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Irish mythology is the body ofmyths indigenous to the island of Ireland. It was originallypassed down orally in theprehistoric era.[1] In theearly medieval era, myths werewritten down byChristian scribes,[2] who revised it considerably in order to fit the history and religion according to Christianized learning.[3] Irish mythology is the best-preserved branch ofCeltic mythology.[citation needed]
The myths are conventionally grouped into 'cycles'. TheMythological Cycle consists of tales and poems about the god-likeTuatha Dé Danann, who are based on Ireland's pagan deities, and other mythical races like theFomorians.[4] Important works in the cycle are theLebor Gabála Érenn ("Book of Invasions"), alegendary history of Ireland, theCath Maige Tuired ("Battle of Moytura"), and theAided Chlainne Lir ("Children of Lir"). The heroic cycles and even theHistorical Cycle (Cycle of the Kings) are also considered repositories of mythological texts.[5] TheUlster Cycle consists of heroic legends relating to theUlaid, the most important of which is the epicTáin Bó Cúailnge ("Cattle Raid of Cooley").[6][7][8] TheFenian Cycle focuses on the exploits of the mythical heroFinn and hiswarrior band theFianna, including the lengthyAcallam na Senórach ("Tales of the Elders").[9][10] TheCycles of the Kings comprises legends about historical and semi-historical kings of Ireland (such asBuile Shuibhne, "The Madness of King Sweeny"[11]), and tales about the origins of dynasties and peoples.[8]
There are also mythological texts that do not fit into any of the cycles; these include theechtrai tales of journeys tothe Otherworld[13] (such asThe Voyage of Bran), and theDindsenchas ("lore of places").[14] Some written materials have not survived, and many more myths were likely never written down.
Myles Dillon andNora K. Chadwick classify Irish gods into four main groups. Group one encompasses the older gods ofGaul and Britain. The second group is the main focus of much of the mythology and surrounds the native Irish gods with their homes in burial mounds. The third group are the gods that dwell in the sea and the fourth group includes stories of the Otherworld.[15] The gods that appear most often are the Dagda and Lugh.[15]
The main supernatural beings in Irish mythology are the Tuatha Dé Danann.[17]
Tuatha Dé Danann is construed to mean "the folk of the goddess Danann[18] or "people/tribe/nation of the god Ana[?]"[16] Ana or Anu is an attested name of a goddess[21] (withgenitive formAnnan[22]); Danann is only found in later attestations; reconstructed (nominative) forms *Danu or *Dana are unattested[18] and are speculative.[23] The solution may be that Dana is merely a d-added variant of the goddess Ana/Anu[23] However, others suggest it was a later scholarly invention,[22] an extension added to the original appellation which was simply Tuath Dé (god-folk), until the simpler version became inconveniently ambiguous with Tuath Dé used to denote the "People of God" (i.e., Israelites).[18][22]
Still, Dana/Danu/Danand is treated as just variant form of Ana/Anu/Anand[24] and thus abona fide goddess in some scholarly works, e.g.,Macalister's translation of theLebor Gabala.[25] AWelsh goddessDôn is mentioned as possibly connected,[18][23] insinuating the plausibility of the Dana/Danu goddess in Irish myth.
Prominent male deities includeThe Dagda ("the great god"[18]); the long-armedLugh; the silver-armedNuada;Aengus; the sea godManannán;Dian Cécht the healer.[16][18] There are alsoGoibniu the smith,Creidhne the goldsmith/brazier, andLuchta the carpenter.[18][a] There is also Ogma, a god of eloquence and a warrior,[16][18] as well asNét (Neit) a "god of war".[18][28]
The Warrior goddesses are often depicted as a triad:The Morrígan[b], Macha, andBadb[c][25][15][31][15][32][d] whileKeating'sHistory has little to say about these three deities.[31] The warrior goddesses appear in the sagaTáin Bó Cúailnge, meddling in the human wars between the Ulstermen and Connacht.[33] The Morrígan appears in the guise of a crow (badb, namesake of her sister goddess) beforeCú Chulainn.[34][35] In a later encounter, she transforms into aneel,wolf, and cow.[36][37]
Brigit a "goddess of poets"[18] and daughter of the Dagda.[18]
Ana/Anu aka Dannan/Dana/Danu[24][38] is as aforementioned, the "mother of the Irish gods",[39][e] and possibly an alias of The Morrígan.[24][41]
The Tuatha Dé Danann live in theOtherworld, which is described as either a parallel world or a heavenly land beyond the sea or under the earth's surface.[18] Many of them are associated with specific places in the landscape, especially thesídh mounds; the ancientburial mounds andpassage tombs which are entrances to Otherworld realms.[18][42] The Tuath Dé can hide themselves with aféth fíada ('magic mist')[45][46] and appear to humans only when they wish to.[18]
The Tuatha Dé intermarried with their adversaries, theFomorians, so that when Nuada became disqualified from kingship due to his debility (loss of arm),Bres who had a Fomorian father took over the kingship of the Tuatha Dé. There ensued theSecond Battle of Mag Tuired where Lug led the victory by slaying the Fomorian championBalor, his own grandfather.[16]
TheFomorians or Fomori (Old Irish:Fomóire)[47] are a supernatural race, who are often portrayed as hostile and monstrous beings. Originally, they were said to come from under the sea or the earth.[47] Later, they were portrayed as sea raiders, which was probably influenced by theViking raids on Ireland around that time.[47] Later still they were portrayed as giants. They are enemies of Ireland'sfirst settlers and opponents of the Tuatha Dé Danann,[48] although some members of the two races have offspring. The Tuath Dé defeat the Fomorians in theBattle of Mag Tuired.[49] This has been likened to otherIndo-European myths of a war between gods, such as theÆsir and Vanir inNorse mythology and theOlympians and Titans inGreek mythology.[50]
Heroes in Irish mythology can be found in two distinct groups. There is the lawful hero who exists within the boundaries of the community, protecting their people from outsiders.[51] Within the kin-group ortuath, heroes are human and gods are not.[52]
The hero Cúchulainn's fighting skills were fostered by the women warriorsScáthach and Aoife (Aífe) who exhibited otherworldly prowess.[53] Likewise, the warrior womanLiath Luachra trained the heroFionn mac Cumhaill.[51][page needed]
TheFianna warrior bands are seen as outsiders, connected with the wilderness, youth, and liminal states.[51] Their leader was called Fionn mac Cumhaill, and the first stories of him are told in fourth century. They are considered aristocrats and outsiders who protect the community from other outsiders; though they may winter with a settled community, they spend the summers living wild, training adolescents and providing a space for war-damaged veterans. The time of vagrancy for these youths is designated as a transition in life post puberty but pre-manhood. Manhood being identified as owning or inheriting property. They live under the authority of their own leaders, or may be somewhat anarchic, and may follow other deities or spirits than the settled communities.[51]
The church refused to recognize this group as an institution and referred to them as "sons of death".[54]
TheOilliphéist is a sea-serpent-like monster in Irish mythology and folklore. These monsters were believed to inhabit many lakes and rivers in Ireland and there are legends of saints, especially St. Patrick, and heroes fighting them.[55][56]
In Irish folklore there is also theCailleach or hag, said to have lived many lives that begin and end with her in stone formation. She is still celebrated atBallycrovane Ogham Stone with offerings and the retelling of her life's stories. The tales of the Cailleach connect her to both land and sea.[57] Several Otherworldly women are associated with sacred sites where seasonal festivals are held. They includeMacha ofEamhain Mhacha,Carman, andTailtiu, among others.[58]
The key and earliest manuscript sources for Irish mythology are the late 11th/early 12th centuryLebor na hUidre (LU, Book of the Dun Cow);[f] theBook of Leinster (early 12th-century);[g] andMS Rawlinson B 502 (Rawl., composite of mid-12th century and 14th–15th century redactions).[h][59] Despite the dates of these sources, most of the material they contain predates their composition.[59][60]
TheYellow Book of Lecan (YBL)[i] is another important codex that contains earlier pieces of writing even though it was compiled at a much later period, 1391–1582.[59][61][63] The YBL includes the legends of Fionn Mac Cumhail, and fragmentary portions ofTáin Bó Cúailnge ("The Cattle Raid of Cooley") of the same version as the oldest (but incomplete) copy in LU.[64]
Other important sources compiled around the late 14th century or the early 15th century areTheBook of Ballymote (BB)[59] andLeabhar Ua Maine (Book of Hy Many).[j] A fuller text concerning theFour Treasures of the Tuatha Dé Danann is found in the YBL and the BB,[65] though a briefer account is also found in theLebor Gabala.[66][67]
Other 15th-century manuscriptThe Book of Fermoy contains, for instance, theAltram Tige Dá Medar [ga].[k][43][68][69]
And in the modern period,Geoffrey Keating'sForas Feasa ar Éirinn (The History of Ireland) (c. 1640).
Most of these manuscripts were created by Christianmonks, who may well have been torn between a desire to record their native culture and hostility to pagan beliefs, resulting in some of the gods beingeuhemerised. Many of the later sources may also have formed parts of a propaganda effort designed to create a history for the people of Ireland that could bear comparison with the mythological descent of their British invaders from the founders of Rome, as promulgated byGeoffrey of Monmouth and others. There was also a tendency to rework Irish genealogies to fit them into the schemas of Greek or biblical genealogy.
Whether medieval Irish literature provides reliable evidence oforal tradition remains a matter for debate.Kenneth Jackson described the Ulster Cycle as a "window on the Iron Age", and Garret Olmsted has attempted to draw parallels betweenTáin Bó Cuailnge, the Ulster Cycle epic and the iconography of theGundestrup Cauldron.[70] However, these "nativist" claims have been challenged by "revisionist" scholars who believe that much of the literature was created, rather than merely recorded, in Christian times, more or less in imitation of theepics ofclassical literature that came withLatin learning. The revisionists point to passages apparently influenced by theIliad inTáin Bó Cuailnge, and to theTogail Troí, an Irish adaptation ofDares Phrygius'De excidio Troiae historia, found in the Book of Leinster. They also argue that the material culture depicted in the stories is generally closer to that of the time of their composition than to that of the distant past.[citation needed]
TheMythological Cycle, comprising stories of the former gods and origins of the Irish, is the least well preserved of the four cycles. It is about the principal people who invaded and inhabited the island. The people include Cessair and her followers, the Formorians, the Partholinians, the Nemedians, the Firbolgs, theTuatha Dé Danann, and the Milesians.[59] The most important sources are theMetrical Dindshenchas orLore of Places and theLebor Gabála Érenn orBook of Invasions. Other manuscripts preserve such mythological tales asThe Dream of Aengus,Tochmarc Étaíne ("the Wooing of Étain") andCath Maige Tuireadh,the (second) Battle of Magh Tuireadh. One of the best known of all Irish stories,Oidheadh Clainne Lir, orThe Tragedy of the Children of Lir, is also part of this cycle.
Lebor Gabála Érenn is a pseudo-history of Ireland, tracing the ancestry of the Irish back to beforeNoah. It tells of a series of invasions or "takings" of Ireland by a succession of peoples, the fifth of whom was the people known as theTuatha Dé Danann ("Peoples of the Goddess Danu"), who were believed to have inhabited the island before the arrival of theGaels, orMilesians. They faced opposition from their enemies, theFomorians, led byBalor of the Evil Eye. Balor was eventually slain byLugh Lámfada (Lugh of the Long Arm) at the second battle of Magh Tuireadh. With the arrival of the Gaels, the Tuatha Dé Danann retired underground to become thefairy people of later myth and legend.
TheMetrical Dindshenchas is the greatonomastics work of early Ireland, giving the naming legends of significant places in a sequence of poems. It includes a lot of important information on Mythological Cycle figures and stories, including the Battle of Tailtiu, in which the Tuatha Dé Danann were defeated by the Milesians.
By the Middle Ages, the Tuatha Dé Danann were not viewed so much as gods as the shape-shifting magician population of an earlierGolden Age Ireland. Key texts such asLebor Gabála Érenn[71] andCath Maige Tuireadh[72] present them as kings and heroes of the distant past, complete with death-tales. However, there is considerable evidence, both in the texts and from the wider Celtic world, that they were once considereddeities.
TheUlster Cycle is traditionally set around the first century AD, and most of the action takes place in the provinces ofUlster andConnacht. It consists of a group of heroic tales dealing with the lives ofConchobar mac Nessa, king of Ulster, the great heroCú Chulainn, who was the son of Lug (Lugh), and of their friends, lovers, and enemies. These are theUlaid, or people of the North-Eastern corner of Ireland and the action of the stories centres round the royal court atEmain Macha (known in English as Navan Fort), close to the modern town ofArmagh. The Ulaid had close links with the Irish colony in Scotland, and part of Cú Chulainn's training takes place in that colony.
The cycle consists of stories of the births, early lives and training, wooing, battles, feastings, and deaths of the heroes. It also reflects a warrior society in which warfare consists mainly of single combats and wealth is measured mainly in cattle. These stories are written mainly in prose. The centerpiece of the Ulster Cycle is theTáin Bó Cúailnge. Other important Ulster Cycle tales includeThe Tragic Death of Aife's only Son,Bricriu's Feast, andThe Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel.[73]The Exile of the Sons of Usnach, better known as the tragedy ofDeirdre, became the source material for plays byWilliam Butler Yeats (Deirdre, 1907) andJohn Millington Synge (Deirdre of the Sorrows, 1910).[74]
This cycle is, in some respects, close to the mythological cycle. Some of the characters from the latter reappear, and the same sort of shape-shifting magic is much in evidence, side by side with a grim, almost callous realism. While we may suspect a few characters, such asMedb orCú Roí, of once being deities, and Cú Chulainn in particular displays superhuman prowess, the characters are mortal and associated with a specific time and place. If the Mythological Cycle represents a Golden Age, the Ulster Cycle is Ireland'sHeroic Age.
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Like the Ulster Cycle, the Fianna Cycle or Fenian Cycle, also referred to as the Ossianic Cycle, is concerned with the deeds of Irish heroes. The stories of the Cycle appear to be set around the 3rd century and mainly in the provinces ofLeinster andMunster.[59] Differently, the Fianna Cycle has strong links to the Gaelic-speaking community in Scotland with many extant texts from that country. They also differ from the Ulster Cycle in that the stories are told mainly inverse, and that in tone they are nearer to the tradition of romance than the tradition of epic. The stories concern the doings ofFionn mac Cumhaill and his band of soldiers, theFianna.[75]
The single-largest medieval Irish text for the Fianna Cycle is theAcallam na Senórach (Colloquy of the Old Men), which is found in two 15th century manuscripts, theBook of Lismore and Laud 610, as well as a 17th century manuscript fromKilliney,County Dublin. The text is dated from linguistic evidence to the 12th century. The text records conversations betweenCaílte mac Rónáin andOisín, the last surviving members of the Fianna, andSaint Patrick, and consists of about 8,000 lines. The late dates of the manuscripts may reflect a longer oral tradition for the Fenian stories.
The Fianna of the story are divided into the Clann Baiscne, led by Fionn mac Cumhaill (often rendered as "Finn MacCool", Finn Son of Cumhall), and the Clann Morna, led by his enemy,Goll mac Morna. Goll killed Fionn's father,Cumhal, in battle and the boy Fionn was brought up in secrecy. As a youth, while being trained in the art of poetry, he accidentally burned his thumb while cooking the Salmon of Knowledge, which allowed him to suck or bite his thumb to receive bursts of stupendous wisdom. He took his place as the leader of his band and numerous tales are told of their adventures.Tóraigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne (The Pursuit ofDiarmuid andGráinne)[76] billed as the greatest prose narrative of the cycle, has only survived in modern Irish texts dating to the 17th century at the oldest, though still asserted to contain elements from the 10th century.[l] The legend of Oisín and his otherworldly loverNiamh Cinn-Óir is also widespread, and known in various oral tellings, but was not set down in writing until c. 1750 when Mícheál Coimín (1676–1760) composed theLaoi Oisín i dṪír Na nÓg ("Lay of Oisín in the Land of Youth").[78]
The world of the Fianna Cycle is one in which professional warriors spend their time hunting, fighting, and engaging in adventures in the spirit world. New entrants into the band are expected to be knowledgeable in poetry as well as undergo a number of physical tests or ordeals. Most of the poems are attributed to being composed by Oisín. This cycle creates a bridge between pre-Christian and Christian times.[59][75]
It was part of the duty of medieval Irish bards, or courtpoets, to record the history of the family and the genealogy of the king they served. This they did in poems that blended the mythological and the historical to a greater or lesser degree. The resulting stories from what has come to be known as the Cycle of the Kings, or more correctly Cycles, as there are a number of independent groupings. This term is a more recent addition to the cycles, with it being coined in 1946 by Irish literary criticMyles Dillon.[79]
The kings that are included range from the almost entirely mythologicalLabraid Loingsech, who allegedly became High King of Ireland around 431 BC, to the entirely historicalBrian Boru. However, the greatest glory of the Kings' Cycle is theBuile Shuibhne (The Frenzy of Sweeney), a 12th century tale told in verse and prose. Suibhne, king ofDál nAraidi, was cursed by St. Ronan and became a kind of half-man, half bird, condemned to live out his life in the woods, fleeing from his human companions. The story has captured the imaginations of contemporary Irish poets and has been translated byTrevor Joyce andSeamus Heaney.
The adventures, orechtrae, are a group of stories of visits to theIrish Other World (which may be westward across the sea, underground, or simply invisible to mortals). The most famous,Oisin in Tir na nÓg belongs to the Fenian Cycle, but several free-standing adventures survive, includingThe Adventure of Conle,The Voyage of Bran mac Ferbail, andThe Adventure ofLóegaire.
The voyages, orimmrama, are tales of sea journeys and the wonders seen on them that may have resulted from the combination of the experiences of fishermen combined and the Other World elements that inform the adventures. Of the sevenimmrama mentioned in the manuscripts, only three have survived:The Voyage of Máel Dúin, theVoyage of the Uí Chorra, and theVoyage of Snedgus and Mac Riagla.The Voyage of Mael Duin is the forerunner of the laterVoyage of St. Brendan. While not as ancient, later 8th century AD works, that influenced European literature, includeThe Vision of Adamnán.
Although there are no written sources of Irish mythology, many stories are passed down orally through traditional storytelling. Some of these stories have been lost, but some Celtic regions continue to tell folktales to the modern-day. Folktales and stories were primarily preserved by monastic scribes from thebards of nobility. Once the noble houses started to decline, this tradition was put to an abrupt end. The bards passed the stories to their families, and the families would take on the oral tradition of storytelling.
During the first few years of the 20th century,Herminie Templeton Kavanagh wrote down many Irish folk tales, which she published in magazines and in two books. Twenty-six years after her death, the tales from her two books,Darby O'Gill and the Good People andAshes of Old Wishes, were made into the filmDarby O'Gill and the Little People. Noted Irish playwrightLady Gregory also collected folk stories to preserve Irish history. TheIrish Folklore Commission gathered folk tales from the general Irish populace from 1935 onward.
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