| Ingenuity | |
|---|---|
| Part ofMars 2020 | |
 Ingenuity at Wright Brothers Field on 6 April 2021, its third day of deployment on Mars | |
| Type | ExtraterrestrialautonomousUAVhelicopter |
| Serialno. | IGY (civil registration) |
| Owner | NASA |
| Manufacturer | Jet Propulsion Laboratory |
| Specifications | |
| Dimensions | 121 cm × 49 cm × 52 cm (48 in × 19 in × 20 in) |
| Dry mass | 1.8 kilograms (4.0 lb)[1] |
| Communication | Zigbee transponder with base station onPerseverance |
| Power | 6Solar-charged Sony VTC4Li-ion batteries; typical motor input power: 350 watt[2] |
| Instruments | |
| |
| History | |
| Deployed |
|
| First flight |
|
| Last flight |
|
| Flights | 72 |
| Flight time | 2 hr 8 min 48 sec, cumulative |
| Travelled |
Data fromNASA Mars Helicopter Flight Log
|
| Fate | Grounded permanently due to rotor blade damage[4] |
| Location | Jezero crater,Mars[3] |
| NASA Mars helicopters | |
Ingenuity, nicknamedGinny, is an autonomousNASAhelicopter that operated onMars from 2021 to 2024 as part of theMars 2020 mission.Ingenuity made its first flight on 19 April 2021, demonstrating that flight is possible in the extremely thinatmosphere of Mars, and becoming the first aircraft to conduct a powered and controlled extra-terrestrial flight.[a] It was designed by NASA'sJet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in collaboration withAeroVironment, NASA'sAmes Research Center andLangley Research Center with some components supplied byLockheed Martin Space,Qualcomm, andSolAero.
Ingenuity was delivered to Mars on 18 February 2021, attached to the underside of thePerseverance rover, which landed atOctavia E. Butler Landing near the western rim of the 45 km-wide (28 mi)Jezero crater. Because radio signals take several minutes to travel between Earth and Mars, it could not be manually controlled in real time, and instead autonomously flew flight plans sent to it by JPL.
Originally intended to make only five flights,Ingenuity completed72 flights in nearly three years. The five planned flights were part of a 30-sol technology demonstration intended to prove itsairworthiness with flights of up to 90 seconds at altitudes ranging from 3–5 m (10–16 ft). Following this demonstration, JPL designed a series of operational flights to explore how aerial scouts could helpexplore Mars and other worlds. In this operational role,Ingenuity scouted areas of interest for thePerseverance rover, improved navigational techniques, and explored the limits of itsflight envelope.Ingenuity's performance and resilience in the harsh Martian environment greatly exceeded expectations, allowing it to perform far more flights than were initially planned. On 18 January 2024, the rotor blades were broken during landing on flight 72, permanently grounding the helicopter. NASA announced the end of the mission one week later. Engineers concluded thatIngenuity's navigation system was not effective over the featureless terrain on the final flight, resulting in a crash landing.Ingenuity had flown for a total of two hours, eight minutes and 48 seconds over 1,004 days, covering more than 17 kilometres (11 mi).
The development of the project that would eventually becomeIngenuity started in 2012 when JPL directorCharles Elachi visited the lab's Autonomous Systems Division, which had done relevant concept work. By January 2015, NASA agreed to fund the development of a full-size model, which came to be known as the "risk reduction" vehicle.[5]NASA's JPL andAeroVironment published the conceptual design in 2014 for a scout helicopter to accompany a rover.[6][7][8] By mid-2016, $15 million was being requested to continue development of the helicopter.[9]
By December 2017, engineering models of the vehicle had been tested in a simulatedMartian atmosphere.[10][11] Models were undergoing testing in theArctic, but its inclusion in the mission had not yet been approved or funded.[12]
When theMars 2020 program was approved in July 2014,[13] a helicopter flight demonstration was neither included nor budgeted.[14]
TheUnited States federal budget, announced in March 2018, provided $23 million for the helicopter for one year,[15][16] and it was announced on 11 May 2018, that the helicopter could be developed and tested in time to be included in theMars 2020 mission.[17] The helicopter underwent extensiveflight-dynamics and environment testing,[10][18] and was mounted on the underside of thePerseverance rover in August 2019.[19] NASA spent about $80 million to buildIngenuity and about $5 million to operate the helicopter.[20]
In 2019, preliminary designs ofIngenuity were tested on Earth in simulatedMars atmospheric andgravity conditions. Forflight testing, a largevacuum chamber was used to simulate the very low pressure of theatmosphere of Mars—filled withcarbon dioxide to about 0.60% (about1⁄160) of standard atmospheric pressure at sea level on Earth—which is roughly equivalent to a helicopter flying at 34,000 m (112,000 ft) altitude in theatmosphere of Earth. In order to simulate the much-reduced gravity field of Mars (38% of Earth's), 62% of Earth's gravity was offset by a line pulling upwards during flight tests.[21] A "wind-wall" consisting of almost 900computer fans was used to provide wind in the chamber.[22][23]: 1:08:05–1:08:40
In April 2020, the vehicle was namedIngenuity by Vaneeza Rupani, a girl in the 11th grade atTuscaloosa County High School inNorthport, Alabama, who submitted an essay into NASA's "Name the Rover" contest.[24][25] Known in planning stages as the Mars Helicopter Scout,[26] or simply the Mars Helicopter,[27] the nicknameGinny later entered use in parallel to the parent roverPerseverance being affectionately referred to asPercy.[28] Its full-scale engineering model for testing on Earth was namedEarth Copter and, unofficially,Terry.[29]
Ingenuity was designed to be atechnology demonstrator byJPL to assess whether such a vehicle could fly safely. Before it was built, launched and landed, scientists and managers expressed hope that helicopters could provide better mapping and guidance that would give future mission controllers more information to help with travel routes, planning, and hazard avoidance.[17][30][31] Based on the performance of previous rovers throughCuriosity, it was assumed that such aerial scouting might enable future rovers to safely drive up to three times as far persol.[32][33] However, the new AutoNav capability ofPerseverance significantly reduced this advantage, allowing the rover to cover more than 100 meters per sol.[34]
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TheIngenuity team was comparatively small, with never more than 65 full-time-equivalent employees from JPL. Program workers from AeroVironment, NASA AMES and Langley research centers brought the total to 150.[5] Key personnel include:
On 15 June 2021, the team behindIngenuity was named the 2021 winner of the John L. "Jack" Swigert Jr. Award for Space Exploration from the Space Foundation.[60] On 5 April 2022, theNational Aeronautic Association awardedIngenuity and its group in JPL the 2021Collier Trophy.[61][62]
The idea to include a helicopter in the Mars 2020 mission was opposed by several people. Up until the end of the 2010s, several NASA leaders, scientists and JPL employees argued against integrating a helicopter into the mission. For three years, the futureIngenuity was developed outside theMars 2020 project and its budget.[63][64] And although NASA management accepted assurances in the spring of 2018 that the addition of a helicopter would not harm the goals of the expedition, Mars 2020 chief scientist, Kenneth Farley, stated "I have personally been opposed to it because we are working very hard for efficiencies and spending 30 days working on a technology demonstration does not further those goals directly from the science point of view".[65] Farley was convinced that the helicopter was a distraction from the priority scientific tasks, unacceptable even for a short time.[65]
The skepticism on the part of NASA leadership was not unfounded. Scientists, engineers and managers proceeded from a pragmatic comparison of the benefits of additional aerial reconnaissance with the costs that inevitably fall on the schedule for the rover to complete all the tasks assigned to it. During a live stream from NASA, MiMi Aung, the Ingenuity Project Manager, andJennifer Trosper discussed the value ofIngenuity. Trosper argued that thePerseverance rover would outpace the helicopter due to its auto-navigation capability, thus negating one of central arguments for the value to the mission of the helicopter.
At the end of the test window, NASA extended support forIngenuity for another 30 sols, limiting the frequency of departures to one flight every few weeks.[citation needed]
On 14 June 2021, the Director of the Mars Exploration program, E. Janson, and the Principal Mars Explorer, M. Meyer, directly addressed all the staff of the Mars 2020 project. During this address they cautioned the staff to keep theirIngenuity enthusiasm in check, and concentrate on collecting samples. On the same date, in their report to thePlanetary Advisory Committee (PAC), the helicopter was mentioned only in the past tense, e.g. "...placed Ingenuity and completed the technology demonstration phase...".[66]Despite this early pessimism,Ingenuity proved to be more than capable of keeping up withPerseverance, actually staying ahead of the rover for the majority of the traverse up the Jezero delta.[67]
While it was able to keep up withPerseverance, in the spring of 2022 the helicopter did begin to fall behind the rover starting at the beginning of Sol 400.[citation needed] Insufficient solar energy during the Martian winter was the main driver of poor operational performance in the latter half of 2022.[68]
Ingenuity consists of a rectangular fuselage measuring 136 mm × 195 mm × 163 mm (5.4 in × 7.7 in × 6.4 in) suspended below a pair ofcoaxial contra-rotating rotors measuring 1.21 m (4 ft) in diameter.[1][11][27] This assembly is supported by four landing legs of 384 mm (15.1 in) each.[1] It also carries asolar array mounted above the rotors to recharge its batteries. The entire vehicle is 0.49 m (1 ft 7 in) tall.[1]
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The lowergravity of Mars (about a third of Earth's) only partially offsets the thinness of the 95%carbon dioxideatmosphere of Mars,[69] making it much harder for an aircraft to generate adequatelift. The planet'satmospheric density is about1⁄100 that of Earth's at sea level, or about the same as at 27,000 m (87,000 ft), an altitude never reached by existing helicopters. This density reduces even more in Martian winters. To keepIngenuity aloft, its specially shaped blades of enlarged size must rotate between2400 and 2900 rpm, or about 10 times faster than what is needed on Earth.[11][70][71] Each of the helicopter'scontra-rotatingcoaxial rotors is controlled by a separateswashplate that can affect bothcollective and cyclic pitch.[72]Ingenuity was also constructed to spacecraft specifications to withstand the acceleration and vibrations during launch and Mars landing without damage.[71]
Ingenuity relies on different sensor packages grouped in two assemblies. All sensors are commercial off-the-shelf units.
TheUpper Sensor Assembly, with associated vibration isolation elements, is mounted on the mast close to the vehicle's center-of-mass to minimize the effects of angular rates and accelerations. It consists of a cellphone-grade Bosch BMI-160Inertial measurement unit (IMU) and aninclinometer (Murata SCA100T-D02); the inclinometer is used to calibrate the IMU while on the ground prior to flight. TheLower Sensor Assembly consists of analtimeter (GarminLIDAR Lite v3), cameras, and a secondary IMU, all mounted directly on the Electronics Core Module (not on the mast).[72]
Ingenuity uses a 425×165 mmsolar panel (70,125 mm2 (108.694 sq in)) to recharge itsbatteries, which are six SonyLi-ion cells with 35–40 Wh (130–140 kJ) ofenergy capacity[21] (nameplate capacity of 2Ah).[10] Flight duration is not constrained by available battery power, but by thermals – during flight, the drive motors heat up by 1 °C every second, and the thin Martian atmosphere makes for poor heat dissipation.[73] The helicopter uses aQualcomm Snapdragon 801 processor running aLinux operating system.[42] Among other functions, it controls the visual navigation algorithm via a velocity estimate derived from terrain features tracked with the navigation camera.[74] The Qualcomm processor is connected to tworadiation-resistantflight-controlmicrocontrollers (MCUs) to perform necessary control functions.[10]
The telecommunication system consists of two identical radios withmonopole antennae for data exchange between the helicopter and rover. The radio link utilizes the low-powerZigbeecommunication protocols, implemented via914 MHz SiFlex 02chipsets mounted in both vehicles. The communication system is designed to relay data at250 kbit/s over distances of up to 1,000 m (3,300 ft).[57] Theomnidirectional antenna is part of the helicopter's solar panel assembly and weighs 4 grams.[75]
Ingenuity is equipped with two commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) cameras: a high-resolution Return to Earth (RTE) camera and a lower resolution navigation (NAV) camera. The RTE camera consists of the Sony IMX214, arolling shutter, 4208 × 3120-pixel resolution color sensor with a built-in Bayer color filter array and fitted to an O-film optics module. The NAV camera consists of an Omnivision OV7251, a 640 × 480 black and white global shutter sensor, mounted to a Sunny optics module.[10]
UnlikePerseverance,Ingenuity does not have a special stereo camera for taking twin photos for3D pictures simultaneously. However, the helicopter can make such images by taking duplicate color photos of the same terrain while hovering in slightly offset positions, as in flight 11, or by taking an offset picture on the return leg of a roundtrip flight, as in flight 12.[76]
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While the RTE color camera is not necessary for flights (as in flights 7 and 8[55]), the NAV camera operates continuously throughout each flight, with the captured images used forvisual odometry to determine the aircraft's position and motion during flight. Due to limitations on the transmission rate between the aircraft, the rover, and Earth, only a limited number of images can be saved from each flight. Images to save for transmission are defined by the flight plan prior to each flight, and the remaining images from the NAV camera are discarded after use.[citation needed]
As of 16 December 2021, 2,091 black-and-white images from the navigation camera[77] and 104 color images from the terrain camera (RTE)[78] have been published.
| Flight No. | Date (UTC) and Mars 2020 mission sol | Photographs | Comments | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| b/w NAV | color RTE | |||
| Before 19 April 2021 (sol 58) | 6[79] | 6[80] | Preflight camera tests | |
| 1 | 19 April 2021 (sol 58) | 15 | — | |
| 2 | 22 April 2021 (sol 61) | 17 | 3 | The first color photo session |
| 3 | 25 April 2021 (sol 64) | 24 | 4 | |
| 4 | 30 April 2021 (sol 69) | 62 | 5 | |
| 5 | 7 May 2021 (sol 76) | 128 | 6 | |
| 6 | 23 May 2021 (sol 91) | 106 | 8 | |
| 7 | 8 June 2021 (sol 107) | 72 | 0 | RTE was turned off[55] |
| 8 | 22 June 2021 (sol 121) | 186 | 0 | |
| 9 | 5 July 2021 (sol 133) | 193 | 10 | |
| 10 | 24 July 2021 (sol 152) | 190 | 10 | Five pairs of color images of Raised Ridges taken to makeanaglyphs.[56] |
| 11 | 5 August 2021 (sol 164) | 194 | 10 | |
| 12 | 16 August 2021 (Sol 174) | 197[81] | 10 | Five pairs of color images of Séítah taken to make anaglyphs.[49] |
| 13 | 5 September 2021 (Sol 193) | 191[82] | 10 | |
| 16 September 2021 (Sol 204) to 23 October 2021 (Sol 240) | 9 | 1 | preflight 14 tests | |
| 14 | 24 October 2021 (Sol 241) | 182 | — | |
| 15 | 6 November 2021 (Sol 254) | 191 | 10 | |
| 15 November 2021 (Sol 263) | — | 1 | ground color photo[83] | |
| 16 | 21 November 2021 (Sol 268) | 185 | 9 | |
| 27 November 2021 (Sol 274) | — | 1 | ground color photo[83] | |
| 17 | 5 December 2021 (Sol 282) | 192 | — | |
| 18 | 15 December 2021 (Sol 292) | 184 | — | |
| 20 December 2021 (Sol 297) to 3 February 2022 (Sol 341) | 10 | 1 | preflight 19 tests and post-dust storm debris removal operations | |
| 19 | 8 February 2022 (Sol 346) | 92 | — | |
| 20 | 25 February 2022 (Sol 362) | 110 | 10 | |
| 27 February 2022 (Sol 364) | — | 1 | preflight 21 tests | |
| 21 | 10 March 2022 (Sol 375) | 191 | — | |
The helicopter usesautonomous control during its flights, which aretelerobotically planned and scripted by operators atJet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). It communicates with thePerseverance rover directly before and after each landing.[23]: 1:20:38–1:22:20
The flight control and navigation software onIngenuity can be updated remotely, which has been used to correctsoftware bugs[84][55] and add new capabilities between flights. Prior to flight 34, the software was updated to avoid hazards during landing and to correct a navigation error when traveling over uneven terrain. This update became necessary as the helicopter traveled away from the relatively flat terrain of the original landing site, and towards more varied and hazardous terrain.[85]
| Rotor speed | 2400–2700rpm[1][27][86] |
| Blade tip speed | <0.7Mach[26] |
| Originally planned operational time | 1 to 5 flights within 30 sols[1][2] |
| Flight time | Up to 167 seconds per flight[87] |
| Maximum range, flight | 704 m (2,310 ft) |
| Maximum range, radio | 1,000 m (3,300 ft)[10] |
| Maximum altitude | 24 m (79 ft)[88] |
| Maximum possible speed | |
| Battery capacity | 35–40 Wh (130–140 kJ)[21] |
Perseverance dropped the debris shield protectingIngenuity on 21 March 2021, and the helicopter deployed from the underside of the rover to the Martian surface on 3 April 2021.[89] That day both cameras of the helicopter were tested taking their first black-and-white and color photographs of the floor of Jezero Crater in the shadow of the rover.[90][80] After deployment, the rover drove about 100 m (330 ft) away from the drone to allow a safe flying zone.[91][92]
Ingenuity's rotor blades were unlocked on 8 April 2021, (mission sol 48), and the helicopter performed a low-speed rotor spin test at 50 rpm.[93][94][95][96][97]
A high-speed spin test was attempted on 9 April, but failed due to the expiration of awatchdog timer, a software measure to protect the helicopter from incorrect operation in unforeseen conditions.[98] On 12 April, JPL said it identified a software fix to correct the problem.[84] To save time, however, JPL decided to use a workaround procedure, which managers said had an 85% chance of succeeding and would be "the least disruptive" to the helicopter.[35]
On 16 April 2021,Ingenuity passed the full-speed 2400 rpm rotor spin test while remaining on the surface.[99][100] Three days later, 19 April, JPL flew the helicopter for the first time. The watchdog timer problem occurred again when the fourth flight was attempted. Rescheduled for 30 April, the fourth flight captured numerous color photos and explored the surface with its black-and-white navigation camera.[37]
On 25 June, JPL said it had uploaded a software update the previous week to permanently fix the watchdog problem, and that a rotor spin test and the eighth flight confirmed that the update worked.[55]
Each flight was planned for altitudes ranging 3–5 m (10–16 ft) above the ground, thoughIngenuity soon exceeded that planned height.[1] The first flight was a hover at an altitude of 3 m (9.8 ft), lasting about 40 seconds and including taking a picture of the rover. The first flight succeeded, and subsequent flights were increasingly ambitious as allotted time for operating the helicopter dwindled. JPL said the mission might even stop before the 30-day period ended, in the likely event that the helicopter crashed,[23]: 0:49:50–0:51:40 an outcome which did not occur. In up to 90 seconds per flight,Ingenuity could travel as far as 50 m (160 ft)downrange and then back to the starting area, though that goal was also soon exceeded with the fourth flight.[1][37]
The commissioning sequence was as follows:
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After the successful first three flights, the objective was changed from technology demonstration to operational demonstration.Ingenuity flew through a transitional phase of two flights, 4 and 5, before beginning its operations demonstration phase.[101] By November 2023, the principal mission priorities had become:[102]
Just before the final demonstration flight on 30 April 2021, NASA approved the continued operation ofIngenuity in an "operational demonstration phase" to explore using a helicopter as supplementary reconnaissance for ground assets likePerseverance.[101] Funding forIngenuity was renewed monthly.[103]
With flight 6, the mission goal shifted towards mapping and scouting the terrain.[104] WhileIngenuity would do more to helpPerseverance, the rover would pay less attention to the helicopter and stop taking pictures of it in flight. JPL managers said the photo procedure took an "enormous" amount of time, slowing the project's main mission of looking for signs of ancient life.[105]
On 7 May,Ingenuity flew to a new landing site.[106]
After 12 flights by September 2021, the mission was extended indefinitely.[107] After 21 flights by March 2022, NASA said it would continue flyingIngenuity every two to three weeks.[107] The area of the helicopter's next goal was more rugged than the relatively flat terrain it flew over in its first year of operation. The ancient fan-shaped river delta has jagged cliffs, angled surfaces, and projecting boulders.Ingenuity helped the mission team decide which routePerseverance should take to the top of the delta and aided it in analyzing potential science targets. Software updates eliminated the helicopter's 50 foot (15 m) altitude limit, allowed it to change speed in flight, and improved its understanding of terrain texture below it.[108]
The helicopter's flying career lasted into a seasonal change on Mars. This lowered the atmospheric density, which required higher rotor speed for flight: probably 2700 rpm, according to the flight team's calculations. JPL said this might cause dangerous vibration, power consumption, and aerodynamic drag if the blade tips approach the speed of sound.[86] So the flight team commandedIngenuity to test the rotor at 2800 rpm while remaining on the ground.
In mid-September, the flight team began preparing for the Martian winter andsolar conjunction, when Mars moves behind the Sun (as viewed from earth), blocking communications with Earth and forcing the rover and helicopter to halt operations. When the shutdown began in mid-October 2021[101][109] the helicopter remained stationary 175 meters (575 feet) fromPerseverance and communicated its status weekly to the rover for health checks.[110] JPL intended to continue flyingIngenuity since it survived solar conjunction.[111][112] NASA leaders extended the mission, even though it would increase the project's expenses.[113]
The launch time of each flight was influenced by the temperature of the batteries, which needed to warm up after the night. During Martian summer, lower air density imposed a higher load on the motors, so flights were shifted from noon (LMST 12:30) to morning (LMST 9:30) and limited to 130 seconds to not overheat the motors.[114]
On 3 and 4 May 2022, the helicopter unexpectedly failed to communicate with the rover, following the 28th flight on 29 April.[115] JPL determined thatIngenuity's rechargeable batteries suffered a power drop or insufficient battery state-of-charge while going into the night, most likely because of a seasonal increase in atmospheric dust reducing sunshine on its solar panel and due to lower temperatures as winter approached. When the battery pack's state of charge dropped below a lower limit, the helicopter'sfield-programmable gate array (FPGA) powered down, resetting the mission clock, which lost sync with the base station on the rover. Contact was re-established on 5 May. Controllers decided to turn off the helicopter's heaters at night to conserve power, accepting the risk of exposing components to nighttime's extreme cold.[116]This daily state-of-charge deficit was stated to likely persist for the duration of Martian winter (at least until September/October).[115]
On 6 June 2022, JPL reportedIngenuity's inclination sensor had stopped working. Its purpose was to determine the helicopter's orientation at the start of each flight. Mission controllers developed a workaround using the craft's inertial measurement unit (IMU) to provide equivalent data to the onboard navigation computer.[117]
In January 2023, the helicopter began to have enough solar power to avoid overnightbrownouts and FPGA resets due to the start of Martian spring.[68] This meant the helicopter was able to fly more frequently and over longer distances.[citation needed]
In March 2023, the helicopter made frequent flights to deal with limited radio range in the rough terrain of the Jezero delta. In the narrow canyons of the river delta, the helicopter needed to stay ahead of the rover, rather than entering a "keep out" zone and passing it, which JPL considered potentially hazardous.[67]
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Three times, mission controllers lost contact withIngenuity after a flight, when the helicopter was not in the line of sight withPerseverance, preventing radio communication with the rover, which relays flight data between the helicopter and Earth. After the 49th flight on 2 April 2023, JPL lost contact withIngenuity for six days, untilPerseverance drove to a spot where communication was re-established.[118] JPL had no contact with the helicopter for 63 days after flight 52 on 26 April 2023. Mission controllers had intentionally flownIngenuity out of radio range, expecting to regain communication in a few days.Perseverance controllers, however, changed their exploration plans and drove further out of range, and then had difficulty collecting rock samples, adding another delay before finally driving toward the helicopter and re-establishing contact on 28 June.[119][102] Communication withIngenuity was lost again at the end of flight 72 on 18 January 2024. Communication was re-established on 20 January but during the subsequent post-flight assessment, images ofIngenuity's shadow, taken by its navigation and horizon cameras after the flight, showed damage to its rotor blade tips. This ended the Operations Demo Phase and the mission.[120][121][122][123][124][125]
On 18 January 2024 during the landing of flight 72, a rotor blade broke off and other blade tips were damaged, resulting inIngenuity's permanent grounding. The accident is believed to have resulted from an autonomous navigation error in a mostly featureless area of sand dunes, which offered few points of reference.[4][128][129][130][131] JPL said such problems may be avoided in the future with an establishedGPS system on Mars.[132]
In the days after its accident,Ingenuity remained responsive to signals from JPL, which commanded a low-speed rotation of the rotors to show their shadows at different angles. The helicopter photographed the shadows, which revealed that one of the blades was entirely missing.[4][133] On 26 February 2024, NASA released images fromPerseverance, which had driven to within 450 m (1,480 ft) ofIngenuity, showing the blade lying on the sand roughly 15 m (49 ft) from the body of the helicopter; another image showsIngenuity sitting upright, without the blade.[126]
Engineers from JPL and AeroVironment concluded that the inability ofIngenuity's navigation system to provide accurate data during the flight likely caused problems that ended the mission.[134] The helicopter's vision navigation system was designed to track textured surface features using a downward-looking camera. This capability successfully carried outIngenuity's first five flights and dozens more, but on flight 72 the helicopter was in a region of Jezero Crater filled with steep, relatively featureless sand ripples.[134]
The navigation system was designed to provide velocity estimates that would enable the helicopter to land within a small range of vertical and horizontal velocities. Data from flight 72 showed that, around 20 seconds after takeoff, the navigation system could not find enough surface features to track.[134] Photographs taken after the flight indicated the navigation errors created high horizontal velocities at touchdown. In the most likely scenario, the hard impact on the sand ripple's slope causedIngenuity to pitch and roll. The rapid attitude change resulted in loads on the fast-rotating rotor blades beyond their design limits, snapping all four of them off at their weakest point—about a third of the way from the tip. The damaged blades caused excessive vibration in the rotor system, ripping the remainder of one blade from its root and generating an excessive power demand that resulted in the temporary loss of communications.[134]
On 25 January 2024, NASA administratorBill Nelson announced the end of the mission.[121]Ingenuity's final location is atAirfield Chi (χ) within the area since nicknamed by the project team as theValinor Hills – a reference toValinor, the land of the immortals in authorJ.R.R. Tolkien's fantasy world ofMiddle-earth.[135]
Following a few final transmissions and a farewell message by the rotorcraft on 16 April 2024, the JPL team uploaded new software commands that direct the helicopter to continue collecting data well after its communications with the rover have ceased.Ingenuity will serve as a stationary platform, testing the performance of its solar panel, batteries, and other electronic equipment. In addition, the helicopter will take a picture of the surface with its color camera and collect temperature data from sensors placed throughout the rotorcraft and store it onboard, such that in case of future retrieval by either a rover, aircraft or astronauts, the results will provide a long-term perspective onMartian weather patterns and dust movement, aiding the design of future rotorcraft. Engineers expectIngenuity to store up to 20 years of daily data, if the craft is unhampered by the local conditions.Perseverance will continue exploration of Jezero crater, out ofIngenuity's radio range.[136][137][138]
There are currently no plans to sendCuriosity/Perseverance-class scientific laboratories to Mars, and funding for Martian projects is frozen to the level necessary to complete theMars sample-return campaign.[139]
The idea of future Martian helicopters has been proposed. In March 2022, AeroVironment engineers, who previously createdIngenuity, presented the concept ofa new helicopter with a payload of 280 grams (9.9 oz). A 90 grams (3.2 oz) small manipulator arm with a two-fingered gripper and a self-propelled landing gear make it possible to use vehicles of this type instead of a fetch rover[140] to select sample tubes cases with samples collected byPerseverance.[141] At a briefing on 15 September 2022, Laurie Gleizes, director, NASAScience Mission Directorate confirmed her intention to use two of these helicopters.[142]
The choice ofIngenuity as the prototype for the intended pair of assembler helicopters was based on the impressive safety margin built into it byAeroVironment designers. In principle, even the limit of 100 landings for the high-wear shock absorbers of the chassis is sufficient to transfer all 43 sleeves. Multiple small payloads can be carried by these types of helicopters, deployed and re-deployed to various locations, to perform a variety of distributed and networked operations.[143]
Inertial navigation was one of the main challenges on Mars forIngenuity. The helicopter needs to show the ability to accurately follow the track it has already "mapped" on previously collected NAV frame sets and land at the takeoff point. In a future sample return mission, each cartridge case would require a pair of flights ending at the point of departure. Landing accuracy was an assigned task ofIngenuity's 31st flight.[144] The very thin atmosphere of Mars does not allow repeating the maneuvers and landing techniques of terrestrial helicopters.[145][8]
Data collected byIngenuity are intended to support the development of future helicopters capable of carrying larger payloads. The Mars Science Helicopter task is the next evolutionary step for Martian rotorcraft at JPL. The key focus is to develop the technology needed to deploy science payloads (0.5–2 kg) on rotorcraft platforms at the surface of Mars. MSH will inherit many of the technologies created by the Mars Helicopter Technology Demonstrator (MHTD) baselined for Mars 2020, and extend capabilities in order to enable a new class of mesoscale planetary access across Mars.[146][17][10][147]
Designing and proving how science payloads can be deployed, recovered, integrated, and operated on a dynamically and computationally representative rotorcraft will be critical in expanding a new frontier for Martian scientific exploration.[146][17][10][147]
The focus will include:
Mars Aerial and Ground Global Intelligent Explorer (MAGGIE) is a compact fixed wing aircraft proposed during 2024 NIAC selections.[148]
NASA andJPL officials described the first MarsIngenuity helicopter flight as their "Wright Brothers moment", by analogy to thefirst successful powered airplane flight on Earth.[149][150] A small piece of the wing cloth from theWright brothers' 1903Wright Flyer is attached to a cable underneathIngenuity's solar panel.[151] In 1969,Apollo 11'sNeil Armstrong carried a similarWright Flyer artifact to the Moon in theLunar ModuleEagle.
NASA namedIngenuity's first take-off and landing airstrip Wright Brothers Field, which the UN agencyICAO gave anairport code of JZRO for Jezero Crater,[152] and the drone itself atype designator of IGY,call-sign INGENUITY.[153][154][152]
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:"Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Landing Press Kit"(PDF). NASA. January 2021.Archived(PDF) from the original on 18 February 2021. Retrieved14 February 2021. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:"Mars Helicopter".Mars.nasa.gov. NASA.Archived from the original on 16 April 2020. Retrieved2 May 2020. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:Generation of Mars Helicopter Rotor Model for Comprehensive AnalysesArchived 1 January 2020 at theWayback Machine, Witold J. F. Koning, Wayne Johnson, Brian G. Allan; NASA 2018 One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:Mars Helicopter Technology DemonstratorArchived 1 April 2019 at theWayback Machine J. (Bob) Balaram, Timothy Canham, Courtney Duncan, Matt Golombek, Håvard Fjær Grip, Wayne Johnson, Justin Maki, Amelia Quon, Ryan Stern, and David Zhu; American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) SciTech Forum Conference 8–12 January 2018 Kissimmee, Floridadoi:10.2514/6.2018-0023 One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:"Mars Helicopter to Fly on NASA's Next Red Planet Rover Mission". NASA. 11 May 2018.Archived from the original on 11 May 2018. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:Agle, AG; Johnson, Alana (28 March 2019)."NASA's Mars Helicopter Completes Flight Tests". NASA.Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved28 March 2019. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:"Mars 2020 Perseverance Launch Press Kit"(PDF). NASA. 24 June 2020.Archived(PDF) from the original on 21 July 2020. Retrieved20 August 2020. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:Hautaluoma, Grey; Johnson, Alana; Agle, D.C. (29 April 2020)."Alabama High School Student Names NASA's Mars Helicopter". NASA.Archived from the original on 30 April 2020. Retrieved29 April 2020. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:Agle, D.C.; Cook, Jia-Rui; Johnson, Alana (29 April 2020)."Q&A with the Student Who Named Ingenuity, NASA's Mars Helicopter". NASA.Archived from the original on 4 June 2020. Retrieved29 April 2020. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:Mars Helicopter Scout. video presentation at Caltech One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:"Mars Helicopter Fact Sheet"(PDF). NASA. February 2020.Archived(PDF) from the original on 22 March 2020. Retrieved2 May 2020. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:"Astronomy Picture of the Day". NASA. 2 March 2021.Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved4 March 2021. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:"NASA's Mars Helicopter Reports In". NASA. 19 February 2021.Archived from the original on 26 January 2024. Retrieved23 February 2021.Indeed, flying close to the surface of Mars is the equivalent of flying at more than 87,000 feet on Earth, essentially three times the height of Mount Everest, NASA engineers said. The altitude record for a helicopter flight on Earth is 41,000 feet.
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