There are several suggested origins for the name. One dates to theSumerian city ofUruk and is thus ultimately ofSumerian origin.[16][17] Another possible etymology for the name is from theMiddle Persian worderāg, meaning "lowlands".[18] An Arabicfolk etymology for the name is "deeply rooted, well-watered;fertile".[19]
The name al-ʿIrāq is attested as a common toponym in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry. The sixth-century poetAdi ibn Zayd, from theLakhmid court atal-Ḥirah, used the name in a demographic context, speaking of the "people of Iraq" (ahl al-ʿIrāq),[20] and in a geographical sense, referring to the "central area of Iraq" (ṣaḥn al-ʿIrāq).[21][22] His contemporary,Imruʾ al-Qais, used the name in social contexts, mentioning "the abundant food of Iraq" (ṭaʿām al-ʿIrāq al-mustafīḍ) and "the patterned fabric of Iraq" (ḥawkk al-ʿIrāq al-munammaq), and in a political context, stating "his kingdom stretches from Iraq to Oman" (lahu mulk al-ʿIrāq ilā ʿUmān).[23] This usage continued into the early Islamic period. The tenth-century geographeral-Maqdisi, defending his use of "Iraq" instead of the ancient name "Babylonia", noted that it was the only name used in his time. He cited the precedentAbu Bakr, who reportedly said, "For Allah to grant a victory, even a handspan, of theHoly Land by my hand is more beloved to me than a district from the districts of Iraq" (rustāq min rasātīq al-ʿIrāq), and al-Maqdisi specifically pointed out that Abu Bakr did not say "Babylonia".[24]
During the medieval period, there was a region calledʿIrāq ʿArabī ("Arabian Iraq") forMesopotamia andʿIrāq ʿAjamī ("Persian Iraq"),[25] for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran.[25] According to some historians, the term historically included the plain south of theHamrin Mountains and did not include the northernmost andwesternmost parts of the modern territory of Iraq.[26] However, contemporary medieval definitions of Iraq's extent varied. The 13th-century geographerYaqut al-Hamawi, for example, defined Iraq as stretching "fromMosul toAbadan in length, and fromAl-Qadisiyyah toHalwan in width".[27] Prior to the middle of the 19th century, the termEyraca Arabica was commonly used to describe Iraq.[28][29] The termSawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of thealluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
As an Arabic word,عراقʿirāq means "hem", "shore", "bank", or "edge", so that the name by folk etymology came to be interpreted as "theescarpment", such as at the south and east of theJazira Plateau, which forms the northern and western edge of the "al-Iraq arabi" area.[30] TheArabic pronunciation is[ʕiˈrɑːq]. In English, it is either/ɪˈrɑːk/ (the only pronunciation listed in theOxford English Dictionary and the first one inMerriam-Webster's Online Dictionary[31]) or/ɪˈræk/ (listed first byMQD, theAmerican Heritage Dictionary,[32] and theRandom House Dictionary.[33])
When the British established theHashemite king on 23 August 1921,Faisal I of Iraq, the official English name of the country changed fromMesopotamia to the endonymicIraq.[34] Since January 1992, the official name of the state is "Republic of Iraq" (Jumhūriyyat al-ʿIrāq), reaffirmed in the 2005Constitution.[35][36][37]
Iraq largely coincides with the ancient region ofMesopotamia, often referred to as the cradle of civilisation.[38] The history of Mesopotamia extends back to theLower Paleolithic period, with significant developments continuing through the establishment of theCaliphate in the late 7th century AD, after which the region became known as Iraq.
Within its borders lies the ancient land ofSumer, which emerged between 6000 and 5000 BC during theNeolithicUbaid period.[38] Sumer is recognised as the world's earliest civilisation, marking the beginning of urban development, written language, and monumental architecture.[38] Iraq's territory also includes the heartlands of theAkkadian,Neo-Sumerian,Babylonian,Neo-Assyrian, andNeo-Babylonian empires, which dominated Mesopotamia and much of theAncient Near East during theBronze andIron Ages.[38]
The Iraq of antiquity was an innovation stronghold, producing earlywritten languages,literary works, and significant advancements inastronomy,mathematics,law, andphilosophy. This era of indigenous rule ended in 539 BC when theNeo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by theAchaemenid Empire underCyrus the Great, who declared himself the "King of Babylon". The city ofBabylon, the ancient seat of Babylonian power, became one of the key capitals of the Achaemenid Empire. Ancient Iraq, known as the Mesopotamia, is home to world's first Jewish diaspora community, which emerged during the Babylonian exile.
The Babylonians were defeated by the Persian Empire, under the leadership ofCyrus the Great. Following the fall of Babylon, theAchaemenid Empire took control of the Mesopotamian region. Enslaved Jews were freed from the Babylonian captivity, though many remained in the land and thus the Jewish community grew in the region. Iraq is the location of numerous Jewish sites, which are also revered by the Muslims and Christians.
In the following centuries, the regions constituting modern Iraq came under the control of several empires, including theGreeks,Parthians, andRomans, establishing new centres likeSeleucia andCtesiphon. By the3rd century AD, the region fell under Persian control through theSasanian Empire, during which time Arab tribes fromSouth Arabia migrated into Lower Mesopotamia, leading to the formation of the Sassanid-alignedLakhmid kingdom.
The Arabic nameal-ʿIrāq likely originated during this period. The Sasanian Empire was eventuallyconquered by theRashidun Caliphate in the 7th century, bringing Iraq under Islamic rule after theBattle of al-Qadisiyyah in 636. The city ofKufa, founded shortly thereafter, became a central hub for the Rashidun dynasty until theiroverthrow by theUmayyads in 661. Karbala is considered as one of the holiest cities in Shia Islam, following theBattle of Karbala, which took place in 680.
With the rise of theAbbasid Caliphate in the mid-8th century, Iraq became the centre of Islamic rule, withBaghdad, founded in 762, serving as the capital. Baghdad flourished during theIslamic Golden Age, becoming a global hub for culture, science, and intellectualism. However, the city's prosperity declined following theBuwayhid andSeljuq invasions in the 10th century and suffered further with theMongol invasion of 1258.
Iraq was conquered bySultanSuleiman I in 1534 and became part of theOttoman Empire. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Iraq was a major frontier of theOttoman–Safavid wars, with Baghdad changing hands several times until theTreaty of Zuhab in 1639 confirmed Ottoman control.[41] Administratively, Iraq was organised into the provinces ofBaghdad,Basra,Mosul, andShahrizor, which the Ottomans collectively referred to as Hıtta-i Irakiyye (“the Iraq region”).[42][43][44]
From 1749 to 1831, Iraq was ruled by aMamluk dynasty ofGeorgian origin with considerable autonomy while maintaining nominal allegiance to the Ottoman sultan. After the dynasty was overthrown in 1831, the centralisation of Iraq under Baghdad began.[45] Under the two-time Ottoman Viceroy,Namık Pasha, Baghdad's authority was expanded through military and administrative reforms.[46]Midhat Pasha introduced further reforms in taxation, land registration, infrastructure, education, and communications, reforms often seen as laying the groundwork for the modern Iraq.[47]
Iraq's modern history began in the wake of World War I, as the region emerged from the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.[49] Arab forces, inspired by the promise of independence, had helped dismantle the Ottoman hold on the Middle East, but the dream of a united, sovereign Arab state was soon dashed.[49] Despite agreements made withHussein bin Ali, theSharif of Makkah, the European powers had different plans for the region. Following the British withdrawal of support for aunified Arab state, Hussein's son,Faisal, briefly declared theKingdom of Syria in 1920, encompassing parts of what are nowLebanon,Palestine,Jordan, andSyria.[49] However, the kingdom was short-lived, crushed by local opposition and the military might of France, which had been granted amandate over Syria.[49]
In Iraq, under British mandate, tensions were rising as local forces increasingly resisted foreign control.[49] Arebellion erupted, challenging British authority, and the need for a new strategy became clear.[49] In 1921, theCairo Conference, led by British officials includingWinston Churchill andT. E. Lawrence, decided that Faisal, now exiled inLondon, would become theking of Iraq.[49] This decision was seen as a way to maintain British influence in the region while placating local demands for leadership.[49] Upon his coronation, he focused on unifying a land formerly divided into threeOttoman provinces—Mosul,Baghdad, andBasra.[49] He worked hard to gain the support of Iraq's diverse population, including bothSunnis andShiites, and paid special attention to the country's Shiite communities, symbolically choosing the date of his coronation to coincide withEid al-Ghadeer, a key day for Shiite Muslims.[49]
His reign laid the foundations of modern Iraq.[49] Faisal worked to establish key state institutions and fostered a sense of national identity.[49] His education reforms included the founding ofAhl al-Bayt University in Baghdad, and he encouraged the migration of Syrian exiles to Iraq to serve as doctors and educators.[49] Faisal also envisioned infrastructural links between Iraq, Syria, andJordan, including plans for a railway and anoil pipeline to the Mediterranean.[49] Although Faisal succeeded in securing greater autonomy for Iraq, British influence remained strong, particularly in the country's oil industry.[49] In 1930,Iraq signed a treaty with Britain that gave the country a measure of political independence while maintaining British control over key aspects, including military presence and oil rights.[49] By 1932, Iraq gained formal independence, becoming a member of theLeague of Nations.[49] Faisal's reign was marked by his efforts to balance the pressures of external influence and internal demands for sovereignty.[49] He was admired for his diplomatic skill and his commitment to steering Iraq towards self-determination.[49] Untimely, he died from a heart attack on 8 September 1933, leaving his sonGhazi to inherit the throne.[49] King Ghazi's reign was brief and turbulent, as Iraq was impacted by numerous coup attempts.[49] He died in a motor accident in 1939, passing the throne to his young son,Faisal II, who ascended to the throne at just 3 years old.[49] Faisal II's uncle,Crown Prince Abdullah, assumed regency until the young king came of age.[49]
On 1 April 1941,Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of theGolden Square staged acoup d'état and installed apro-German andpro-Italian government.[49] During the subsequentAnglo-Iraqi War, theUnited Kingdom invaded Iraq for fear that the government might cut oil supplies toWestern nations because of its links to theAxis powers.[49] The war started on 2 May, and the British, together with loyalAssyrian Levies, defeated the forces of Al-Gaylani, forcing an armistice on 31 May.[49] Regency of King Faisal II began in 1953.[49] The hopes for Iraq's future under Faisal II were high, but the nation remained divided.[49] Iraq's Sunni-dominated monarchy struggled to reconcile the diverse ethnic and religious groups, particularly the Shiite, Assyrian, Jewish and Kurdish populations, who felt marginalised.[49] In 1958, these tensions culminated in a military coup, inspired by the revolutionary wave sweeping across the Arab world, particularly the1952 Egyptian revolution.[50]
Brigadier General andnationalistAbd al-Karim Qasim led a coup d'état known as the14 July Revolution in 1958.[50] This revolt was strongly anti-imperial and anti-monarchical in nature and had strong socialist elements.[50] KingFaisal II, PrinceAbd al-Ilah, andNuri al-Sa'id, along with the royal family were killed brutally.[50] Qasim controlled Iraq through military rule and in 1958 he began a process of forcibly reducing surplus land owned by a few citizens and having the state redistribute the land.[50] In 1959,Abd al-Wahab al-Shawaf led an uprising in Mosul against Qasim. The uprising was crushed by the government forces.[50] He claimedKuwait as part of Iraq, when the former was granted independence in 1961.[50] TheUnited Kingdom deployed its army on theIraq–Kuwait border, which forced Qasim to back down.[50] He was overthrown by the Ba'ath Party inFebruary 1963 coup.[51] However internal division within Ba'athist factions caused another coup in November, which brought Colonel Abdul Salam Arif to power.[51] The new regime recognised Kuwait's independence.[51] After the latter's death in 1966, he was succeeded by his brother,Abdul Rahman Arif.[51] Under his rule, Iraq participated in theSix-Day War in 1967.[51]
The17 July Revolution overthrew Arif and brought theIraqi Ba'ath Party to power in 1968, withAhmed Hassan al-Bakr as the president of Iraq.[52] However, the government gradually came under the control ofSaddam Hussein, Iraq's then vice-president.[53] Saddam sought to achieve stability between Iraq's ethnic and religious groups.[53] Thefirst Iraqi–Kurdish war ended in 1970, after which a peace treaty was signed between Saddam and Barzani, granting autonomy toKurds.[54] In the 1970s, the leadership offered peace initiatives to Assyrians in Iraq and invited exiled Iraqi Jews back to Iraq.[55][56][57] The government introduced free healthcare and education, nationalised oil, promoted women's rights and developed infrastructure.[58]
Following months of cross-border raids with Iran, Saddam declared war on Iran in September 1980, initiating theIran–Iraq War.[53] Taking advantage of the post-Iranian Revolution chaos in Iran, Iraq captured some territories in southwest Iran, but Iran recaptured all of the lost territories within two years, and for the next six years Iran was on the offensive.[page needed]Sunni-led Arab countries and theUnited States supported Iraq throughout the war.[53] In 1981, Israel destroyed a nuclear reactor of Iraq.[53] In midst of the war, between 1983 and 1986, Kurds ledrebellion against the regime.[53] In retaliation, the government-coordinatedAnfal campaign led to the killing of 50,000–100,000 civilians.[53] During the war, Saddam extensively usedchemical weapons against Iranians.[53] The war, which ended instalemate in 1988, killed between half a million and 1.5 million people.[53]
Kuwait's refusal to waive Iraq's debt and reducing oil prices pushed Saddam to take military action against it.[60] On 2 August 1990, theIraqi forces invaded and annexed Kuwait as its19th governorate, starting theGulf War.[60] This led to military intervention by theUS-led alliance.[60] The coalition forces proceeded with a bombing campaign targeting military targets and then launched a 100-hour-long ground assault against Iraqi forces in southern Iraq and Kuwait.[60] Iraq also attempted to invade Saudi Arabia and attacked Israel.[60] Iraq's armed forces were devastated during the war.[60] Sanctions were imposed on Iraq, following the invasion of Kuwait, which resulted in economic decline.[60] After the end of the war in 1991, Iraqi Kurds and Shi'ite Muslims in northern and southern Iraq led severaluprisings against Saddam's regime, but these were repressed.[60] It is estimated that as many as 100,000 people, including many civilians, were killed.[60] During the uprisings, the US, UK, Turkey and France, claiming authority underUNSC Resolution 688, established theIraqi no-fly zones to protect Kurdish population from attacks and autonomy was given to Kurds.[60] Iraq was also affected by theIraqi Kurdish Civil War from 1994 to 1997.[60] Around 40,000 fighters and civilians were killed.[60] Between 2001 and 2003, theKurdistan Regional Government andAnsar al-Islam engaged in conflict, which would merge with the upcoming war.[60]
The subsequent efforts to rebuild the country amidst sectarian violence was galvanised by continuing discontent overNouri al-Maliki's government, which led toprotests. In 2013, taking advantage of the ensuing chaos and popular discontent against the Iraqi government, Ba'athist and other Sunni militants (Al Qaida andISIS) launched a number of attacks against the government during what is known as theAnbar campaign. What followed, was a large scaleoffensive by ISIS inMosul, which marked the beginning of the rapidterritorial expansion of the group, initiatingfull-scale war in Iraq. Sunni insurgents belonging to the Islamic State group seized control of large swathes of land including several major cities, likeTikrit,Fallujah and Mosul, creating hundreds of thousands ofinternally displaced persons amid reports of atrocities by ISIS fighters. An estimated 500,000 civilians fled from Mosul. Around 5,000 Yazidis were killed in the genocide by ISIS, as a part of the war. In June 2014, Iraq's leading Shii Grand Ayatollah,Ali al-Sistani issued aFatwa calling on able-bodied men to join the Armed Forces to fight against ISIS. Even though the Fatwa specifically instructed Iraqis to join the official Armed Forces of the country (such as the Army or the Police), it nevertheless resulted in the creation of thePopular Mobilisation Forces.[62] During that time, the government of Iraq, headed byHaider al-Abadi requested the international community to assist Iraq against ISIS, resulting in the creation of theAmerican-led Coalition against ISIS. Meanwhile, in an attempt to counter US influence,Khomeinist anti-US militias promptedIranian intervention, which resulted in the latter expanding its influence. The Iraqi armed forces, supported by the US-led coalition, as well as the Popular Mobilisation Forces,Peshmerga and other allied anti-ISIS militias then initiated a counter-offensive to retake and liberate ISIS-held territory. In December 2017, when ISIS had lost all its territory in Iraq, the government declared victory.
One of the main causes for popular discontent in Iraq is the lack of reliable electricity infrastructure and clean water. The electrical grid faces systemic pressures due to climate change, fuel shortages, and an increase in demand.[63][64][65] Corruption remains endemic throughout Iraqi governance while the United States-endorsed sectarian political system has driven increased levels of violent terrorism and sectarian conflicts.[66][67][65] Climate change is driving wide-scale droughts while water reserves are rapidly depleting.[68] Nationwide protests erupted in Iraq in October 2019, demanding systemic reform, and the end of the party-based quota system as well as the disarmament of non-state militias and end to foreign interference. Despite heavy repression, hundreds of deaths, and widespread injuries, the movement remained united around calls for institutional reform and increased accountability. In 2020, the sitting prime ministerAdil Abdul Mahdi resigned in the face of popular demand. Succeeding him was prime ministerMustafa al-Kadhimi, during whose tenure theCOVID-19 pandemic erupted, causing a macroeconomic shock that plummeted oil prices, devastating the Iraqi economy which is dominated by the oil sector. The country has been in aprolonged drought since 2020 and experienced its second-driest season in the past four decades in 2021. Water flows in theTigris andEuphrates were down 30-40% in 2023. Half the country's farmland is at risk ofdesertification.[65] Nearly 40% of Iraq "has been overtaken by blowing desert sands that claim tens of thousands of acres of arable land every year".[69] In 2024, Iraq experienced unprecedented rainfall that —according to theMinistry of Water Resources— boosted Iraq's strategic water reserves by 10%, significantly easing the drought crisis.[70]
Period of stability (2022-present)
In October 2022, the Council of Representatives electedAbdul Latif Rashid aspresident,[71] andMohammed Shia al-Sudani becamePrime Minister.[72] Since assuming office in October 2022, Prime Minister al-Sudani has overseen a period of relative political, security, and economic stabilisation.[73] Government officials have cited increased regional diplomacy, improved international relations, and economic diversification initiatives such as theIraq–Europe Development Road project as key indicators of recovery.[74][75] In August 2023, al-Sudani established theIraq Development Fund whose purpose is to strengthen the private sector and finance projects of crucial social and environmental value. In February 2025, the fund had gained $7bn inforeign direct investments, and signed Memoranda of Understanding with a number of countries includingUnited Kingdom andJapan. In May 2025, IraqiMinistry of Planning announced that the unemployment rate in Iraq had dropped from 17% in 2022 to 13% in 2025.[76] A report published on 24 July 2025 and submitted to theUnited Nations Security Council, assessed that ISIS "is at its weakest" in Iraq since its emergence.[77]
Iraq lies between latitudes29° and38° N, and longitudes39° and49° E (a small area lies west of 39°). Spanning 437,072 km2 (168,754 sq mi), it is the 58th-largest country in the world.
It has a coastline measuring 58 km (36 miles) on the northernPersian Gulf.[78] Further north, but below the main headwaters only, the country easily encompasses theMesopotamian Alluvial Plain. Two major rivers, theTigris andEuphrates, run south through Iraq and into theShatt al-Arab, thence the Persian Gulf. Broadly flanking this estuary (known asarvandrūd: اروندرود among Iranians) are marshlands, semi-agricultural. Flanking and between the two major rivers are fertilealluvial plains, as the rivers carry about 60,000,000 m3 (78,477,037 cu yd) ofsilt annually to thedelta.
The central part of the south, which slightly tapers in favour of other countries, is natural vegetation marsh mixed with rice paddies and is humid, relative to the rest of the plains.[citation needed] Iraq has the northwestern end of theZagros mountain range and the eastern part of theSyrian Desert.
Much of Iraq has a hotarid climate withsubtropical influence. Summer temperatures average above 40 °C (104 °F) for most of the country and frequently exceed 48 °C (118.4 °F). Winter temperatures infrequently exceed 15 °C (59.0 °F) with maxima roughly 5 to 10 °C (41.0 to 50.0 °F) and night-time lows 1 to 5 °C (33.8 to 41.0 °F). Typically, precipitation is low; most places receive less than 250 mm (9.8 in) annually, with maximum rainfall occurring during the winter months. Rainfall during the summer is rare, except in northern parts of the country.
The northern mountainous regions have cold winters with occasional heavy snows, sometimes causing extensive flooding.[80]Iraq is highly vulnerable to climate change.[81] The country is subject to rising temperatures and reduced rainfall, and suffers from increasingwater scarcity for a human population that rose tenfold between 1890 and 2010 and continues to rise.[82][83]
The country's electrical grid faces systemic pressures due to climate change, fuel shortages, and an increase in demand.[63][64] Corruption remains endemic throughout all levels of Iraqi governance while the political system has exacerbated sectarian conflict.[66][67] Climate change is driving wide-scale droughts across the country while water reserves are rapidly depleting.[68] The country has been in aprolonged drought since 2020 and experienced its second-driest season in the past four decades in 2021. Water flows in theTigris andEuphrates are down between 30 and 40%. Half of the country's farmland is at risk ofdesertification.[65] Nearly 40% of Iraq "has been overtaken by blowing desert sands that claim tens of thousands of acres of arable land every year".[69]
However, in 2023,Mohammed Shia al-Sudani announced that government was working on a wider "Iraqi vision for climate action". The plan would include promoting clean and renewable energy, new irrigation and water treatment projects and reduced industrial gas flaring, he said. Sudani said Iraq was "moving forward to conclude contracts for constructing renewable energy power plants to provide one-third of our electricity demand by 2030". In addition, Iraq will plant 5 million trees across the country and will create green belts around cities to act as windbreaks against dust storms.[84][85]
In the same year, Iraq andTotalEnergies signed a $27 billion energy deal that aims to increase oil production and boost the country's capacity to produce energy with four oil, gas and renewables projects. According to experts, the project will "accelerate Iraq's path to energy self-sufficiency and advance Iraq's collective climate change objectives".[86][87]
A valley in the north of the region, through which theGreat Zab flowsTheAsiatic lion has remained a prominent symbol since ancient times
The wildlife of Iraq includes itsflora andfauna and their naturalhabitats.[88] Iraq has multiple and diverse biomes which include the mountainous region in the north to the wetmarshlands along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, while western part of the country comprises mainlydesert and some semi-arid regions. Many of Iraq's bird species were endangered, including seven of Iraq'smammalspecies and 12 of itsbird species. TheMesopotamian marches in the middle and south are home to approximately 50 species of birds, and rare species of fish.[89] At risk are some 50% of the world'smarbled teal population that live in the marshes, along with 60% of the world's population ofBasra reed-warbler.[89]
TheAsiatic lion, in the present-day extinct in the region, has remained a prominent symbol of the country throughout history.[90]Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes, during the time of Saddam's government, caused there a significant drop in biological life.[91] Since the 2003–2011, flow is restored and the ecosystem has begun to recover.[91] Iraqi corals are some of the most extreme heat-tolerant as the seawater in this area ranges between 14 and 34 °C.[92] Aquatic or semi-aquatic wildlife occurs in and around these, the major lakes areLake Habbaniyah,Lake Milh,Lake Qadisiyah andLake Tharthar.[93]
The Republic of Iraq is defined under the currentConstitution as ademocratic,federalparliamentaryrepublic. The federal government is composed of theexecutive,legislative, andjudicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are subnationalfederal regions, governorates, and districts with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law.[35][94] The president is the ceremonial head of state, while the prime minister is the head of government and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces with direct executive authority over general state policy. The constitution provides for two deliberative bodies, theCouncil of Representatives and the Council of Union. The judiciary is free and independent of the executive and the legislature.[94]
Baghdad is the capital, home to the seat of government;[95][94][96] theGreen Zone, which contains governmental headquarters and the army, in addition to containing the headquarters of theAmerican embassy and the headquarters of foreign organisations and agencies for other countries.
According toInternational IDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Iraq performs in the low to mid-range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in political equality, including economic equality and social group equality.[97][98][99] Additionally, according to the 2023V-Dem Democracy indices Iraq was the third mostelectoral democratic country in the Middle East.[96] Under Saddam, the government employed 1 million employees, but this increased to around 7 million in 2016. In combination with decreased oil prices, the government budget deficit is near 25% of GDP as of 2016[update].[100]
In October 2005, the newConstitution of Iraq was approved in a referendum with a 78% overall majority, although the percentage of support varied widely between the country's territories.[101] The new constitution was backed by the Shia and Kurdish communities, but was rejected by Arab Sunnis. Under the terms of the constitution, the country conductedfresh nationwide parliamentary elections on 15 December 2005. All three majorethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lines, as did Assyrian andTurcoman minorities.Law no. 188 of the year 1959 (Personal Status Law)[102] made polygamy extremely difficult, granted child custody to the mother in case of divorce, prohibited repudiation and marriage under the age of 16.[103] Article 1 of Civil Code also identifies Islamic law as a formal source of law.[104] Iraq had no Sharia courts but civil courts used Sharia for issues of personal status including marriage and divorce. In 1995 Iraq introduced Sharia punishment for certain types of criminal offences.[105] The code is based on French civil law as well as Sunni and Jafari (Shi'ite) interpretations of Sharia.[106]
In 2004, theCPA chief executive L.Paul Bremer said he would veto any constitutional draft stating that sharia is the principal basis of law.[107] The declaration enraged many local Shia clerics,[108] and by 2005 the US had relented, allowing a role for sharia in the constitution to help end a stalemate on the draft constitution.[109] TheIraqi Penal Code is the statutory law of Iraq.
The current Iraqi armed forces were rebuilt after the US invasion of Iraq, with large amounts of American military aid at all levels. The army consists of 14 divisions, all of them infantry, except for the ninth division, which ismotorised infantry. Each division consists of four brigades and comprises 14,000 soldiers. Before 2003, Iraq was mostly equipped with Soviet-made military equipment, the country has since turned to Western suppliers.[112]
The Iraqi air force is designed to support ground forces with surveillance, reconnaissance and troop lift. Two reconnaissance squadrons use light aircraft, three helicopter squadrons are used to move troops and one air transportation squadron usesC-130 transport aircraft to move troops, equipment, and supplies. The air force currently has 5,000 personnel.[113] It was planned to increase to 18,000 personnel, with 550 aircraft by 2018, but that did not happen as planned.[114]
As of February 2011, the navy had approximately 5,000 sailors, including 800marines. The navy consists of an operational headquarters, five afloat squadrons, and two marine battalions, designed to protect shorelines and inland waterways from insurgent infiltration.
On 4 November 2019, more than 100Australian Defence Force personnel leftDarwin for the 10th rotation of Task GroupTaji, based north ofBaghdad. The Australian contingent mentors the Iraqi School of Infantry, where theIraqi Security Forces are trained. However,Australia's contribution was reduced from 250 to 120 ADF personnel, which along withNew Zealand had trained over 45,000 ISF members before that.[115]
After the end of the Iraq War, Iraq sought and strengthened regional economic cooperation and improved relations with neighbouring countries.[116] On 12 February 2009, Iraq officially became the 186th State Party to theChemical Weapons Convention. Under the provisions of this treaty, Iraq is considered a party with declared stockpiles ofchemical weapons. Because of their late accession, Iraq is the only State Party exempt from the existing timeline for destruction of their chemical weapons.[117]
Since the situation eased, Iraq reengaged with its Arab neighbours while maintaining relations with Iran in an attempt to position Iraq as a country that would not exacerbate the security concerns of its neighbours and seeking a pragmatic balance in foreign relations.[116]Iran–Iraq relations have flourished since 2005 by the exchange of high-level visits.[116] A conflict occurred in December 2009, when Iraq accused Iran of seizing an oil well on the border.[118]Relations with Turkey are tense, largely because of theKurdistan Regional Government, as clashes between Turkey and thePKK continue.[119] In October 2011, theTurkish parliament renewed a law that gives Turkish forces the ability to pursue rebels over theborder in Iraq.[120] Turkey's"Great Anatolia Project" reduced Iraq's water supply and affected agriculture.[121][83] Prime MinisterMohammed Shia al-Sudani has sought to normaliserelations with Syria in order to expand cooperation.[122] Iraq is also seeking to deepen its ties with theGulf Cooperation Council countries.[123] Foreign ministers of Iraq and Kuwait have announced that they were working on a definitive agreement on border demarcation.[124][125]
Relations between Iraq and itsKurdish population have been sour in recent history, especially withSaddam Hussein's genocidal campaign against them in the 1980s. Afteruprisings during the early 90s, many Kurds fled their homeland andno-fly zones were established in northern Iraq to prevent more conflicts. Despite historically poor relations, some progress has been made, and Iraq elected its first Kurdish president,Jalal Talabani, in 2005. Furthermore,Kurdish is now an official language of Iraq alongsideArabic according to Article 4 of the Constitution.[35]
Iraq is composed of nineteengovernorates (orprovinces) (Arabic:muhafadhat, singularmuhafadhah). The governorates are subdivided intodistricts (orqadhas), which are further divided intosub-districts (ornawāḥī).
Clickable map of Iraq exhibiting its eighteen governorates, and partially recognized Halabja.A clickable map of Iraq exhibiting its governorates.
According to theInternational Fund for Agricultural Development, Iraq is anoil-rich upper-middle-income country.[134] Iraq's economy is dominated by theoil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings.[134] The lack of development in other sectors has resulted in 18%–30% unemployed and a per capita GDP of $4,812.[3][134] Public sector employment accounted for nearly 60% of full-time employment in 2011.[135] The oil export industry, which dominates the Iraqi economy, generates little employment.[135] Currently only a modest percentage of women (the highest estimate for 2011 was 22%) participate in the labour force.[135] The official currency in Iraq is theIraqi dinar. The Central Provisional Authority issued new dinar coins and notes, with the notes printed byDe La Rue using modern anti-forgery techniques.[136]Jim Cramer's 20 October 2009 endorsement of theIraqi dinar onCNBC has further piqued interest in the investment.[137]
Erbil skyline at night
Prior to the 2003 invasion, Iraq'scentrally planned economy prohibited the foreign ownership of businesses, ran most large industries as state-owned enterprises, and imposed largetariffs to keep the foreign goods out .[138][139] Oil was nationalised in 1972 and its revenue was spent on government development projects. Iraq was one of the most advanced countries in the Middle East. But it faced economic decline as a result of sanctions. After2003, theCoalition Provisional Authority quickly began issuing many binding ordersprivatising the Iraqi economy and opening it up toforeign investment.[139] On 20 November 2004, theParis Club of creditor countries agreed to write off 80% ($33 billion) of Iraq's $42 billion debt to Club members. Iraq's total external debt was around $120 billion at the time of the invasion, and had grown another $5 billion by 2004. Thedebt relief was to be implemented in three stages: two of 30% each and one of 20%.[140]
Five years after the invasion, an estimated 2.4 million people wereinternally displaced (with a further two million refugees outside Iraq), four million Iraqis were considered food-insecure (a quarter of children were chronically malnourished) and only a third of Iraqi children had access to safe drinking water.[141] In 2022, and after more than 30 years after theUN Compensation Commission was created to ensure restitution for Kuwait following the invasion of 1990, the reparations body announced that Iraq has paid a total of $52.4 billion in war reparations to Kuwait.[142] According to theOverseas Development Institute,international NGOs face challenges in carrying out their mission, leaving their assistance "piecemeal and largely conducted undercover, hindered by insecurity, a lack of coordinated funding, limited operational capacity and patchy information".[141] International NGOs have been targeted and during the first 5 years, 94 aid workers were killed, 248 injured, 24 arrested or detained and 89 kidnapped or abducted.[141]
The Amwaj Residential Towers in Baghdad, a modern high-rise complex that represents part of the city's recent urban development projects.
The war have left heavy impact on the economy.[143][144] According to a report by theArab News, Iraq has shown positive signs of recovery.[145][146] The Kurdish and Shia populated regions of Iraq experienced an economic boom after the end of the war,[147][148][149] and until 2023,[150][151] Kurdistan Region was considered economically more stable —mostly driven by hitherto independent oil exports.[152] Recent developments in the internal political dynamics of the country has seen Baghdad reassert full control over the oil industry of the country[153] and has been since considered more stable and prosperous,[154] while Kurdistan Region has experienced an economic downfall.[150][151] In recent years, Sunni-populated provinces in Iraq have also made economic progress, as evidenced by numerous new construction projects.[155][156][157] In 2025, parliament speakerMahmoud al-Mashhadani stressed that Iraq is stable in terms of security and economy and has taken a non-aligned approach.[158] According to a new report from the Arab Investment & Export Credit Guarantee Corporation ("Dhaman"), theUnited Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia,Egypt, Iraq, andAlgeria, the leading contributors to theArab economy and 72% of the region's GDP.[159][160] In addition, Iraq is an agricultural country.[161] Tourism in Iraq stands to be a major growth sector, includingarchaeological tourism andreligious tourism while the country is also considered to be a potential location forecotourism.[162][163][164]
Iraq was an importanttourist destination for many years but that changed dramatically during thewar with Iran and after theinvasion by the US and allies.[165] As Iraq continues to develop and stabilises, tourism in Iraq is still facing many challenges, and little has been made by the government to meet its tremendous potential as a global tourist destination, and gain the associated economic benefits, mainly due to conflicts.[166] Sites from Iraq's ancient past are numerous and many that are close to large cities have been excavated. Babylon has seen major recent restoration; known for its famousZiggurat (the inspiration for the BiblicalTower of Babel), theHanging Gardens (one of theSeven Wonders of the World), and theIshtar Gate, making it a prime destination.
Nineveh, a rival toBabylon, has also seen significant restoration and reconstruction.[167]Ur, one of the first Sumerian cities, which is nearNasiriyya, has been partially restored.[167] This is a list of examples of some significant sites in a country with a tremendous archaeological and historic wealth.[167] Iraq is considered to be a potential location forecotourism.[168] The tourism in Iraq includes also making pilgrimages toholy Shia Islamic sites nearKarbala andNajaf.[149] Since 2003, Najaf and Karbala have experienced economic boom, due to religious tourism.[149]Mosul Museum is the second largest museum in Iraq after theIraq Museum inBaghdad. It contains ancientMesopotamian artefacts.
Saddam Hussein built hundreds of palaces and monuments across the country. Some of them includeAl-Faw Palace,As-Salam Palace andRadwaniyah Palace.[169] Al-Faw Palace is currently occupied by theAmerican University of Iraq. Since Saddam's overthrow, the palaces are open to tourists, though they are not officially functioning, and thegovernment of Iraq is considering to sell them for useful purposes. A majority of these structures were built after the1991 Gulf War, when Iraq was put under sanctions by the United Nations.[169] Saddam reconstructed part of Babylon, one of the world's earliest cities, using bricks inscribed with his name to associate himself with the region's past glories.[170] One of his palaces in Basra was turned into a museum, despite it was time when Iraq allied with the US was engaged in war with the ISIS.[171][clarification needed]
The150 Meter Motorway isErbil’s largest ring road, built to improve traffic flow and connect expanding areas of the city.
Iraq has a modern network of motorways.Roadways extended 45,550 km (28,300 mi).[172] The roadway also connect Iraq to neighbouring countries ofIran,Turkey,Syria,Jordan,Saudi Arabia andKuwait.[172] There are more than seven million passenger cars, over million commercial taxis, buses, and trucks in use. On major motorways the maximum speed is 110 km/h (68 mph).[173] Many of the roads were constructed in the late 1970s and early 1980s and were designed with a 20-year lifespan.[174] Most of these facilities were damaged in enduring wars, that Iraq experienced.[174] Since then traffic has been a serious issue, specially in Baghdad.
Iraqi Republic Railways is the responsible body for railway transportation in Iraq.[175] The railway infrastructure consists of 2,405 km (1,494 mi) of track, 109 stations, 31 locomotives and 1,685 units of rolling stock.[175] The government is attempting to establish railway links with Turkey, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia to complete a continuous Euro-Gulf rail route.[175] Currently, a large project is underway to connect Karbala and Najaf.
With its 143.1 billion barrels (2.275×1010 m3) of proved oil reserves, Iraq ranks third in the world behind Venezuela and Saudi Arabia in the amount ofoil reserves.[179][180] Oil production levels reached 3.4 million barrels per day by December 2012.[181] Only about 2,000oil wells have been drilled in Iraq, compared with about 1 million wells inTexas alone.[182] Iraq was one of the founding members ofOPEC.[183][184]
During the 1970s Iraq produced up to 3.5 millionbarrels per day, butsanctions imposed against Iraq after itsinvasion of Kuwait in 1990 crippled the country's oil sector. Thesanctions prohibited Iraq from exporting oil until 1996 and Iraq's output declined by 85% in the years following the FirstGulf War. The sanctions were lifted in 2003 after the US-led invasion removed Saddam Hussein from power, but development of Iraq's oil resources has been hampered by the ongoing conflict.[185] As of 2010[update], despite improved security and billions of dollars in oil revenue, Iraq still generates about half the electricity that customers demand, leading to protests during the hot summer months.[186] TheIraq oil law, a proposed piece of legislation submitted to theCouncil of Representatives of Iraq in 2007, has failed to gain approval due to disagreements among Iraq's various political blocs.[187][188]Al Başrah Oil Terminal is a trans-shipment facility from the pipelines to the tankers and usessupertankers.
According to a US Study from May 2007, between 100,000 barrels per day (16,000 m3/d) and 300,000 barrels per day (48,000 m3/d) of Iraq's declared oil production over the past four years could have been siphoned off through corruption or smuggling.[189] In 2008,Al Jazeera reported $13 billion of Iraqi oil revenues in American care was improperly accounted for, of which $2.6 billion is totally unaccounted for.[190] Some reports that the government has reduced corruption in public procurement of oil; however, reliable reports of bribery and kickbacks to government officials persist.[191]
On 30 June and 11 December 2009, theMinistry of Oil awarded service contracts to international oil companies for some of Iraq's many oil fields.[192][193] Oil fields contracted include the "super-giant"Majnoon oil field,Halfaya Field,West Qurna Field andRumaila Field.[193]BP andChina National Petroleum Corporation won a deal to develop Rumaila, the largest oil field in Iraq.[194][195] On 14 March 2014, theInternational Energy Agency said Iraq's oil output jumped by half a million barrels a day in February to average 3.6 million barrels a day. The country had not pumped that much oil since 1979, when Saddam Hussein rose to power.[196] However, on 14 July 2014, as sectarian strife had taken hold,Kurdistan Regional Government forces seized control of the Bai Hassan andKirkuk oilfields in the north of the country, taking them from Iraq's control. Baghdad condemned the seizure and threatened "dire consequences" if the fields were not returned.[197] On 2018, the UN estimated that oil accounts for 99% of Iraq's revenue.[185] As of 2021, the oil sector provided about 92% of foreign exchange earnings.[198]
Three decades of war greatly cut the existingwater resources management system for several major cities. This prompted widespreadwater supply andsanitation shortfalls thus poorwater and service quality.[83] This is combined with few businesses and households who are fully environmentally aware and legally compliant however the large lakes, as pictured, alleviate supply relative to many comparators in Western Asia beset by more regular drought. Access to potable water diverges among governorates and between urban and rural areas.91% of the population has access to potable water. Forming this figure: in rural areas, 77% of people have access to improved (treated or fully naturally filtered) drinking water sources; and 98% in urban areas.[199] Much water is discarded during treatment, due to much outmoded equipment, raising energy burden and reducing supply.[199]
Although many infrastructure projects had already begun, at the end of 2013 Iraq had a housing crisis. The then war-ravaged country was set to complete 5 percent of the 2.5 million homes it needs to build by 2016 to keep up with demand, confirmed the Minister for Construction and Housing.[200] In 2009, the Iraq Britain Business Council formed. Its key impetus was House of Lords member and trade expertLady Nicholson. In 2013, South Korean firm Daewoo reached a deal to buildBismayah New City of about 600,000 residents in 100,000 homes.[201]
In December 2020,Al-Sudani launched the second phase of theGrand Faw Port via winning bid of project head contractorDaewoo at $2.7 billion.[202] In late 2023, the government announced that it will build a total of 15 new cities across Iraq, in an attempt to tackle a persistent housing problem, according to officials.[203] This project falls under the government's plan and strategy to establish new residential cities outside city centres, aiming to alleviate the urban housing crisis.[204] The first 5 new cities will be located inBaghdad,Babylon,Nineveh,Anbar andKarbala, while another 10 new residential cities will be launched in other governorates.[204] The initial phase of the [housing] plan began in late 2023, whenAl-Sudani laid the foundation stone of Al-Jawahiri city.[204] Located west of the capital, the new city will host 30,000 housing units which will cost $2 billion.[204] It is expected to be completed in four to five years. According to officials, none of it is financed by the government.[205][206][204]
In 2024, and during a visit to Baghdad by Turkish PresidentRecep Tayyip Erdogan, a quadrilateral memorandum of understanding regarding cooperation in theIraq–Europe Development Road project was signed between Iraq,Turkey,Qatar,UAE. The deal was inked by the transportation ministers from each country. The 1,200-km project with railway and motorways which will connect theGrand Faw Port, aimed to be the largest port in the Middle East. According to officials, it is a strategic international project which will strengthen Iraq's geopolitical position.[207][208][209]
The 2021 estimate of the total Iraqi population is 43,533,592.[210][211] Iraq's population was estimated to be 2 million in 1878.[212] In 2013 Iraq's population reached 35 million amid a post-war population boom.[213] It is the most populous country in theArabian Plate.[214] Iraq is made up of three former administrative divisions (vilayets) of the Ottoman Empire — Mosul, Basra and Baghdad — which were designated as concentration of different ethnic groups.
According to theCIA World Factbook, citing a 1987 Iraqi government estimate,[3] the population of Iraq is 75–80%Arab followed by 15–20%Kurds.[3] In addition, the estimate claims that other minorities form 5% of the country's population, including theTurkmen/Turcoman,Assyrians,Yezidis,Shabak,Kaka'i,Bedouins,Roma,Circassians, Mandaeans, andPersians.[3] However, theInternational Crisis Group points out that figures from the 1987 census, as well as the 1967, 1977, and 1997 censuses, "are all considered highly problematic, due to suspicions of regime manipulation" because Iraqi citizens were only allowed to indicate belonging to either the Arab or Kurdish ethnic groups;[217] consequently, this skewed the number of other ethnic minorities, such as Iraq's third largest ethnic group – the Turkmens.[217]
The historic Assyrian Quarter in Baghdad housed 150,000 Armenians in 2003. Most of them fled, following the escalation of war, and today only 1,500 Armenians are found in the city. Around 20,000Marsh Arabs live in southern Iraq.[218] Iraq has a community of 2,500Chechens,[219] and some 20,000Armenians.[220] In southern Iraq,there is a community of Iraqis of African descent, a legacy of theslavery practised in the Islamic Caliphate beginning before theZanj Rebellion of the 9th century, andBasra's role as a key port.[221] It is the most populous country in theArabian Plate.[222]
Prior to the invasion in 2003,Arabic was the sole official language. Since the newConstitution of Iraq was approved in 2005, both Arabic andKurdish are recognised (Article 4) as official languages of Iraq, while three other languages,Turkmen,Syriac andArmenian, are also recognised asminority languages. In addition, any region or province may declare other languages official if a majority of the population approves in a general referendum.[35]
According to theConstitution of Iraq (Article 4): The Arabic language and the Kurdish language are the two official languages of Iraq. The right of Iraqis to educate their children in their mother tongue, such as Turkmen, Syriac, and Armenian shall be guaranteed in government educational institutions in accordance with educational guidelines, or in any other language in private educational institutions.[35]
Religions in Iraq are dominantlyAbrahamic religions.[225] In 2020, the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) estimated that 97% Iraqis followed Islam, with 61% being Shia and 35% Sunni.[226] An older estimate in 2015 by the CIAWorld Factbook that reported between 90 and 95% of Iraqis followedIslam, with 61–64% being Shia and 29–34% being Sunni.Christianity accounted for 1%, and the rest (1-4%) practicedYazidism,Mandaeism, and other religions.[225] In 2011,Pew Research estimated that 51% of Muslims in Iraq see themselves asShia, 42% asSunni, while 5% as "just a Muslim".[227] Iraq is also home to two of the holiest places among the Shias –Najaf andKarbala.[228] Shia Muslims are mostly concentrated in southern Iraq and in parts of north region and Baghdad.Sunni Muslims are found in theSunni Triangle region, in cities such asRamadi,Tikrit andFallujah, where Sunnis make majority.
Iraq is home to one of theoldest Jewish communities in the Middle East and the first Jewish diaspora.[239] In 1948, the Jewish population was estimated at 200,000, although some sources suggest the population may have been even higher.[239] After the establishment ofIsrael in 1948, Jews emigrated,fleeing persecution in Iraq, while 100,000 of them remained.[240] By the time Saddam Hussein came to power, their population had reached 15,000.[241][242] Under his rule, the population dwindled—not due to persecution, but because the government lifted travel restrictions, allowing many Jews to emigrate abroad and visiting Iraq occasionally.[243] At this point, around 1,500 Jews remained.[244] After 2003, fear among the Jewish community increased, leading to their further decline.[245] Today, it is estimated that only around 400 Jews remain in Iraq.[246] Iraq is home to over250 Jewish sites.
There are also smallethno-religious minority populations ofMandaeans,Shabaks,Yarsan andYezidis remaining.[233] Prior to 2003 their numbers together may have been 2 million, the majority Yarsan, a non-Islamic religion with roots in pre-Islamic and pre-Christian religion.[233] Yazidis are mostly concentrated around theSinjar Mountains.[247][233] Mandaeans live primarily around Baghdad, Fallujah, Basra andHillah.[248][233]
The dispersion of native Iraqis to other countries is known as theIraqi diaspora. TheUN High Commission for Refugees has estimated that nearly two million Iraqis fled the country after themultinational invasion of Iraq in 2003.[249] The UN Refugee agency estimated in 2021 that 1.1 million were displaced within the country.[250] In 2007, the UN said that about 40% of Iraq's middle class was believed to have fled and that most had fled systematic persecution and had no desire to return.[251] Subsequently, the diaspora seemed to be returning, as security improved; the Iraqi government claimed that 46,000 refugees returned to their homes in October 2007 alone.[252]
In 2011, nearly 3 million Iraqis had been displaced, with 1.3 million within Iraq and 1.6 million in neighbouring countries, mainly Jordan and Syria.[253][254][255] More than half of Iraqi Christians had fled the country since the US-led invasion.[254][255] According to officialUS Citizenship and Immigration Services statistics, 58,811 Iraqis had been granted refugee-status citizenship as of 25 May 2011[update].[256] After the start of theSyrian Civil War in 2011, numerous Iraqis in Syria returned to their native country.[257] To escape theSyrian civil war, over 252,000Syrian refugees of varying ethnicities have fled to Iraq since 2012.[258]
In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 6.84% of the country's GDP. In 2008, there were 6.96 physicians and 13.92 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[259] The life expectancy at birth was 68.49 years in 2010, or 65.13 years for males and 72.01 years for females.[260] This is down from a peak life expectancy of 71.31 years in 1996.[261] Officially, healthcare is free in Iraq.[262] However, years of wars, conflicts, and instability have left a deep impact of healthcare, just like other sectors of Iraq.
Iraq had developed a centralised free health care system in the 1970s using a hospital based, capital-intensive model ofcurative care.[263] The country depended on large-scale imports of medicines, medical equipment and even nurses, paid for with oil export income, according to a "Watching Brief" report issued jointly by theUN Children's Fund (UNICEF) and theWorld Health Organization in July 2003.[264] Unlike other poorer countries, which focused on mass health care using primary care practitioners, Iraq developed a Westernised system of sophisticated hospitals with advanced medical procedures, provided by specialist physicians.[264] The UNICEF/WHO report noted that prior to 1990, 97% of urban dwellers and 71% of the rural population had access to free primary health care; just 2% of hospital beds were privately managed.[264]
In 2024,Mohammed Shia' al-Sudani officially inaugurated Shaab General Hospital, Baghdad's first new general hospital in nearly 40 years.[265] The 246-bed facility, which was a long-delayed project was completed under a collaborative management model, which boasts state-of-the-art infrastructure, with advanced medical equipment, and a full range of healthcare services according to Sudani.[265] Minister of Health Salih Hasnawi highlighted the ministry's accomplishments over the past two years, including the construction of 13 new hospitals, three specialised centres, two burn units, and 25 kidney treatment centres in different governorates, while plans are in place to build 16 new hospitals, each with 100 beds, to be managed by qualified companies.[266][267] In the same year, the government launched the implementation of a joint operation and management programme for modern hospitals at the newly opened Najaf Teaching Hospital.[268]
Before 1990 and later 2003, Iraq already had an advanced and successful education system.[269] However, it has now been "de-developing" in its educational success.[269] During his rule, Saddam turned Iraq into a leading centre of higher education.[269] Since the implementation of the MDGs, education has shown improvement in Iraq.[269] Enrollment numbers nearly doubled from 2000 to 2012, reaching six million students.[270] By 2015–2016, around 9.2 million children were attending school, with a steady annual increase of 4.1% in enrollment rates.[270]
However, the rapid increase in primary education students has strained the system.[270] Education receives only 5.7% of government spending, leading to a lack of investment in schools and poor educational rankings in the region.[270] UNICEF found that funding has been wasted, resulting in increasing dropout and repetition rates.[270] Dropout rates range from 1.5% to 2.5%, with girls being affected more due to economic or family reasons. Repetition rates have reached almost 17%, causing a loss of approximately 20% of education funding in 2014–2015.[270]
Regional disparities greatly impact enrollment rates for children in primary education in Iraq.[270] Conflict-ridden areas like Saladin Governorate have seen over 90% of school-age children out of school due to the conversion of schools into shelters or military bases.[270] Limited resources strain the education system, hindering access to education.[270] However, efforts have been made to reopen closed schools, with success seen in Mosul, where over 380,000 children are back in school.[270] Access to education varies depending on location, and there are disparities between boys and girls.[270]
In 2024, the government inaugurated 790 new schools across the country, as part of a framework agreement with China to build 1,000 schools. This initiative aims to address overcrowding and the issue of triple shifts in schools, which have been exacerbated by the destruction caused by years of conflict.[271] Many schools have had to operate multiple shifts, sometimes giving students as little as four hours of learning per day, which negatively affects educational outcomes.[271][272] The school construction project stems from a 2021 agreement between the Iraqi and Chinese governments to build 1,000 schools. Additionally, the Iraqi Prime Minister announced that theIraq Development Fund will soon collaborate with the private sector to build 400 more schools, addressing the current shortage of over 8,000 schools in the country.[271][272]
Iraq's culture has a deep heritage that extends back in time to ancient Mesopotamian culture. Iraq has one of the longest written traditions in the world includingarchitecture,literature,music,dance,painting,weaving,pottery,calligraphy,stonemasonry andmetalworking. The culture of Iraq or Mesopotamia is one of the world's oldestcultural histories and is considered one of the most influential cultures in the world.
Mesopotamian legacy went on to influence and shape the civilisations of theOld World in different ways such as inventingwriting system,mathematics,time,calendar,astrology and thelaw code.[273][274] Iraq is home to diverse ethnic groups that have each contributed in different ways to the country's long and rich heritage. The country is known for its poets, architects, painters and sculptors, who are among the best in the region, some of them being world-class. Iraq is known for producing finehandicrafts, includingrugs andcarpets.
Wasiti's illustrations served as an inspiration for the modern Baghdad art movement in the 20th-century.[275]
There were several interconnected traditions of art in ancient Iraq. TheAbbasid Dynasty developed in theAbbasid Caliphate between 750 and 945, primarily in its heartland ofMesopotamia. The Abbasids were influenced mainly byMesopotamian art traditions and later influencedPersian as well as Central Asian styles. Between the 8th and 13th centuries during the Abbasid period, pottery achieved a high level of sophistication, calligraphy began to be used to decorate the surface of decorative objects and illuminated manuscripts, particularlyQ'ranic texts became more complex and stylised. Iraq's first art school was established during this period, allowing artisans and crafts to flourish.[276]
At the height of the Abbasid period, in the late 12th century, a stylistic movement of manuscript illustration and calligraphy emerged. Now known as theBaghdad School, this movement of Islamic art was characterised by representations of everyday life and the use of highly expressive faces rather than the stereotypical characters that had been used in the past.[277]
The capital, Ninus orNineveh, was taken by theMedes underCyaxares, and some 200 years afterXenophon passed over its site, then mere mounds of earth. It remained buried until 1845, when Botta andLayard discovered the ruins of the Assyrian cities. The principal remains are those ofKhorsabad, 16 km (10 mi) northeast ofMosul; of Nimroud, supposed to be the ancient Calah; and of Kouyunjik, in all probability the ancient Nineveh. In these cities are found fragments of several great buildings which seem to have been palace-temples. They were constructed chiefly ofsun-dried bricks, and all that remains of them is the lower part of the walls, decorated with sculpture and paintings, portions of the pavements, a few indications of the elevation, and some works connected with the drainage.
In recent years, modern buildings include shopping malls and high-rise towers.[279] Iraq was of the first countries along with Egypt, to adopt mall culture in the Arab world and the Middle East.[279] Al-Adil Shopping Center (formerly Ozdi Pak) in Baghdad was the second mall in the region after Egypt.[279]
Important cultural institutions in the capital include theIraqi National Symphony Orchestra – rehearsals and performances were briefly interrupted during theoccupation of Iraq but have since returned to normal.[280] The National Theatre of Iraq was looted during the 2003 invasion, but efforts are underway to restore it. The live theatre scene received a boost during the 1990s when UN sanctions limited the import of foreign films. As many as 30 cinemas were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of comedies and dramatic productions.
Institutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include the Academy of Music, Institute of Fine Arts and theMusic and Ballet School Baghdad. Baghdad also features a number of museums including theNational Museum of Iraq – which houses the world's largest and finest collection of artefacts and relics ofAncient Iraqi civilisations; some of which werestolen during theoccupation of Iraq. On 2021, it was announced that Iraq had reclaimed about 17,000 looted artefacts, which was considered to be the biggest repatriation.[282]
The literature in Iraq is often referred to as "Mesopotamian literature" due to the flourishing of various civilisations as a result of the mixture of these cultures and has been called Mesopotamian or Babylonian literature in allusion to the geographical territory that such cultures occupied in theMiddle East between the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.[283] The Sumerian literature was unique because it does not belong to any known linguistic root. Its appearance began with symbols of the things denoting it, then it turned with time to the cuneiform line on tablets. The literature during this time were mainly about mythical and epic texts dealing with creation issues, the emergence of the world, the gods, descriptions of the heavens, and the lives of heroes in the wars that broke out between the nomads and the urbanites. They also deal with religious teachings, moral advice, astrology, legislation, and history. One of which was theEpic of Gilgamesh, which is regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature.[284]
Kadim Al Sahir known as "TheCaesar" of Arabic songs. Considered as one of the most successful singers in the history of theArab World.
Iraq is known primarily for its richmaqam heritage which has been passed down orally by the masters of the maqam in an unbroken chain of transmission leading up to the present. TheIraqi maqam is considered to be the most noble and perfect form of maqam. Al-maqam al-Iraqi is the collection of sung poems written either in one of the 16 meters of classical Arabic or in Iraqi dialect (Zuhayri).[286] This form of art is recognised by UNESCO as "an intangible heritage of humanity".[287]
Early in the 20th century, many of the most prominent musicians in Iraq wereJewish.[288] In 1936,Iraq Radio was established with an ensemble made up entirely ofJews, with the exception of the percussion player.[288] At the nightclubs of Baghdad, ensembles consisted of oud, qanun and two percussionists, while the same format with aney andcello were used on the radio.[288]
The most famous singer of the 1930s–1940s was perhapsSalima Pasha (later Salima Murad).[288][289] The respect and adoration for Pasha were unusual at the time since public performance by women was considered shameful.[288] The most famous early composer from Iraq wasEzra Aharon, anoud player, while the most prominent instrumentalist wasYusuf Za'arur.[citation needed] Za'arus formed the official ensemble for the Iraqi radio station and were responsible for introducing the cello and ney into the traditional ensemble.[288]
An image showing a page from Iraq newspaper, 5 June 1920
Iraq was home to the second television station in the Middle East, which began during the 1950s. As part of a plan to help Iraq modernise, English telecommunications companyPye Limited built and commissioned a television broadcast station in the capital city of Baghdad.[290]
After the end of the full state control in 2003, there was a period of significant growth in the broadcast media in Iraq.[291] By 2003, according to aBBC report, there were 20 radio stations from 0.15 to 17 television stations owned by Iraqis, and 200 Iraqi newspapers owned and operated.
Iraqi media expert and author of a number of reports on this subject, Ibrahim Al Marashi, identifies four stages of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 where they had been taking the steps that have significant effects on the way for the later of the Iraqi media since then. Stages are: pre-invasion preparation, and the war and the actual choice of targets, the first post-war period, and a growing insurgency and hand over power to the Iraqi Interim Government (IIG) and Prime MinisterIyad Allawi.[292][page needed]
Iraqi cuisine can be traced back some 10,000 years – to theSumerians,Akkadians,Babylonians,Assyrians andAncient Persians.[293]Tablets found in ancient ruins in Iraq show recipes prepared in the temples during religious festivals – the first cookbooks in the world.[293]Ancient Iraq, orMesopotamia, was home to many sophisticated and highly advanced civilisations, in all fields of knowledge – including the culinary arts.[293] However, it was in themedieval era when Baghdad was the capital of theAbbasid Caliphate that the Iraqi kitchen reached its zenith.[293] Today the cuisine of Iraq reflects this rich inheritance as well as strong influences from the culinary traditions of neighbouringTurkey,Iran and theGreater Syria area.[293]
Similarly with other countries ofWestern Asia, chicken and especially lamb are the favourite meats. Most dishes are served with rice – usuallyBasmati, grown in themarshes of southern Iraq.[293]Bulgur wheat is used in many dishes, having been a staple in the country since the days of theAncient Assyrians.[293]
^"Iraqi religions".www.state.gov. Office of International Religious Freedom. 12 May 2021.The constitution establishes Islam as the official religion and states no law may be enacted contradicting the "established provisions of Islam." It provides for freedom of religious belief and practice for all individuals, including Muslims, Christians, Yezidis, and Sabean-Mandeans, but does not explicitly mention followers of other religions or atheists.
^"Without a Federation Council, State-building in Iraq remains elusive | MERI".www.meri-k.org. Retrieved26 March 2025.The problem here does not lie in the topic, but in the fact that Iraq's shaky Parliament is enjoying a monopoly in the country's supreme legislative body and not subject to any form of checks and balances. Iraq was meant to have a Federation Council, an upper chamber, that can play a vital role in the country's democracy, state-building and rule-of-law. This Council was mandated in Articles 48 and 65 of the 2005 Constitution, and was meant to be created during the term of the first Parliament (2006-2010).
^"Can the Federation Council help address Iraq's ongoing 'state' crisis? - Kalam". 13 March 2025. Retrieved26 March 2025.Article 65 of Iraq's 2005 Constitution calls for the establishment of a second legislative chamber known as the Federation Council (FC). However, this article remains dormant, awaiting 'to be regulated by law' – just like many other suspended constitutional provisions.
^Chomani, Kamal (8 November 2018)."Iraq's Missing Federation Council".The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy -. Retrieved26 March 2025.The Iraqi parliament's upper house, constitutionally defined as the Federation Council, has never been established. Establishing the Federation Council would be a step forward in Iraq's democratization and ability to resolve disputes.
^Halloran, John A. (2000)."Sumerian Lexicon".The name of the very ancient city of URUK- City of Gilgamesh is made up from the UR-city and UK- thought to mean existence (a-ku, a-Ki & a-ko. The Aramaic and Arabic root of IRQ and URQ denotes rivers or tributaries at the same times referring to condensation (of water).
^Wilhelm Eilers (1983). "Iran and Mesopotamia". In E. Yarshater,The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^"often said to be from Arabicaraqa, covering notions such as "perspiring, deeply rooted, well-watered", which may reflect the impression the lush river-land made on desert Arabs.etymonline.com; see also "Rassam, Suha (31 October 2005).Christianity in Iraq: Its Origins and Development to the Present Day. Gracewing Publishing. p. 9.ISBN978-0-85244-633-1.
^Martin, Benjamin (1761)."Philosophical Geography of Turkey in Asia".A New and Comprehensive System of Philology or A Treatise of the Literary Arts and Sciences, According to their Present State. The General Magazine of Arts and Sciences, Philosophical, Philological, Mathematical, and Mechanical. Vol. 3, no. 2. London: W. Owen. p. 363.
^Ceylan, Ebubekir (2011).The Ottoman Origins of Modern Iraq: Political Reform, Modernization and Development in the Nineteenth Century Middle East. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 121.
^Longrigg, Stephen H. (1925).Four Centuries of Modern Iraq. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 277–284.
^Damdoom, Ameen; Mahboab, Shahram (2023). "The Ottoman Empire and Provincial Centralization in Iraq: Rethinking State–Society Relations, 1831–1917".Migration Letters.20 (6):799–815.
^Shaw, Stanford J.; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1977).History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume II, Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 122.
^Fantauzzo, Justin (2017). "The Finest Feats of the War? The Captures of Baghdad and Jerusalem during the First World War and Public Opinion throughout the British Empire".War in History.24 (1). Sage Publications, Ltd.:64–86 – via JSTOR.
^Benjamin Sass, Joachim Marzahn. Aramaic and figural stamp impressions on bricks of the sixth century B.C. from Babylon. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2010. Pp. 181-182.
^Jastrow, Otto O. (2006), "Iraq", in Versteegh, Kees; Eid, Mushira; Elgibali, Alaa; Woidich, Manfred; Zaborski, Andrzej (eds.),Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, vol. 2,Brill Publishers, p. 414,ISBN978-90-04-14474-3
^Manasseh, Sara (February 2004)."An Iraqi samai of Salim Al-Nur"(PDF).Newsletter. No. 3. London: Arts and Humanities Research Board Research Centre for Cross-Cultural Music and Dance Performance. p. 7. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2 December 2005. Retrieved9 September 2007.
A Dweller in Mesopotamia, being the adventures of an official artist in the garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries;DjVu &layered PDF format).
By Desert Ways to Baghdad, by Louisa Jebb (Mrs. Roland Wilkins) With illustrations and a map, 1908 (1909 ed.)(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries;DjVu &layered PDF format).
Benjamin Busch, "'Today is Better than Tomorrow'. A Marine returns to a divided Iraq",Harper's Magazine, October 2014, pp. 29–44.
"Iraqi Constitution"(PDF). Ministry of Interior – General Directorate For Nationality. 30 January 2006. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 28 November 2016. Retrieved18 February 2013.
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