Irak Türkmenleri | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Total population | |
| 3 million (2013 Iraqi Ministry of Planning estimate)[1][2] Estimated 4 million to 5 million (or 10%–13% of the Iraqi population in 2020–21)[3][4][5][6] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Predominantly in theTurkmeneli region: Governorates ofKirkuk,Erbil,Nineveh,Saladin andDiyala[7][8] | |
| Languages | |
| Turkmen dialect[9] Additional:Mesopotamian Arabic,Kurdish,[7]Standard Turkish | |
| Religion | |
| 99%Islam (60-70%Sunni, 30-40%Shia, smallAlevi minority)[10][11] 1%Christianity (Catholic)[12][13] | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Turkish people,Azerbaijanis,Syrian Turkmen,Turks in Jordan,Lebanese Turkmen,Israeli Turkmen,Turks in Palestine,Turks in the Balkans,Qashqai people,Khorasani Turks |
TheIraqi Turkmen (Turkish:Irak Türkmenleri, عراق تورکمنلری;Arabic: تركمان العراق), also referred to asIraqi Turks,[14][15] (Turkish:Irak Türkleri, عراق توركلری;Arabic:أتراك العراق) are the third largest ethnic group inIraq.[16][17] They make up to 10%–13% of the Iraqi population.[3][4][5][6] Iraqi Turkmens are descendants ofTurkish settlers from the time ofOttoman Iraq, and are closely related toSyrian Turkmens. Iraqi Turkmens in Iraq do not identify with the traditionally-nomadicTurkmens ofCentral Asia.[18][19][20][1][2]
According to Iraqi Turkmen scholar ProfessorSuphi Saatçi, prior to the mid-20th century the Turkmens in Iraq were known simply as "Turks".[21] It was not until after the military coup of 14 July 1958, that the ruling military junta officially introduced the name "Turkman/Turkmen":[21]
the political goal of the Iraqi government was to distinguish the Iraqi Turkmens from other Turks inAnatolia, just as theGreek government used the name "Muslim minority" for thoseTurks living within the borders of Greece.[21]
The state-imposed terms on the Turks of Iraq were not resisted, for the word "Turkmen" had historically been designated to theOghuz Turks who had acceptedIslam and migrated westwards fromCentral Asia to theMiddle East,[21] and had continued to be used in the region. Thus, Iraqi Turkmens (as well asSyrian Turkmens and Anatolian Turkmens) do not identify themselves with theTurkmen people ofTurkmenistan.[18] Rather, the term "Turkmen" in the Middle East is often used to designate Turkic-speakers, particularly in the Arab areas, or where Sunni Turks live in Shiite dominated areas.[18]
Despite the modern usage of the term "Turkmen", ProfessorDavid Kushner has pointed out that the term "Turks" continues to be used in referring to the "Outside Turks" of the former Ottoman Empire, including the Turks in Iraq,[15] which is in contrast to the terms used for other Turkic peoples who did not share this Ottoman history:
Generally one may distinguish between the 'closer' communities [to Turkey] of Turks inCyprus,Greece,Bulgaria, andIraq, on the one hand, and the more 'distant' ones inIran, theSoviet Union andChina, on the other...even the term "Turks" is selectively used. It is habitually used in reference to the 'closer' Turkish communities while the others are commonly referred to by their own particular names (i.e., Azeris, Turkestanis, etc.)... More important perhaps than the legal factor has been the historical and cultural identity of the Turks in Cyprus, Greece, Bulgaria and Iraq with the Turks of Turkey. Not only are these communities geographically adjacent to the Turks but they have all shared the Ottoman past, speak more or less the same language, and are predominantly Sunni.[19]
They are also referred to asTurkish-Iraqis,[22] theTurkish minority in Iraq,[15] and theIraqi-Turkish minority.[23]
Professor Orit Bashkin has observed that within Iraqi Turkmen literature, poets have managed to "remain loyal to Iraq as a state" whilst they have also "concurrently upheld their Turkish distinctiveness":
For Mustafa Gökkaya (b. 1910), this signified that his community was Muslim and that "my father is Turk, and the homeland [is] my mother". For Reşit Ali Dakuklu (b. 1918), being part of "the Turks of Iraq" signified maintaining brotherly relations with every nation, being united with Iraq, while speaking in Turkish. Universal and local, Iraqi and Turkish at the same time, the Turkoman poets were willing to serve their nation yet unwilling to neglect their culture and their Turkishness.[24]
The exact origin of Iraqi Turkmens is uncertain, but several possible explanations and theories of settlement in the region indicate that they likely originally emerged in Iraq as garrisons established by multiple rulers in various time periods.[7][25][26][27]
Iraqi Turkmens are believed to be the descendants of various waves of Turkic settlement inMesopotamia beginning from the 7th century until the end of Ottoman rule (1919). The first wave of migration dates back to the 7th century, followed by migrations during theSeljuk Empire (1037–1194), the fleeing Oghuz during the Mongol destruction of theKhwarazmian dynasty (seeKara Koyunlu andAg Qoyunlu), and the largest migration, during theOttoman Empire (1535–1919). With the conquest of Iraq bySuleiman the Magnificent in 1534, followed by SultanMurad IV's capture ofBaghdad in 1638, a large influx of Turks—predominantly fromAnatolia—settled down in Iraq. It is believed that many of today's Iraqi Turkmens are the descendants of the Ottoman soldiers, traders and civil servants who were brought into Iraq during the rule of the Ottoman Empire.[25][26][27][28]
The presence of Turkic peoples in what is today Iraq first began in the 7th century when approximately 2,000[29]–5,000[30][31]Oghuz Turks were recruited in the Muslim armies ofUbayd-Allah ibn Ziyad.[29] They arrived in 674 with the Umayyud conquest of Basra.[32] More Turkic troops settled during the 8th century, from Bukhara to Basra and also Baghdad.[32] During the subsequentAbbasid era, thousands more of Turkmen warriors were brought into Iraq; however, the number of Turkmens who had settled in Iraq were not significant, as a result, the first wave of Turkmens became assimilated into the local Arab population.[29]
The second wave of Turkmens to descend on Iraq were the Turks of theGreat Seljuq Empire.[25] Large scale migration of Turkmens in Iraq occurred in 1055 with the invasion of SultanTuğrul Bey, the second ruler of theSeljuk dynasty, who intended to repair the holy road toMecca. For the next 150 years, the Seljuk Turks placed large Turkmen communities along the most valuable routes of northern Iraq, especiallyTal Afar,Erbil,Kirkuk, andMandali, which is now identified by the modern community asTurkmeneli.[33] Many of these settlers assumed positions of military and administrative responsibilities in theSeljuk Empire.[citation needed]
The third, and largest, wave of Turkmen migration to Iraq arose during the four centuries ofOttoman rule (1535–1919).[25][31] By the first half of the sixteenth century the Ottomans had begun their expansion into Iraq, waging wars against their arch rival, the PersianSafavids.[34] In 1534, under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent,Mosul was sufficiently secure within the Ottoman Empire and became the chief province (eyalet) responsible for all other administrative districts in the region.[35] The Ottomans encouraged migration from Anatolia and the settlement of immigrant Turkmens along northern Iraq, religious scholars were also brought in to preachHanafi (Sunni) Islam.[35] With loyal Turkmens inhabiting the area, the Ottomans were able to maintain a safe route through to the southern provinces ofMesopotamia.[25] Following the conquest, Kirkuk came firmly under Turkish control and was referred to as "Gökyurt",[36] it is this period in history whereby modern Iraqi Turkmens claim association with Anatolia and theTurkish state.[36]
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With the conquest of Iraq bySuleiman the Magnificent in 1534, followed by SultanMurad IV's capture ofBaghdad in 1638, a large influx of Turks settled down in the region.[31][26] After defeating the Safavids on 31 December 1534, Suleiman entered Baghdad and set about reconstructing the physical infrastructure in the province and ordered the construction of a dam inKarbala and major water projects in and around the city's countryside.[37] Once the new governor was appointed, the town was to be composed of 1,000 foot soldiers and another 1,000 cavalry.[38] However, war broke out after 89 years of peace and the city was besieged and finally conquered byAbbas the Great in 1624. The Persians ruled the city until 1638 when a massive Ottoman force, led by SultanMurad IV, recaptured the city.[35] In 1639, theTreaty of Zuhab was signed that gave the Ottomans control over Iraq and ended the military conflict between the two empires.[39] Thus, more Turks arrived with the army of Sultan Murad IV in 1638 following the capture of Baghdad whilst others came even later with other notable Ottoman figures.[36][40]
Following theestablishment of theRepublic of Turkey in 1923, Iraqi Turkmens wanted Turkey to annex theMosul vilayet and for them to become part of an expanded state;[41] this is because, under the Ottoman monarchy, Iraqi Turkmens enjoyed a relatively trouble-free existence as the administrative and business classes.[41] However, due to thedemise of the Ottoman monarchy, Iraqi Turkmens participated inelections for the Constituent Assembly; the purpose of these elections was to formalise the 1922 treaty with the British government and obtain support for the drafting of a constitution and the passing of the 1923 Electoral law.[42] Iraqi Turkmens made their participation in the electoral process conditional on the preservation of the Turkish character of Kirkuk's administration and the recognition ofTurkish as the official language of theliwa.[42] Although they were recognized as a constitutive entity of Iraq, alongside theArabs andKurds, in the constitution of 1925, Iraqi Turkmens were later denied this status.[41]
Since the demise of the Ottoman Empire, Iraqi Turkmens have found themselves increasingly mistreated under successive regimes, such as in the massacres of 1923, 1946, and 1959, and from 1980, when theBa'ath Party targeted the community.[41]
Iraqi Turkmens are mostlyMuslim and have close cultural and linguistic ties with theAnatolian region ofTurkey.[43]
Iraqi Turkmen[44][45] dialects fall under the WesternOghuz branch ofTurkic languages and are often referred to as "Iraqi Turkmen Turkish"[46][47] "Iraqi Turkish",[48][49][50][51] and "Iraqi Turkic".[52][53] The dialects possess their own unique characteristics, but have also been influenced by the historical standards ofOttoman Turkish (which was the official language of administration andlingua franca in Iraq between 1534 and 1920[54]) and neighboringAzerbaijani Turkic.[55] In particular,standard (i.e. Istanbul) Turkish as aprestige language has exerted a profound influence on their dialects;[56] thus, thesyntax in Iraqi Turkmen differs sharply from neighboring Irano-Turkic varieties.[56] Collectively, Iraqi Turkmen dialects also show similarities withCypriot Turkish and Balkan Turkish regardingmodality.[57] The written language of the Iraqi Turkmens is based on Istanbul Turkish using the modernTurkish alphabet.[58]
The Turkish language was recognized as a minority language inKirkuk andKifri in 1930,[59] until therevolutionary government introduced the names "Turkman" and "Turkmanja" in 1959 with the aim of politically distancing the Turks of Iraq fromTurkey.[21] Then, in 1972, the Iraqi government banned the Turkish language[60] and schools and media using Turkish were prohibited.[60] Further bans on the Turkish language were made in the 1980s when the Ba'ath regime prohibited Iraqi Turkmens from speaking Turkish in public.[60] It was not until 2005 that the Turkmen dialects were recognized under the Iraqi constitution; since then, Iraqi Turkmens have opened numerous Turkish schools[61] and media exposure fromTurkey has led to the standardisation of their dialects towardsStandard Turkish and the preferable language for adolescents associating with theTurkish culture.[62]
Some Iraqi Turkmens claimed that their language hadSumerian influence, which was present in many of the names of villages, cities, and foods. By 2021, researchers had discovered over 350 Turkmen words which traced back to Sumerian. There was also speculation that Turkmen traditional clothes strongly resembled Sumerian clothes.[63]
Indeed, Iraqi Turkmens themselves (according to the 1957 census), as well as a range of linguistic sources, tend to view their language as aTurkish dialect (ofTurkey),[64][65][66] which they callIrak Türkmen Türkçesi,Irak Türkçesi, orIrak Türkmencesi. Studies have long noted the similarities between Iraqi Turkmens and certainSoutheastern Anatolian dialects around the region ofUrfa andDiyarbakır,[67] or have described it as an "Anatolian"[65][68] or an "Eastern Anatolian dialect".[69] There are also linguists who have said that Iraqi Turkmen is closer to Azerbaijani,[70] placing the Kirkuk dialect as "more or less"[71] an "Azerbaijani Turkish" dialect.[47][72][73][74] Yet, the Kirkuk dialect also shows comparable features with Urfa,[75][66] and there are other regions in theKirkuk Governorate, such asAltun Kupri,Taza Khurmatu, andBashir, which are said to show unity with the Eastern Anatolian dialect of Urfa.[76] Indeed, the dialects spoken in Turkmen-dominated regions in other parts of the country – includingAmirli,Kifri,Tal Afar andTuz Khurmatu – are all said to be similar to the Turkish dialect of Urfa.[76] Hence, there are linguists who acknowledge similarities with Azerbaijani spoken inIran but say that Iraqi Turkmens has "greater proximity to Turkish ofTurkey".[48] According to Christiane Bulut, Iraqi Turkman is neither Azeri nor Anatolian Turkish but "a transitional dialect group, displaying linguistic features similar to both".[77]
Besides their traditional dialects, theIraqi Turkmen diaspora also communicate in standard (Istanbul) Turkish,[78] whilst the younger generations in Iraq (below the age of 18 in 2019) speakIstanbul Turkish with ease.[79] In addition,diglossia in Iraq Turkmen dialects and Istanbul Turkish has become a widespread phenomenon.[58][80] Most Iraqi Turkmens can also speakArabic and/orKurdish.[81][54]
Due to the existence of different Turkish migration waves to Iraq for over 1,200 years, the Iraqi Turkmen varieties are by no means homogeneous;[81][55] dialects can vary according to regional features.[58] Several prestige languages in the region have been particularly influential:Ottoman Turkish from 1534 onwards and thenPersian after theCapture of Baghdad (1624). Once theOttoman Empire retook Iraq in 1640 the Turkish varieties of Iraq continued to be influenced by Ottoman Turkish, as well as other languages in the region, such asArabic andKurdish.[81] Ottoman Turkish had a strong influence in Iraq until 1920, for it was not only the official language of administration but also thelingua franca.[54] Indeed, Turkish has remained aprestige language among Iraqi Turkmen, exerting a profound historical influence on their dialect. As a result, Iraqi Turkmen syntax differs sharply from Irano-Turkic.[56]
In general, the Iraqi Turkmen dialects ofTal Afar (approx 700,000 speakers),[82]Altun Kupri,Tuz Khurmatu,Taza Khurmatu,Kifri,Bashir andAmirli show unity with theEastern Anatolian dialect ofUrfa;[76][74] meanwhile, the dialects inKirkuk,Erbil,Dohuk,Mandali andKhanaqin show similarities withAzerbaijaniTabrizi andAfshar Turkic dialects.[74] Yet, the Kirkuk dialect also shows comparable features with Urfa,[75][66] and 21.4% of Kirkuk province's population had self-declared their mother tongue as "Turkish" in the last census which asked about language.[83] In particular, a cultural orientation towardsTurkey prevails among Iraqi Turkmen intellectuals anddiglossia (Turkish of Turkey) is very frequent in educated circles, especially inKirkuk.[54] In addition, the Erbil dialect shows similarities with Turkish dialects stretching fromKosovo toRize,Erzurum andMalatya.[84]
Iraqi Turkmens generally also have an active command in standard Turkish due to their cultural orientation towards theRepublic of Turkey.[58] Turkish media outlets (especially satellite TV) has been influential; moreover, there are a number of private schools which teach in Turkish backed by Turkish institutions. Thus,diglossia in Iraqi Turkmen and standard Turkish (of Turkey) has become a widespread phenomenon.[58][80]
In 2020, a request to grant aISO 639 code for Iraqi Turkmen was submitted toSIL,[85] but later rejected in 2024 as it doesn't meet the criteria for being a distinct language.[86]
Professor Christiane Bulut has argued that publications fromAzerbaijan often use expressions such as "Azerbaijani (dialects) of Iraq" or "South Azerbaijani" to describe Iraqi Turkmen dialects "with political implications"; however, inTurcological literature, closely related dialects in Turkey and Iraq are generally referred to as "eastern Anatolian" or "Iraq-Turkic/-Turkman" dialects, respectively.[45]
Furthermore, the terms "Turkmen/Turkman" are also considered to be historically political because in the early 20th century the minority were simply recognized as Turks who spoke the Turkish language, until after the military coup of 14 July 1958, when the ruling military junta introduced the names "Turkman/Turkmen" to distance the Turks of Iraq from those in Anatolia,[21] and then banned the Turkish language in 1972.[60]
Under theBritish Mandate over Iraq, theTurkish language was recognized as an official language inKirkuk andKifri under Article 5 of the Language Act of 1930.[59] Article 6 of the Act permitted the language of education to be determined by the native language of the majority of students, whilst Article 2 and Article 4 gave Iraqi citizens the right to have court hearings and decisions verbally translated intoArabic,Kurdish, or Turkish in all cases.[59]
Upon Iraq's entry into theLeague of Nations in 1932, the League demanded that Iraq recognize its ethnic and religious minorities.[59] Consequently, the Turkish language, alongside Kurdish, was to be recognized as an official language under the Iraqi constitution of 1932: "in the liwa ofKirkuk, where a considerable part of the population is of Turkmen race, the official language, side by side with Arabic, shall be either Kurdish or Turkish".[87] According to Article 1, no law, order, or act of government was allowed to contradict the terms of the 1932 constitution, nor could it be changed in the future.[88]
However, in 1959 the military junta introduced the names "Turkman" and "Turkmanja".[52] More recently, Article 4 of the 2005 Iraqi Constitution recognizes "Turkomen" as an official minority language in the "administrative units in which they constitute density of population" (alongsideSyriac).[89]
In 1997 the Iraqi Turkmen Congress adopted a Declaration of Principles, Article Three states that "the official written language of the Turkmen isIstanbul Turkish, and its alphabet is the newLatin alphabet."[58] By 2005 the Turkish language replaced traditional Turkmeni, which had used theArabic script, in Iraqi schools.[61]
Iraq's first two Turkmen schools were opened on 17 November 1993, one inErbil and the other inKifri.[90]
In 2010 the Turkmen Federation of Scouts (Türkmen Izcilik Federasyonu) was founded, based inKirkuk.[91]
In 2005 Iraqi Turkmen community leaders decided that theTurkish language would replace the use of traditional Turkmeni in Iraqi schools;[61] Turkmeni had used theArabic script whereas Turkish uses theLatin script (seeTurkish alphabet).[61] Kelsey Shanks has argued that "the move to Turkish can be seen as a means to strengthen the collective "we" identity by continuing to distinguish it from the other ethnic groups. ... The use of Turkish was presented as a natural progression from the Turkmen; any suggestion that the oral languages were different was immediately rejected."[92]
Parental literacy rates in Turkish are low, as most are more familiar with the Arabic script (due to theBa'athist regime). Therefore, the Turkmen Directorate of Education inKirkuk has started Turkish language lessons for the wider society. Furthermore, the Turkmen officer for the Ministry of Education inNineveh has requested from the "United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq" the instigation of Turkish language classes for parents.[93]
The current prevalence ofsatellite television and media exposure fromTurkey may have led to the standardisation of Turkmeni towards Turkish, and the preferable language for adolescents associating with theTurkish culture.[62]
In 2004 theTürkmeneli TV channel was launched inKirkuk,Iraq. It broadcasts programmes in theTurkish andArabic languages.[94] As of 2012, Türkmeneli TV has studios inKirkuk andBaghdad inIraq, and in theÇankaya neighbourhood inAnkara,Turkey.[94] Türkmeneli TV has signed agreements with several Turkish channels, such asTRT,TGRT andATV, as well as with theTurkish Republic of Northern Cyprus's main broadcasterBRT, to share programmes and documentaries.[94]
Iraqi Turkmens are predominantlyMuslims.Sunni Turkmens form the majority (about 60–70%), but there is also a significant number of Turkmens practicing theShia branch of Islam (about 30% to 40%).[95][10] Nonetheless, Turkmens are mainlysecular, having internalized the secularist interpretation of state–religion affairs practiced in theRepublic of Turkey since its foundation in 1923.[10] However, there were also instances of sectarian violence between Sunni and Shia Turkmens.[96] Turkmens largely live in urban areas, dealing with trade and commerce, and usually tend to acquirehigher education. The power of religious and tribal factors inherent in the Arab and Kurdish cultures does not significantly affect the Turkmens.[97] Although Iraqi Turkmens also had tribes, their traditions and customs significantly differed from those of Arab tribes. Turkmen women also had a higher standing in the family, and polygamy was very rare among Iraqi Turkmen men.[98]
A small minority of Iraqi Turkmens are Catholics,[99][100][101][102] and their number was estimated at about 30,000 in 2015.[103][104] In 2017, Iraqi Turkmen Catholics constituted around 1% of the Iraqi Turkmen community.[13] Iraqi Turkmen Catholics were distinct fromCitadel Christians. Iraqi Turkmen Catholics wereLatin Catholic and lived in all areas ofTurkmeneli, including Kirkuk. The Citadel Christians wereChaldean Catholic and lived only in Kirkuk. Furthermore, Citadel Christians were ethnically Assyrian whereas the Iraqi Turkmen Catholics were ethnicallyTurkic. Citadel Christians, numbering only "a few thousand" in 2017, were significantly fewer than Iraqi Turkmen Catholics.[105] The Turkmen Bible Partnership translated theNew Testament into the Iraqi Turkmen dialect and printed and distributed 2,000 copies of it in 2021.[106] The presence of Christian Turkmens in Iraq dated back to the Seljuk and Ilkhanid periods, when Turkmen tribes settled in Mesopotamia and some members of the tribes either retained or adopted local Christian beliefs. Certain Turkmen Christian families in Iraq preserved religious identities distinct from both Muslim Turkmens and Aramaic-speaking Christians.[107]Max van Berchem’s survey of linguistic minorities in Ottoman Iraq included mention of “Christian Turks” in Mosul and Kirkuk.[108] Some Turkmen Christians were massacred by the Assyrian Levies and later the Ba'athists.[109] The Iraqi Turkmen Front (ITF) largely defined Turkmen identity in Sunni terms, often excluding Shia and Christian Turkmens.[110]
Historically, many Iraqi Turkmens belonged to religious sects which followedQizilbash doctrine. The religious sects were separate but closely related. They were all very secretive about their faith. They originated during the Safavid era, and by the 1920s, Twelver Shia missionaries from Southern Iraq had converted them all to orthodox Shia Islam. One of the most prominent of the sects wasIbrahimiyya.[111] Many Iraqi Turkmen also adhered toBektashiAlevism. Bektashi Turkmen were prominent in Tal Afar, Tuz Khurmatu, and Taza Khurmatu. There were no mosques in Tal Afar until the 1940s. There was a Bektashi tekke in the Tisin neighborhood of Kirkuk, although it was destroyed by the Iraqi army under Saddam Hussein. The Tekke of Kizildeli Seyyid Ali Sultan was located in Tal Afar. By the 20th century, most Bektashi Turkmen had converted to Twelverism, but many continued adhering to Alevism.[112]
Iraqi Turkmens are the third largest ethnic group in Iraq.[113][114] According to 2013 data from the Iraqi Ministry of Planning, Iraqi Turkmens have a population of about 3 million out of the total population of about 34.7 million (approximately 9% of the country's population).[2]
According to Mesut Yeğen, documents from theBritish Foreign Office claim that the Turkmens made a majority in the city of Erbil in 1919[115][116] The 1957 Iraqi census (which is recognized as the last reliable census, as later censuses were reflections of the Arabization policies of theBa'ath regime[117]) recorded 567,000 Turks out of a total population of 6.3 million, forming 9% of the total Iraqi population.[118][119][120][121] This put them third, behindArabs andKurds.[122] However, due to the undemocratic environment, their number has always been underestimated and has long been a point of controversy. For example, in the 1957 census, the Iraqi government first claimed that there was 136,800 Turks in Iraq. However, the revised figure of 567,000 was issued after the 1958 revolution when the Iraqi government admitted that the Iraqi Turkmen population was actually more than 400% from the previous year's total.[123]Scott Taylor has described the political nature of the results thusly:
According to the 1957 census conducted by KingFaisal II – a monarch supported by theBritish – there were only 136,800 Turkmen in all of Iraq. Bearing in mind that since the British had wrested control ofMesopotamia from the Turks after theFirst World War, a deliberate campaign had been undertaken to eradicate or diminish all remnants ofOttoman influence. Therefore it should not be surprising that afterAbdul Karim Kassem launched his successfulrevolution in 1958 – killing 23-year-old King Faisal II, expelling the British and declaring Iraq a republic – that a different set of numbers was published. According to the second census of 1958, the Turkmen registry stood at 567,000 – an increase of more than 400 per cent from the previous year's total.[124]
Subsequent censuses, in 1967, 1977, 1987 and 1997, are all considered highly unreliable, due to suspicions of manipulation by the various regimes in Iraq.[125] The 1997 census states that there was 600,000[27][126] Iraqi Turkmens out of a total population of 22,017,983,[127] forming 2.72% of the total Iraqi population; however, this census only allowed its citizens to indicate belonging to one of two ethnicities, Arab or Kurd, this meant that many Iraqi Turkmens identified themselves as Arabs (the Kurds not being a desirable ethnic group in Saddam Hussein's Iraq), thereby skewing the true number of Iraqi Turkmens.[125]
In 2004Scott Taylor suggested that the Iraqi Turkmen population accounted for 2,080,000 of Iraq's 25 million inhabitants (forming 8.32% of the population)[124] whilstPatrick Clawson has stated that Iraqi Turkmens make up about 9% of the total population.[114] Furthermore, international organizations such as theUnrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization has stated that the Iraqi Turkmen community is 3 million or 9–13% of the Iraqi population.[128][129] Iraqi Turkmens claim that their total population is over 3 million.[130][131]
Iraqi Turkmens primarily inhabit northern Iraq, in a region they refer to as "Turkmeneli" which stretches from the northwest to the east at the middle of Iraq. Iraqi Turkmens consider their capital city to beKirkuk.[113][130] Liam Anderson and Gareth Stansfield describe the Turkmeneli region as follows:
...what Turkmens refer to asTurkmeneli – a vast swath of territory running from Iraq's border withTurkey andSyria and diagonally down the country to the border withIran. Turkmen sources note that Turcomania – an Anglicized version of "Turkmeneli" – appears on a map of the region published byWilliam Guthrie in 1785, but there is no clear reference to Turkmeneli until the end of the twentieth century.[132]
Iraqi Turkmens generally consider several major cities, and small districts associated with these cities, as part of Turkmeneli.[10] The major cities claimed to be a part of their homeland include:Altun Kupri,Badra,Bakuba,Diala,Erbil,Khanaqin,Kifri,Kirkuk,Kizilribat,Mendeli,Mosul,Salahaldeen,Sancar,Tal Afar, andTuz Khurmatu.[10] Thus, the Turkmeneli region lies between the Arab areas of settlement to the south and Kurdish areas to the north.[10]
According to the 1957 census, Iraqi Turkmens formed the majority of inhabitants in the city ofKirkuk, with 40% declaring their mother tongue as "Turkish".[130][133] The second-largest Iraqi Turkmen city is Tel Afar where they make up 95% of the inhabitants.[134] The once mainly Turkoman cities of theDiyala Province such asKifri have been heavilyKurdified andArabized.[129]
Some Iraqi Turkmens also live outside the Turkmeneli region. For example, there is a significant community living in Iraq's capital city ofBaghdad, especially in the neighbourhoods of Adhamiyah and Ragheba Khatun.[10][135]
The Turkmen population inErbil is estimated to be around 300,000. They mainly reside in the neighbourhoods of Taci, Mareke and Three Tak in Erbil's city centre, around the citadel. Until 2006, they were living in the Tophane, Tekke and Saray neighborhoods of the Citadel, which contained almost 700 houses. In 2006, the citadel was emptied, and the Turkmens in the citadel were relocated to other neighbourhoods. Some Turkmens also participate in the political institutions of the KRG, including the Parliament.[136] Erbil's citadel also contains theTurkmen Culture House.
Most Iraqi Turkmens migrate toTurkey, followed byGermany,Denmark, andSweden. There are also Iraqi Turkmen communities living inCanada, theUnited States,Australia,New Zealand,[citation needed]Greece, theNetherlands, and theUnited Kingdom.[137][138][139][140]
According to Professor Suphi Saatçi, in 2010 approximately 1,000 Iraqi Turkmens were living in Canada, 2,000 in Denmark, and 4,000 in the Netherlands.[141] Since theEuropean migrant crisis (2014–19) the number of Iraqi Turkmen has continued to increase in Europe.
There are many established Iraqi Turkmen diaspora communities, such as the Canadian Iraqi Turkmen Culture Association, based in Canada.[142]
The Turkoman community inChicago dates from the aftermath of the Iran-Iraq War and the Gulf War. They have tended to settle in the northern neighborhoods of the city and in the suburbs, and many have taken jobs as factory workers or cabdrivers. Owing to their small size, they attend the mosques of other communities. They maintain a distinct cultural identity and close ties with brethren outside of Chicago.[143]
The position of Iraqi Turkmens has changed from being administrative and business classes of theOttoman Empire to an increasinglydiscriminated against minority.[41] Since thedemise of the Ottoman Empire, Iraqi Turkmens have been victims of several massacres, such as the1959 Kirkuk massacre. Furthermore, under theBa'ath party, discrimination against Iraqi Turkmens increased, with several leaders being executed in 1979[41] as well as the Iraqi Turkmen community being victims ofArabization policies by the state, andKurdification by Kurds seeking to push them forcibly out of their homeland.[144] Moreover, the government ofTurgut Özal only gave attention to Sunni Turkmens and ignored the Shias.[145] Thus, they have suffered from various degrees of suppression andassimilation that ranged from political persecution and exile to terror andethnic cleansing. Despite being recognized in the 1925 constitution as a constitutive entity, Iraqi Turkmens were later denied this status; hence, cultural rights were gradually taken away and activists were sent to exile.[41]
In 1924, Iraqi Turkmens were seen as a disloyal remnant of theOttoman Empire, with a natural tie toMustafa Kemal Atatürk's new Turkish nationalist ideology emerging in theRepublic of Turkey.[146] The Iraqi Turkmens living in the region ofKirkuk were perceived as posing a threat to the stability of Iraq, particularly as they did not support the ascendancy ofKing Faisal I to the Iraqi throne.[146] On 4 May, these tensions boiled over into violence when soldiers from theIraq Levies —a levied force raised by theBritish government afterWorld War I and consisting primarily ofAssyrians — clashed with Turkmens in a Kirkuk market square after a dispute between an Assyrian soldier and a Turkmen shopkeeper. In the ensuing fracas, 200 Turkmens were killed by Assyrian soldiers.[146]
Around 20 Iraqi Turkmen civilians were killed byIraqi policemen including women and children on 12 July 1946 in Gavurbağı,Kirkuk.[147][148]
The Kirkuk massacre of 1959 came about due to the Iraqi government allowing theIraqi Communist Party, which in Kirkuk was largely Kurdish, to target Iraqi Turkmens.[41][149] With the appointment ofMaarouf Barzinji, a Kurd, as the mayor of Kirkuk in July 1959, tensions rose following 14 July revolution celebrations, with animosity in the city polarizing rapidly between the Kurds and Iraqi Turkmens. On 14 July 1959, skirmishes broke out between Iraqi Turkmens and Kurds, leaving some 20 Iraqi Turkmens dead.[150] Furthermore, on 15 July 1959, Kurdish soldiers of theFourth Brigade of the Iraqi army mortared Iraqi Turkmen residential areas, destroying 120 houses.[150][151] Order was restored on 17 July by military units fromBaghdad. The Iraqi government referred to the incident as a "massacre"[152] and stated that between 31 and 79 Iraqi Turkmens were killed and some 130 injured.[150]
Over 135 Turkmen civilians were killed on 28 March 1991 during theGulf War by Iraqi forces, in the Turkmen town ofAltun Kupri.[153][154]
The government ofSaddam Hussein had heavily restricted the cultural rights of Iraqi Turkmen and adopted a policy ofassimilation. Due to government relocation programs, thousands of Iraqi Turkmen were relocated from their traditional homelands in northern Iraq and replaced by Arabs, in an effort toArabize the region.[155] Furthermore, Iraqi Turkmen villages and towns were destroyed to make way for Arab migrants, who were promised free land and financial incentives. For example, theBa'ath regime recognised that the city ofKirkuk was historically an Iraqi Arab city and remained firmly in its cultural orientation.[149]
The Kurds claimedde factosovereignty over land that Iraqi Turkmens regard as theirs. For the Iraqi Turkmens, their identity is deeply inculcated as the rightful inheritors of the region as a legacy of theOttoman Empire.[156] Thus, it is claimed that the Kurdistan Region and Iraqi government has constituted a threat to the survival of Iraqi Turkmens through strategies aimed at eradicating or assimilating them.[156] The formation of theKurdistan Region in 1991 created high animosity between the Kurds and Iraqi Turkmen, resulting in some Iraqi Turkmen being victims ofKurdification, according to Liam Anderson. The largest concentration of Iraqi Turkmen tended to be in the de facto capital ofErbil, a city which they had assumed prominent administrative and economic positions. Thus, they increasingly came into dispute and often conflict with the ruling powers of the city, which after 1996 was theKurdistan Democratic Party ofMassoud Barzani.[157]
According to Anderson and Stansfield, in the 1990s, tension between Kurds and Iraqi Turkmens inflamed as the KDP and thePatriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) were institutionalized as the political hegemons of the region and, from the perspective of the Iraqi Turkmens, sought to marginalize them from the positions of authority and to subsume their culture with an all-pervading Kurdistani identity. With the support ofAnkara, a new political front of Turkmen parties, theIraqi Turkmen Front (ITF), was formed on 24 April 1995.[157] The relationship between the Iraqi Turkmen Front and the KDP was tense and deteriorated as the decade went on. Iraqi Turkmens associated with the Iraqi Turkmen Front complained about harassment by Kurdish security forces.[157] In March 2000, theHuman Rights Watch reported that the KDP's security attacked the offices of the ITF in Erbil, killing two guards, following a lengthy period of disputes between the two parties.[157] In 2002, the KDP created an Iraqi Turkmen political organization, the Turkmen National Association, that supported the further institutionalization of the Kurdistan Region. This was viewed by pro-ITF Iraqi Turkmens as a deliberate attempt to "buy off" Iraqi Turkmen opposition and break their bonds withAnkara.[158] Promoted by the KDP as the "true voice" of the Iraqi Turkmens, the Turkmen National Association has a pro-Kurdistani stance and has effectively weakened the ITF as the sole representative voice of the Iraqi Turkmens.[158] Beginning in 2003, there were riots between Kurds and Turkmen in Kirkuk, a city that Turkmens view as historically theirs.[159] According to United Nations reports, theKRG andPeshmerga were "illegally policing Kirkurk, abducting Turkmens and Arabs and subjecting them totorture".[159]
Between 2003 and 2006, 1,350 Turkmens inTal Afar died mainly fromsectarian violence between Sunnis and Shias, as well aswar. Thousands of houses were damaged or demolished, resulting in 4,685 displaced families.[159]
Between ten and twelve Turkmen individuals wereelected to the transitionalNational Assembly of Iraq in January 2005, including five on theUnited Iraqi Alliance list, three from theIraqi Turkmen Front (ITF), and either two or four from theDemocratic Patriotic Alliance of Kurdistan.[160][161]
In theDecember 2005 elections, between five and seven Turkmen candidates were elected to the Council of Representatives. This included one candidate from the ITF (its leaderSaadeddin Arkej), two or four from theUnited Iraqi Alliance, one from theIraqi Accord Front and one from theKurdistani Alliance.[161][162]
Iraqi Turkmens have also emerged as a key political force in the controversy over the future status of northern Iraq and theKurdistan Region. The government of Turkey has helped fund such political organizations as theIraqi Turkmen Front, which opposes Iraqi federalism and in particular the proposed annexation of Kirkuk to theKurdistan Regional Government.[163]
Tensions between the two groups over Kirkuk, however, have slowly died out and on 30 January 2006, the President of Iraq,Jalal Talabani, said that the "Kurds are working on a plan to give Iraqi Turkmens autonomy in areas where they are a majority in the new constitution they're drafting for the Kurdistan Region of Iraq."[164] However, it never happened and the policies ofKurdification byKDP andPUK after 2003 (with non-Kurds being pressed to move) have prompted serious inter-ethnic problems.[165]
Iraqi Turkmens, who are citizens of Iraq with Turkmen origins, have been calling for their own independent province in the Tal Afar district west of Mosul, located in the center of the Ninevah province...Turkmens are a mix of Sunnis and Shiites and are the third-largest ethnicity in Iraq after Arabs and Kurds, numbering around 3 million out of the total population of about 34.7 million, according to 2013 data from the Iraqi Ministry of Planning.
Turkmens are said to be 10-13% of the overall Iraqi population, but that ratio is not reflected in parliament.
Turkmens in Iraq and the Kurdistan Region... represent the third largest ethnic group in Iraq (13 percent of the population).
Peki, bu durumda Irak'ta yaşayan 4 milyon Türk ne ile karşılaşacak?[So, what will the 4 million Turks living in Iraq face in this case?]
Irak'ta yaklaşık 5 milyon Türkmen yaşamaktadır.[About 5 million Turkmens live in Iraq.]
Turkish is the largest and most vigorous Turkic language, spoken by over 80 million people, a third of the total number of Turkic-speakers... Turkish is a recognized regional minority language in North Macedonia, Kosovo, Romania, and Iraq.
Official reaction to the question of the Turkmen minority in Iraq did change somewhat in the course of 1980 when it was learnt that several Iraqi Turks had been tried and executed on charges of reason
Ankara had strongly opposed Iraqi Kurdish aspirations to take control of Kirkuk, arguing it belongs as much to the Iraqi Turkish minority.
For Mustafa Gökkaya (b. 1910), this signified that his community was Muslim and that "my father is Turk, and the homeland [is] my mother. For Reşit Ali Dakuklu (b. 1918), being part of "the Turks of Iraq" signified maintaining brotherly relations with every nation, being united with Iraq, while speaking in Turkish. Universal and local, Iraqi and Turkish at the same time, the Turkoman poets were willing to serve their nation yet unwilling to neglect their culture and their Turkishness.
The Turkomans, who speak a Turkish dialect, have preserved their language but are no longer tribally organized. Most are Sunnis who were brought in by the Ottomans to repel tribal raids.
The predominantly Muslim Turkmen are an ethnic group with close cultural and linguistic ties to Anatolia in Turkey.
Damit weist das Iraktürkische hier – wie auch bei einigen anderen Merkmalen – eine großere Nähe zum Türkeitürkischen auf.[As a result, Iraqi-Turkish is closer to Turkey-Turkish here – as is the case with some other characteristics.]
There are estimated to be some three million Turkmen in Iraq, but despite ... There are also about 30,000 Christian 'Catholic'Turks and some Jews living in Iraq...
Kerkük Vakfı Genel Sekreteri Prof. Dr. Suphi Saatçi'nin verdiği rakamlara göre, yaklaşık olarak Kanada'da 1000, Danimarka'da 2000, Hollanda'da ise 4000'e yakın Türkmen'in yaşadığı ve Türkiye üzerinden bu ülkelere göç ettiği bilinmektedir.[Kirkuk Foundation Secretary General Prof. Dr. According to the figures given by Suphi Saatçi, it is known that approximately 1000 Turkmen live in Canada, 2000 in Denmark, and close to 4000 in the Netherlands and immigrated to these countries via Turkey.]
Farah Zeynep Abdullah, Iraklı Türkmen kökenli baba ve bir Türk annenin kızıdır[Farah Zeynep Abdullah is the daughter of an Iraqi Turkmen father and a Turkish mother.]
Chokachi is not from Japan. He has Turkish and Finnish ancestry and grew up in Plymouth, where his dad is a renowned surgeon. David attended Tabor Academy, where he played lacrosse and football, then Bates College in Maine, where he earned a bachelor's in political science. But he still hadn't found his calling; he said he was like so many young people unsure of their path in life.
Chokachi is not from Japan. He has Turkish and Finnish ancestry and grew up in Plymouth, where his dad is a renowned surgeon.
Türkiye doğumlu Iraklı bir baba ve Finlandiyalı bir anneden dünyaya gelen Chokachi, Marion, Massachusetts'te Tabor Acedemy'de eğitim aldı. Bates College'de siyaset bilimi bölümünden mezun oldu.
Mister Chokachi... is of Turkish and Finnish extract.
Yasemin Mansoor (Jahrgang 1979) ist Miss Germany 1996. Die damals 16-Jährige brach brach den Rekord als jüngste gewinnerin des schönheitswettbewerbs. Später arbeitete die Tochter irakisch-türkischer Immigranten als Fotomodell und produzierte Popmusik mit der Mädchenband "4 Unique...
Fahmi Said was from Sulaymaniyya, his father an Arab from the Anbak tribe situated near the Tigris and his mother was of Turkish origin.
Media related toIraqi Turkmen at Wikimedia Commons
