Which available name must be used in case of name conflicts (valid name)
How scientific literature must cite names
Zoological nomenclature is independent of other systems of nomenclature, for examplebotanical nomenclature. This implies that animals can have the same generic names as plants (e.g. there is a genusAbronia in both animals and plants).
The rules and recommendations have one fundamental aim: to provide the maximum universality and continuity in the naming of all animals, except wheretaxonomic judgment dictates otherwise. The code is meant to guide only the nomenclature of animals, while leaving zoologists freedom in classifying newtaxa. In other words, whilespecies concepts (and thus the definition of species) are arbitrary to some degree, the rules for names are not. The code applies only to names. A new animal name published without adherence to the code may be deemed simply "unavailable" if it fails to meet certain criteria, or fall entirely out of the province of science (e.g., the "scientific name" for theLoch Ness Monster).
The rules in the code determine whichavailable names arevalid for any taxon in thefamily group,genus group, andspecies group. It has additional (but more limited) provisions on names in higherranks. The code recognizes nocase law. Any dispute is decided first by applying the code directly, and not by reference to precedent.
The code is alsoretroactive orretrospective, which means that previous editions of the code, or previous other rules and conventions have no force anymore today,[2] and the nomenclatural acts published earlier must be evaluated only under the present edition of the code. In cases of disputes a case can be brought to the Commission who has the right to publish a final decision.[3]
In regulating the names of animals it holds by six central principles, which were first set out (as principles) in the third edition of the code (1985):
This is the principle that the scientific name of a species, and not of a taxon at any other rank, is a combination of two names; the use of atrinomen for the name of a subspecies and of uninominal names for taxa above the species group is in accord with this principle.[4]
This means that in the system of nomenclature for animals, the name of a species is composed of a combination of ageneric name and aspecific name; together they make a "binomen".[5] No other rank can have a name composed of two names. Examples:
This is the principle that the correct formal scientific name for an animaltaxon, thevalid name, correct to use, is the oldestavailable name that applies to it.[4]It is the most important principle—the fundamental guiding precept that preserves zoological nomenclature stability. It was first formulated in 1842 by a committee appointed by theBritish Association to consider the rules of zoological nomenclature.Hugh Edwin Strickland wrote the committee's report.
Examples:
Nunneley 1837 establishedLimax maculatus (Gastropoda), Wiktor 2001 classified it as a junior synonym ofLimax maximusLinnaeus, 1758 from S and W Europe.Limax maximus was established first, so if Wiktor's 2001 classification is accepted,Limax maximus takes precedence overLimax maculatus and must be used for the species.
Carl Linnaeus named thedomestic catFelis catus in 1758;Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber named thewildcatFelis silvestris in 1775. For taxonomists who consider these two kinds of cat a single species theprinciple of priority means that the species ought to be namedF. catus, but in practice almost all biologists have usedF. silvestris. In 2003, the Commission issued a ruling (Opinion 2027) that "conserved the usage of 17 specific names based on wild species, which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic forms", confirmingF. silvestris for the wild cat. Taxonomists who consider the domesticated cat the same species as the wild cat should useF. silvestris; those who consider it a subspecies of the wild cat should useF. silvestris catus; those who consider it a separate species should useF. catus.[6]
There are over 2 million junior synonyms recorded in zoology, primarily at the species level.
Theprinciple of coordination is that within the family group, genus group and species group, a name established for a taxon at any rank in the group is simultaneously established with the same author and date for taxa based on the same name-bearing type at other ranks in the corresponding group.[4]In other words, publishing a new zoological name automatically and simultaneously establishes all corresponding names in the relevant other ranks with the same type.
In the species-group, publishing a species name (thebinomen)Giraffa camelopardalisLinnaeus, 1758 also establishes the subspecies name (thetrinomen)Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalisLinnaeus, 1758. The same applies to the name of a subspecies; this establishes the corresponding species name, should anyone choose to elevate it to a full species at a later date.
In the genus-group, similarly, publishing the name of a genus also establishes the corresponding name of a subgenus (or vice versa): genusGiraffaLinnaeus, 1758 and subgenusGiraffa (Giraffa)Linnaeus, 1758.
In the family-group, publication of the name of a family, subfamily, superfamily, tribe (or any other such rank) also establishes the names in all the other ranks in the family group (family Giraffidae, superfamily Giraffoidea, subfamily Giraffinae, tribe Giraffini).
Author citations for such names (for example a subgenus) are the same as for the name actually published (for example a genus). It is immaterial if there is an actual taxon to which the automatically established name applies; if ever such a taxon is recognised, there is a name available for it. Later publications of similar names based on the same type but with different endings (e.g., "-inae" for subfamily versus "-idae" for family) are homonyms.
This is the principle that in cases of conflicts between simultaneously published divergent acts, the first subsequent author can decide which has precedence.It supplements theprinciple of priority, which states that the first published name takes precedence. The principle of the First Reviser deals with situations that cannot be resolved by priority. These items may be two or more different names for the same taxon, two or more names with the same spelling used for different taxa, two or more different spellings of a particular name, etc. In such cases, the first subsequent author who deals with the matter and chooses and publishes the decision in the required manner is the First Reviser, and their choice is to be followed.[7]
Example:
Linnaeus 1758 establishedStrix scandiaca andStrix noctua (Aves), for which he gave different descriptions and referred to different types, but both taxa later turned out to refer to the same species, thesnowy owl. The two names are subjective synonyms.Lönnberg 1931 acted as First Reviser, citing both names and selectingStrix scandiaca to have precedence.
This is the principle that the name of each taxon must be unique. Consequently, a name that is a junior homonym of another name must not be used as a valid name.[4]
It means that any one animal name, in one particular spelling, may be used only once (within its group). This is usually the first-published name; any later name with the same spelling (ahomonym) is barred from being used. The principles ofpriority andfirst reviser apply here. For family-group names the termination (which is rank-bound) is not taken into account.
Genera are homonyms only if exactly the same — a one-letter difference is enough to distinguish them.
Examples:
Argus Bohadsch, 1761 (Gastropoda) (was made available for homonymy by ICZN in Opinion 429, despite that Bohadsch 1761 was non-binominal - this had the effect that none of the various following namesArgus can be used for a taxon)
Some spelling variants are explicitly defined by theCode as being homonyms. Otherwise the one-letter difference rule applies.
In species,primary homonyms are those with the same genus and same species in their original combination. The difference between a junior primary homonym and a subsequent use of a name is undefined, but it is commonly accepted that if the name referred to another species or form, gave a description, and if there is in addition no evidence the author knew that the name was previously used, it is considered as a junior homonym.
Example:
Scopoli (1763) establishedCurculio fasciatus (Coleoptera) for a species from Slovenia. Strøm (1768) establishedCurculio fasciatus for another species from Norway. De Geer (1775) establishedCurculio fasciatus for a 3rd species from Sweden. Müller (1776) establishedCurculio fasciatus for a 4th species from Denmark. Fourcroy (1785) establishedCurculio fasciatus for a 5th species from France. Olivier (1790) establishedCurculio fasciatus for a 6th species from France. Marsham (1802) establishedCurculio fasciatus for a 7th species from Britain. All these names had descriptions that clarified that different species were meant, and that their authors did not know that the name had been established by a previous author.
Typically, junior primary homonyms are permanently invalid, but some are treated as valid if the junior and senior homonyms have been in separate genera after 1899 (Art. 57.2.1, Art. 23.9).
Examples:
Olivier published the namesCerambyx elegans in 1790, andCerambix [sic]maculatus in 1795, both of them junior primary homonyms. However, by 1835 both species were no longer in the genusCerambyx, so both species names are presently treated as valid, asMionochroma elegans andStellognatha maculata, respectively.
Secondary homonyms occur when taxa with the same specific name but different original genera are later classified in the same genus (Art. 57.3, 59).A secondary homonym may only be a temporary state, as it only applies so long as two species are congeneric. Under a different classification, the two species may no longer be in the same genus, and the junior name can potentially be used again (Art. 59.1), as long as it was not replaced before 1961, in which case it is permanently invalid (Art. 59.3).This is one of the rare cases where a single zoological species can have two entirely different names at the same time, depending upon whose classification is followed.
Example:
Nunneley (1837) establishedLimax maculatus (Gastropoda), Wiktor (2001) classified it as a junior synonym ofLimax (Limax) maximus Linnaeus, 1758 from S and W Europe. Kaleniczenko, 1851 establishedKrynickillus maculatus for a different species from Ukraine. Wiktor, 2001 classified bothLimax maximus Linnaeus, 1758 andKrynickillus maculatus Kaleniczenko, 1851 in the genusLimax. This meant thatL. maculatus Nunneley, 1837 andK. maculatus Kaleniczenko, 1851 were classified in the same genus, so both names were secondary homonyms in the genusLimax, and the younger name (from 1851) could not be used for the Ukrainian species. This made it necessary to look for the next younger available name that could be used for the Ukrainian species. This wasLimax ecarinatus Boettger, 1881, a junior synonym ofK. maculatus Kaleniczenko, 1851.
For Wiktor (2001) and those authors who follow Wiktor's system the name of the Ukrainian species must beLimax ecarinatus Boettger, 1881. For the others who classifyLimacus as a separate genus, the name of the Ukrainian species must beLimacus maculatus (Kaleniczenko, 1851).
So the Ukrainian species can have two names, depending from its generic classification.Limax ecarinatus,Limacus maculatus, the same species.
Article 59.3 states that junior secondary homonyms replaced before 1961 by substitute names are permanently invalid unless the substitute name is itself not in use.
Example:
Glischrus caelatus Studer, 1820 (Gastropoda) was once classified in the genusHelix, and became a junior secondary homonym ofHelix caelata [Vallot], 1801. Locard (1880) established a replacement nameHelix glypta, which has very rarely been used. The species is now known asTrochulus caelatus (Studer, 1820), and Art. 59.3 is commonly ignored.[note 1]
Double homonymy (genus and species) may or may not be homonymy in the strict sense: if the genera are homonyms but not the same genus, the same specific names can be used in both groups, because the species are subsequently placed in different genera when the generic homonymy is removed.
Example:
The nameNoctua Linnaeus, 1758 was established for a group of moths. In 1766 he establishedNoctua Linné, 1766 for a group of birds, ignoring that he had already used this name a few years ago.Noctua Linné, 1766 (Aves) is a junior homonym ofNoctua Linnaeus, 1758 (Lepidoptera), and is permanently invalid.
Noctua variegata (Lepidoptera) was coined by Jung, 1792, andNoctua variegata (Aves) by Quoy & Gaimard, 1830, thus creating a double homonym, until the latter species was placed in a different genus. Both species names are valid.
Fordisambiguating one genus-group name from its homonym, it is important to cite author and year. Citing the author alone is often not sufficient.
In some cases, the same genus-group or species-group name was published in the same year by the same author. In these cases it is useful to cite the page where the name was established.
Homonyms occur relatively rarely in families (only if generic names are identical or very similar and adding an ending "-idae" produces identical results). Discovering such a homonymy usually produces the same problems as if there were no rules: conflicts between entirely independent and unconnected groups of taxonomists working in different animal groups. Very often the Commission must be asked to take a decision.
Examples:
Bulimina (Foraminifera) andBuliminus (Gastropoda) both giveBuliminidae, and both families were used since the 1880s. When the homonymy was discovered 110 years later in the 1990s, the younger (gastropod) taxon had to receive a new family name, and the Commission was asked for a solution (Opinion 2018).
Claria (Rotifera) andClarias (Actinopterygii) both giveClariidae, but only the actinopterygian fish name had been used since 1845. Shortly after Clariidae had been proposed in Rotifera in 1990, the homonymy was discovered and the Commission ruled that the rotiferan family had to be emended toClariaidae (Opinion 2032).
For names above the superfamily level, the principle of homonymy does not apply.
Examples:
Pulmonata is usually used for a very prominent group inGastropoda, but the name is also (rarely) used for a group inArachnida.
Family-rank names and genus-rank names cannot be homonyms of one another, even if identical.
Example:
The frog superfamilyRanoidea and the frog genusRanoidea are not homonyms.
Animal, plant, and fungi nomenclature are entirely independent from each other. The most evident shortcoming of this situation (for their use inbiodiversity informatics) is that the same generic name can be used simultaneously for animals and plants. For this kind of homonym the expression "hemihomonym" is sometimes used. Far more than 1000 such names are known.[8]
Examples:
The genusTandonia was established in animals (Gastropoda), in plants (Euphorbiaceae), and in Fungi (Ascomycetes).
Prominent plant/animal pairings:Ammophila (Poaceae and Hymenoptera),Arenaria (Caryophyllaceae and Aves),Betula (Betulaceae and Hymenoptera),Chloris (Cactaceae and Aves),Dryas (Rosaceae and Lepidoptera),Dugesia (Asteraceae and Platyhelminthes),Erica (Ericaceae and Araneae),Hystrix (Poaceae and Mammalia),Iris (Iridaceae and Orthoptera),Liparis (Orchidaceae and Actinopterygii),Phalaenopsis (Orchidaceae and Aves),Pinus (Pinaceae and Mollusca),Prunella (Lamiaceae and Aves),Ricinus (Euphorbiaceae and Psocodea),Taxus (Taxaceae and Mammalia),Typha (Typhaceae and Porifera),Ulva (Ulvophyceae and Lepidoptera),Viola (Violaceae and Lepidoptera).
This is the principle that each nominal taxon in the family group, genus group, or species group has—actually or potentially—a name-bearing type fixed that provides the objective standard of reference that determines what the name applies to.
This means that any namedtaxon has aname-bearing type, which allows the objective application of that name. Any family-group name must have a type genus, any genus-group name must have a type species, and any species-group name can (not must) have one or more type specimens (holotype, lectotype, neotype, syntypes, or others), usually deposited in a museum collection.Thetype genus for afamily-group name is simply the genus that provided the stem to which was added the ending "-idae" (for families). Example:
Thetype species for agenus-group name is more complicated and follows exactly defined provisions in articles 67–69.Type species are very important, and no general zoological database has recorded the type species for all genera. Except in fishes and some minor groups, type species are rarely reliably recorded in online animal databases. In 60% of the cases the type species can be determined in the original publication.The type species is always the original name of the taxon (and not the currently used combination).
Designation and fixation have different meanings. A designation is the proposal of the type species. It is not necessary to have spelled the name of the genus or species correctly with correct authors (articles 67.2.1, 67.6, 67.7), type species are always the correctly spelled name. If the designation is valid, the type species is fixed.
A designation can also be invalid and ineffective—for example—if the genus had already a previously fixed type species, or if a type species was proposed that was not originally included, or contradicted the description or figure for a genus for which no species had originally been included.
There are various possible modes of type species designation. This is their order of legal importance, with approximate proportions of occurrence[note 2] and examples:
Superior type fixation:
Designation by ICZN under the plenary powers (3%)
Example:
Galba Schrank, 1803 (Gastropoda) was established with one species included,Galba pusilla Schrank, 1803. This would be the type species by monotypy. In Opinion 1896 (published in 1998) this type fixation was set aside andBuccinum truncatulum Müller, 1774 was fixed as type species under the plenary power(s) (nowGalba truncatula).
Designation under Art. 70.3 (misidentified type species) (1%)
Examples:
Bollingeria Forcart, 1940 (Gastropoda) was established with its type speciesChondrus pupoides Krynicki, 1833 proposed by original designation. But Forcart 1940 misidentified the type species and meantBulimus lamelliferus Rossmässler, 1858. It would be convenient to designateBulimus lamelliferus as type species under Art. 70.3.
Helisoma Swainson, 1840 (Gastropoda) was established with one species included, cited by Swainson as "H. bicarinata Sow. Gen. f. 4". This suggested that the type species was misidentified, and thatPlanorbis campanulatus Say, 1821 and notPlanorbis bicarinatus Say, 1819 was meant. But since the incorrect type speciesPlanorbis bicarinatus has been regarded as type, it would be convenient to fix this as type under Art. 70.3.
Anodonta Lamarck, 1799 (Bivalvia) was originally established with one included nominal species,Mytilus cygneus Linnaeus, 1758. This is the type species fixed by monotypy (nowAnodonta cygnea).
Euxinolauria Lindholm, 1924 (Gastropoda: Lauriidae) was established as a new replacement name forCaucasica Caziot & Margier, 1909 (notCaucasica Boettger, 1877 (Gastropoda: Clausiliidae)).Caucasica Caziot & Margier, 1909 contained originally four species, among which wasPupa caucasica Pfeiffer, 1857. This is the type species forCaucasica Caziot & Margier, 1909 fixed by absolute tautonymy, and also forEuxinolauria (nowEuxinolauria caucasica).
Linnaeus 1758 establishedCastor (Mammalia) and included two species,Castor fiber andCastor moschatus. Among the synonyms ofCastor fiber was cited the one-word name Castor with references to six pre-Linnean works (Gesner 1598, Rondelet 1554, Jonston 1650, Dodart 1676, Ray 1693 and Aldrovandi 1649).Castor fiber Linnaeus 1758 is type species fixed by Linnean tautonymy (nowCastor fiber).
Subsequent methods of type fixation:
Subsequent monotypy (2%)
Examples:
Valvata Müller, 1773 (Gastropoda) was established with a short description and without species. Müller 1774 included one speciesValvata cristata Müller 1774.Valvata cristata is type species by subsequent monotypy (nowValvata cristata).
Subsequent absolute tautonymy (only very few cases)[note 3]
Examples:
Alosa Garsault, 1764 (Actinopterygii) was established without included species. As first author, Cuvier, 1829 included two speciesClupea alosa andClupea fincta. Type species isClupea alosa Linnaeus 1758 by subsequent absolute tautonymy (nowAlosa alosa).
Aspecies-group name can have a name-bearing type specimen, but this is not a requirement. In many cases species-group names have no type specimens, or they are lost. In those cases the application of the species-group name is usually based on common acceptance. If there is no common acceptance, there are provisions in the Code to fix a name-bearing type specimen that is binding for users of that name. Fixing such a name-bearing type should only be done if this is taxonomically necessary (articles 74.7.3, 75.2, 75.3).
The name-bearing type forHomo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 is deposited in Uppsala (the bones ofCarl von Linné). This is alectotype designated by Stearn 1959, correctly but unnecessarily because the usage of the name was unambiguous at that time, and still is.
The names above the family group are regulated only as to the requirements for publication; there is no restriction to the number of ranks and the use of names is not restricted by priority.
The names in the family, genus, and species groups are fully regulated by the provisions in the code. There is no limitation to the number of ranks allowed in the family group. The genus group has only two ranks:genus andsubgenus. The species group has only two ranks:species andsubspecies.
In the species groupgender agreement applies. The name of a species, in two parts, abinomen, say,Loxodonta africana, and of a subspecies, in three parts, atrinomen, sayCanis lupus albus, is in the form of aLatin phrase, and must be grammatically correct Latin. If the second part, thespecific name (or the third part, thesubspecific name) isadjectival in nature, its ending must agree in gender with the name of the genus. If it is a noun, or an arbitrary combination of letters, this does not apply.
For instance, the generic nameEquus is masculine; in the name "Equus africanus", the specific nameafricanus is an adjective and its ending follows the gender of the generic name.
InEquus zebra the specific namezebra is a noun, it may not be "corrected" to "Equus zebrus".
InEquus quagga burchellii the subspecific nameburchellii is a noun in the genitive case ("of Burchell").
If a species is moved, the spelling of an ending may need to change. IfGryllus migratorius is moved to the genusLocusta, it becomesLocusta migratoria. Confusion over Latin grammar has led to many incorrectly formed names appearing in print. An automated search may fail to find all the variant spellings of a given name (e.g., the spellingsatra andater may refer to the same species).
Written nomenclatural rules in zoology were compiled in various countries since the late 1830s, such as Merton's Rules[9] and Strickland's Code[10] going back to 1843.[11][12] At the first and secondInternational Zoological Congresses (Paris 1889, Moscow 1892) zoologists saw the need to establish commonly accepted international rules for all disciplines and countries to replace conventions and unwritten rules that varied across disciplines, countries, and languages.
Compiling "International Rules on Zoological Nomenclature" was first proposed in 1895 in Leiden (3rd International Congress for Zoology) and officially published in three languages in 1905 (French, English, German; only French was official).[13] From then on, amendments and modifications were subsequently passed by variouszoological congresses (Boston 1907, Graz 1910, Monaco 1913, Budapest 1927, Padua 1930, Paris 1948, Copenhagen 1953, and London 1958). These were only published in English, and can only be found in the reports of these congresses or other official publications.
The 1905 rules became increasingly outdated. They soon sold out, and it became increasingly difficult to obtain a complete set of the Rules with all amendments.[14] In Copenhagen 1953 the French and English texts of the rules were declared of equivalent official force, and a declaration was approved to prepare a new compilation of the rules. In 1958, an Editorial Committee in London elaborated a completely new version of the nomenclatural rules, which were finally published as the first edition of theICZN Code on 9 November 1961.
The second edition of the code (only weakly modified) came in 1963. The last zoological congress to deal with nomenclatural problems took place in Monte Carlo 1972, since by then the official zoological organs no longer derived power from zoological congresses.[15] The third edition of the code came out in 1985. The present edition is the 4th edition, effective since 2000. These code editions were elaborated on by editorial committees[16] appointed by theInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. The ICZN Commission takes its power from a general biological congress (IUBS,International Union of Biological Sciences). The editorial committee for the fourth edition was composed of seven persons. Such new editions of the ICZN Code are not democratically approved by the taxonomists who are forced to follow the code's provisions, neither do taxonomists have the right to vote for the members of the Commission or the editorial committee.
As the Commission may alter the code (by declarations and amendments) without issuing a new edition of the book, the current edition does not necessarily contain the actual provision that applies in a particular case. The Code consists of the original text of the fourth edition and Declaration 44. The code is published in an English and a French[17] version; both versions are official and equivalent in force, meaning, and authority.[18] This means that if something in the English code is unclear or its interpretation ambiguous, the French version is decisive, and if there is something unclear in the French code, the English version is decisive.
The rules in the code apply to all users of zoological names. However, its provisions can be interpreted, waived, or modified in their application to a particular case when strict adherence would cause confusion. Such exceptions are not made by an individual scientist, no matter how well-respected within the field, but only by theInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, acting on behalf of all zoologists. The Commission takes such action in response to proposals submitted to it.
The latest amendments (specifically A-2012) enacted by the Commission concern electronic publishing, which is now permitted for works published under anISBN orISSN after 2011 in a way that requires registration withZooBank as well as archival of multiple copies.[19]
The ICZN is used by the scientific community worldwide. Changes are governed by guidelines in the code.[20] Local changes, such as thechanges proposed by the Turkish government, are not recognised by the ICZN.
Strickland, H.E. [et al.] 1843. Report of a committee appointed "to consider of the rules by which the Nomenclature of Zoology may be established on a Uniform and Permanent Basis." ["The Strickland Code".] In:Report of 12th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, June 1842, p. 105-121.BHL. [Also published in thePhilosophical Magazine and theAnnals of Natural History.]
Strickland, H.E. 1878.Rules for Zoological Nomenclature. John Murray, London.Internet Archive.
Blanchard, R., Maehrenthal, F. von & Stiles, C. W. 1905.Règles internationales de la nomenclature zoologique adoptées par les Congrès Internationaux de Zoologie. International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature. Internationale Regeln der Zoologischen Nomenklatur. Rudeval, Paris.Google Books.
ICZN. 1961.International Code of Zoological Nomenclature: adopted by the XV International Congress of Zoology. The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, London, UK.BHL.
ICZN. 1964.International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Second edition. The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, London, UK.BHL.
ICZN. 1985.International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Third edition. The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, London, UK.BHL.
ICZN. 1999.International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Fourth edition. The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, London, UK.BHL.The Code Online (ICZN).
^The publication by [Vallot] (1801) has not been unambiguously recognized as published work in the sense of the Code Art. 8, which might be another reason to ignore Art. 59.3 in this case.
^These proportions apply to 366 verified European non-marine mollusc genera ([www.animalbase.org]), presumed to represent a more-or-less representative animal group.
^Subsequent absolute tautonymy" is not used as a term in the Code's fourth edition, but it is a logical consequence of the usage of the term "subsequent monotypy".
^Dayrat, B (2010). "Celebrating 250 Dynamic Years of Nomenclatural Debates". In Polaszek, A (ed.).Systema Naturae 250 – The Linnaean Ark(PDF). Taylor and Francis. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2011-08-13.
^Blanchard, R., Maehrenthal, F. von & Stiles, C. W. 1905. Règles internationales de la nomenclature zoologique adoptées par les Congrès Internationaux de Zoologie. International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature. Internationale Regeln der Zoologischen Nomenklatur. – Paris (Rudeval)
^pp. V-VI in Kraus, O. 1962. Internationale Regeln für die Zoologische Nomenklatur. Beschlossen vom XV. Internationalen Kongress für Zoologie. - pp. I-VIII [= 1-8], 1-90. Frankfurt am Main. (Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft).
^"77.2. Subsequent delegation".The Code Online | International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Retrieved2025-09-30.
^Scott L. Wing Causes and Consequences of Globally Warm Climates in the Early ... - 2003 No 369 - Page 288 "Following the general practice of naming species after localities by ending with "-ensis," Schnack (2000) proposed to change the nameDiscorbis duwi to Discorbis duwiensis. However, the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (Chapter 7 Article 32) does not allow such a change"
