceivable Simultaneous Oneness and Difference.
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