TheIndus script, also known as theHarappan script and theIndus Valley script, is acorpus of symbols produced by theIndus Valley Civilisation. Most inscriptions containing these symbols are extremely short, making it difficult to judge whether or not they constituted awriting system used to record aHarappan language, any of which are yet to be identified.[3] Despite many attempts,[4] the "script" has not yet been deciphered. There is no knownbilingual inscription to help decipher the script,[5] which shows no significant changes over time. However, some of thesyntax (if that is what it may be termed) varies depending upon location.[3]
The first publication of a seal with Harappan symbols dates to 1875,[6] in a drawing byAlexander Cunningham.[7] By 1992, an estimated 4,000 inscribed objects had been discovered,[8] some as far afield asMesopotamia due to existingIndus–Mesopotamia relations, with over 400 distinct signs represented across known inscriptions.[9][5]
Some scholars, such as G. R. Hunter,[10]S. R. Rao, John Newberry,[11] andKrishna Rao[12] have argued that theBrahmi script has some connection with the Indus system.Raymond Allchin[13] has somewhat cautiously supported the possibility of the Brahmi script being influenced by the Indus script. But this connection has not been proven.[14][15] Another possibility for the continuity of the Indus tradition is in themegalithic graffiti symbols of southern and central India andSri Lanka, which probably do not constitute a linguistic script, but may have some overlap with the Indus symbol inventory.[16][17] Linguists such asIravatham Mahadevan,Kamil Zvelebil, andAsko Parpola have argued that the script had a relation to aDravidian language.[18][19]
Indus script on copper platesThreestamp seals and their impressions bearing Indus script characters alongside animals: "unicorn" (left), bull (centre), and elephant (right);Guimet Museum"Unicorn" seal with Indus inscription, and a modern impression;Met MuseumCollection of seals and their impressions;British Museum
By 1977 at least 2,906 inscribed objects with legible inscriptions had been discovered,[20] and by 1992 a total ofapprox.4,000 inscribed objects had been found.[8] In 2025, it was reported around 5,000 inscriptions have been excavated since 1924.[21]
Indus script symbols have primarily been found onstamp seals, pottery, bronze, andcopper plates, tools, and weapons.[22] The majority of thetextual corpus consists of seals, impressions of such seals, and graffiti markings inscribed on pottery.[23] Seals and their impressions were typically small in size and portable, with most being just 2–3 centimetres in length on each side.[24] No extant examples of the Indus script have been found on perishable organic materials likepapyrus, paper, textiles, leaves, wood, or bark.[22]
Early examples of the Indus script have been found on pottery inscriptions and clay impressions of inscribed Harappan seals dating to aroundc. 2800–2600 BCE during theEarly Harappan period,[2] and emerging alongside administrative objects such as seals andstandardised weights during theKot Diji phase of this period.[25] However, excavations at Harappa have demonstrated the development of some symbols from potter's marks and graffiti belonging to the earlierRavi phase fromc. 3500–2800 BCE.[2][1]
In theMature Harappan period, from aboutc. 2600–1900 BCE, strings of Indus signs are commonly found on flat, rectangularstamp seals as well as written or inscribed on a multitude of other objects including pottery, tools, tablets, and ornaments. Signs were written using a variety of methods including carving, chiselling, embossing, and painting applied to diverse materials such asterracotta,sandstone,soapstone, bone, shell, copper, silver, and gold.[26] As of 1977[update], Iravatham Mahadevan noted that about 90% of the Indus script seals and inscribed objects discovered so far were found at sites inPakistan along theIndus River and its tributaries, such asMohenjo-daro andHarappa,[c] while other sites located elsewhere account for the remaining 10%.[d][27][28] Often, animals such as bulls,water buffaloes, elephants, rhinoceros, and the mythical "unicorn"[e] accompanied the text on seals, possibly to help the illiterate identify the origin of a particular seal.[30]
TheLate Harappan period, fromc. 1900–1300 BCE, followed the more urbanised Mature Harappan period, and was a period of fragmentation and localisation which preceded the earlyIron Age in the Indian subcontinent. Inscriptions have been found at sites associated with the localised phases of this period. At Harappa, the use of the script largely ceased as the use of inscribed seals ended aroundc. 1900 BCE; however, the use of the Indus script may have endured for a longer duration in other regions such as atRangpur, Gujarat, particularly in the form of graffiti inscribed on pottery.[2] Seals from theJhukar phase of the Late Harappan period, centred on the present-day province ofSindh in Pakistan, lack the Indus script, however, somepotsherd inscriptions from this phase have been noted.[31] Both seals and potsherds bearing Indus script text, datedc. 2200–1600 BCE, have been found at sites associated with theDaimabad culture of the Late Harappan period, in present-dayMaharashtra.[32]
Numerous artefacts, particularly potsherds and tools, bearing markings inscribed into them have been found in Central India, South India, and Sri Lanka dating to theMegalithic Iron Age which followed the Late Harappan period. These markings include inscriptions in the Brahmi andTamil-Brahmi scripts, but also include non-Brahmigraffiti symbols which co-existed contemporaneously with the Tamil-Brahmi script.[33] As with the Indus script, there is no scholarly consensus on the meaning of these non-Brahmi symbols. Some scholars, such as the anthropologistGregory Possehl,[4] have argued that the non-Brahmi graffiti symbols are a survival and development of the Indus script into and during the 1st millennium BCE.[33] In 1960,[34] archaeologistB. B. Lal found that a majority[f] of the megalithic symbols he had surveyed were identifiably shared with the Indus script, concluding that there was a commonness of culture between the Indus Valley Civilisation and the later Megalithic period.[35] Similarly,Indian epigraphistIravatham Mahadevan has argued that sequences of Megalithic graffiti symbols have been found in the same order as those on comparable Harappan inscriptions and that this is evidence that language used by the Iron Age people of south India was related to or identical with that of the late Harappans.[36][16][37]
Variations of 'sign 4';[g] such variation makes distinguishing signs fromallographical variants difficult, and scholars have proposed different ways to classify elements of the Indus script.[39]
The characters are largelypictorial, depicting objects found in the ancient world generally, found locally in Harappan culture, or derived from the natural world.[40] However, many abstract signs have also been identified. Some signs are compounds of simpler pictorial signs, while others are not known to occur in isolation, being known only to occur as components of more complex signs.[40] Some signs resembletally marks and are often interpreted asearly numerals.[41][42][43]
The number of principal signs is over 400, which is considered too large a number for each character to be aphonogram, and so the script is generally believed to belogo-syllabic.[44][45][5] The precise total number of signs is uncertain, as there is disagreement concerning whether particular signs are distinct or variants of the same sign.[45][5] In the 1970s, theIndian epigrapherIravatham Mahadevan published acorpus andconcordance of Indus inscriptions listing 419 distinct signs in specific patterns.[46][h] However, in 2015, the archaeologist and epigrapher Bryan Wells estimated that there were around 694 distinct signs.[47]
A complete list of the Indus or Harappa Script
Of the signs identified by Mahadevan, 113 occur only once (arehapax legomena), 47 occur only twice, and 59 occur fewer than five times.[45] Just 67 signs account for 80 percent of usage across the corpus of Indus symbols.[48] The most frequently used sign is the "jar" sign,[48] identified by Parpola as 'sign 311'.[38]
Most scholars agree that the Indus script was generally read fromright to left,[49][42][50] though some exceptions wherein the script is written left to right or in aboustrophedon mode are also known.[49][51] Although the script is undeciphered, the writing direction has been deduced from external evidence, such as instances of the symbols being compressed on the left side as if the writer is running out of space at the end of the row.[49][52] In the case of seals, which create amirror image impression on the clay or ceramic on which the seal is affixed, the impression of the seal is read from right to left, as is this case with inscriptions in other cases.[51]
Some researchers have sought to establish a relationship between the Indus script andBrahmi, arguing that it is asubstratum or ancestor to later writing systems used in the region of the Indian subcontinent. Others have compared the Indus script to roughly contemporary pictographic scripts fromMesopotamia and theIranian plateau, particularlySumerianproto-cuneiform andElamite scripts.[54] However, researchers now generally agree that the Indus script is not closely related to any other writing systems of the second and third millennia BCE, although some convergence ordiffusion with Proto-Elamite conceivably may be found.[55][56] A new study has also noticed a relationship with scripts across theTibetian-Yi corridor.[57] A definite relationship between the Indus script and any other script remains unproven.
Researchers have compared the Indus Valley script to theBrahmi andTamil-Brahmi scripts, suggesting that there may be similarities between them. These similarities were first suggested by early European scholars, such as the archaeologistJohn Marshall[58] and theAssyriologistStephen Langdon,[59] with some, such as G. R. Hunter,[10] proposing anindigenous origin of Brahmi with a derivation from the Indus script.
Researchers have also compared the Indus Valley script with theProto-Elamite script used inElam, an ancient Pre-Iranian civilisation that was contemporaneous with the Indus Valley civilisation. Their respective scripts were contemporary to each other, and both were largely pictographic.[63] About 35 Proto-Elamite signs may possibly be comparable to Indus signs.[55] Writing in 1932, G. R. Hunter argued, against the view of Stephen Langdon, that the number of resemblances "seem to be too close to be explained by coincidence".[64]
The following factors are usually regarded as the biggest obstacles to successful decipherment:
Inscriptions are very short. The average length of the inscriptions is around five signs,[66] and the longest only 34 characters long, found on acopper plate belonging to the mature Harappan period.[65] Inscriptions vary between just one and seven lines, with single lines being the most common.[67]
67 signs account for 80 percent of the writing that has been identified.[68]
There are doubts whether the Indus script records a written language or is instead a system of non-linguistic signs orproto-writing similar tomerchant's marks andhouse marks, and to the contemporaryaccounting tokens andnumericalclay tablets of Mesopotamia.[44] Due to the brevity of inscriptions, some researchers have questioned whether Indus symbols can even express a spoken language.[5]
The spokenHarappan language has not been identified, so, assuming the script is a written language, the language the script is most likely to express is unknown.[5] However, an estimated 300 loanwords in theRigveda may provide evidence ofsubstrate language(s) which may have been spoken in the region of theIndus civilisation.[69][j][70]
No names, such as those of Indus rulers or personages, are known to be attested in surviving historical records or myths, as was the case with rulers like Rameses and Ptolemy, who were known tohieroglyphic decipherers from records attested in Greek.[5][k]
Over the years, numerous decipherments have been proposed, but there is no established scholarly consensus.[44][71] The few points on which there exists scholarly consensus are the right-to-left direction of the majority of the inscriptions,[42][5] numerical nature of certain stroke-like signs,[42][5] functional homogeneity of certain terminal signs,[42] and some generally adopted techniques of segmenting the inscriptions into initial, medial, and terminal clusters.[42] Over 100 (mutually exclusive) attempts at decipherment have been published since the 1920s,[72][5] and the topic is popular among amateur researchers.[l]
In 2025, Tamil Nadu Chief MinisterM. K. Stalin announced a $1 million (USD) prize for deciphering the Indus Valley Script, stating that "Archaeologists, Tamil computer software experts and computer experts across the world have been making efforts to decipher the script but it remains a mystery even after 100 years."[73]
Indus script single signThe Indus script 'fish sign', associated with the Dravidian readingmīn, has been interpreted as itshomophone, meaning "star", per therebus principle in the context of some Indus inscriptions[74]
Although no clear consensus has been established, there are those who argue that the Indus script recorded an early form of theDravidian languages (Proto-Dravidian).[44] Early proponents included the archaeologistHenry Heras, who suggested several readings of signs based on aproto-Dravidian assumption.[75]
Based on computer analysis,[76] the Russian scholarYuri Knorozov suggested that a Dravidian language is the most likely candidate for the underlying language of the script.[77] The Finnish scholarAsko Parpola led a Finnish team in the 1960s–80s that, like Knorozov'sSoviet team, worked toward investigating the inscriptions using computer analysis. Parpola similarly concluded that the Indus script and Harappan language "most likely belonged to the Dravidian family".[78] A comprehensive description of Parpola's work up to 1994 is given in his bookDeciphering the Indus Script.[76] Supporting this work, the archaeologistWalter Fairservis argued that Indus script text on seals could be read as names, titles, or occupations, and suggested that the animals depicted weretotems indicatingkinship or possiblyclans.[44][79][80] The computational linguistRajesh P. N. Rao, along with a team of colleagues, performed an independent computational analysis and concluded that the Indus script has the structure of a written language, supporting prior evidence forsyntactic structure in the Indus script, and noting that the Indus script appears to have a similarconditional entropy toOld Tamil.[81][82]
These scholars have proposed readings of many signs; one such reading was legitimised when the Dravidianhomophonous words for 'fish' and 'star',mīn, were hinted at through drawings of both the things together on Harappan seals.[83][better source needed] In a 2011 speech, Rajesh P. N. Rao said thatIravatham Mahadevan and Asko Parpola "have been making some headway on this particular problem", namely deciphering the Indus script, but concluded that their proposed readings, although they make sense, are not yet proof.[84]
Indus script on a stamp seal depicting a buffalo-horned figure surrounded by animals, dubbed the 'Lord of the Beasts' or'Paśupati' seal (c. 2350–2000 BCE).[m]
In his 2014 publicationDravidian Proof of the Indus Script via The Rig Veda: A Case Study, the epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan identified a recurring sequence of four signs which he interpreted as an early Dravidian phrase translated as "Merchant of the City".[86] Commenting on his 2014 publication, he stressed that he had not fully deciphered the Indus script, although he felt his effort had "attained the level of proof" with regard to demonstrating that the Indus script was a Dravidian written language.[87]
Perhaps the most influential proponent of the hypothesis that the Indus script records an earlyIndo-Aryan language is the Indian archaeologistShikaripura Ranganatha Rao,[44] who in his books,Lothal and the Indus Civilization (1973) andThe Decipherment of the Indus Script, wrote that he had deciphered the script. While dismissing most such attempts at decipherment, John E. Mitchiner commented that "a more soundly-based but still greatly subjective and unconvincing attempt to discern anIndo-European basis in the script has been that of Rao".[88][n] S. R. Rao perceived a number of similarities in shape and form between the late Harappan characters and the Phoenician letters, and argued that the Phoenician script evolved from the Harappan script, and not, as the classical theory suggests from theProto-Sinaitic script.[44][89] He compared it to thePhoenician alphabet, and assigned sound values based on this comparison.[44] Reading the script from left to right, as is the case with Brahmi, he concluded that Indus inscriptions included numerals[o] and were "Sanskritic".[90] Consistent with this proposedSanskritic connection, Suzanne Redalia Sullivan has provided a near complete solution and interpretation of the Indus Valley Script.[91]
S. R. Rao's interpretation helped to bolsterHindu nationalist andAryan indigenist views propagated by writers, such asDavid Frawley, who hold the conviction thatIndo-Aryan peoples are the original Bronze Age inhabitants of theIndian subcontinent and that theIndo-European language family originated in India.[44] However, there are many problems with this hypothesis, particularly the cultural differences evident between the Indus River Civilisation andIndo-European cultures, such as the role of horses in the latter; as Parpola put it, "there is no escape from the fact that the horse played a central role in the Vedic and Iranian cultures".[92] Additionally, the Indus script appears to lack evidence ofaffixes orinflectional endings,[56] which Possehl has argued rules out an Indo-European language such as Sanskrit as the language of the Indus script.[93]
A less popular hypothesis suggests that the Indus script belongs to theMunda family of languages. This language family is spoken largely in central and eastern India, and is related to some Southeast Asian languages. However, much like the Indo-Aryan language, the reconstructed vocabulary of early Munda does not reflect the Harappan culture,[94] therefore, its candidacy for being the language of the Indus Civilisation is dim.[95]
Indus script tablet recovered fromKhirasara, Indus ValleyA sequence of Indus characters from the northern gate ofDholavira, dubbed theDholavira Signboard
An opposing hypothesis is that these symbols are nonlinguistic signs which symbolise families, clans, gods, and religious concepts, and are similar to components ofcoats of arms ortotem poles. In a 2004 article, Steve Farmer,Richard Sproat, andMichael Witzel presented a number of arguments stating that the Indus script is nonlinguistic.[96] The main ones are the extreme brevity of the inscriptions, the existence of too many rare signs (which increase over the 700-year period of the Mature Harappan civilisation), and the lack of the random-looking sign repetition that is typical of language.[97]
Asko Parpola, reviewing the Farmeret al. thesis in 2005, stated that their arguments "can be easily controverted".[98] He cited the presence of a large number of rare signs in Chinese and emphasised there was "little reason for sign repetition in short seal texts written in an early logo-syllabic script". Revisiting the question in a 2008 lecture,[99] Parpola took on each of the 10 main arguments of Farmeret al., presenting counterarguments for each.
A 2009 paper[81] published byRajesh P. N. Rao,Iravatham Mahadevan, and others in the journalScience also challenged the argument that the Indus script might have been a nonlinguistic symbol system. The paper concluded theconditional entropy of Indus inscriptions closely matched those of linguistic systems like the Sumerian logo-syllabic system, Rig Vedic Sanskrit etc., but they are careful to stress that by itself does not imply the script is linguistic. A follow-up study presented further evidence in terms of entropies of longer sequences of symbols beyond pairs.[100] However, Sproat argued there existed a number of misunderstandings in Raoet al., including a lack of discriminative power in their model, and argued that applying their model to known non-linguistic systems such as Mesopotamian deity symbols produced similar results to the Indus script. Raoet al.'s argument against Sproat's arguments and Sproat's reply were published inComputational Linguistics in December 2010.[101][82] The June 2014 issue ofLanguage carries a paper by Sproat that provides further evidence that the methodology of Raoet al. is flawed.[102] Raoet al.'s rebuttal of Sproat's 2014 article and Sproat's response are published in the December 2015 issue ofLanguage.[103][104]
The Indus Script Font is aPrivate Use Areas (PUA)font representing the Indus script.[108] The font was developed based on a corpus compiled by IndologistAsko Parpola in his bookDeciphering the Indus Script.[76] Amar Fayaz Buriro, a language engineer, and Shabir Kumbhar, a developer of fonts, were tasked by the National Fund for Mohenjo-daro to develop this font, and they presented it at an international conference on Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Valley Civilisation on 8 February 2017.[109][110][better source needed]
^Kenoyer (2006), pp. 10–11: "By around 2800 BC, during the Kot Diji Phase at Harappa, the use of script on seals and inscribed pottery indicates the presence of an Early Indus script."
^Bryant (2001), p. 178: "what appears to be proto‐Indus writing on shards of pottery from the Ravi phase that are as early as 3500 B.C.E."
^1540 from Mohenjodaro, 985 from Harappa, 66 fromChanhudaro
^'Sign 4' is a compound of 'sign 1', depicting a person carrying two burdens, and 'sign 311', the "jar" sign. Numbering convention for the Indus script byAsko Parpola.[38] For an alternative numbering scheme, refer toMahadevan (1977).
^Mahadevan's 1977 sign list originally included 417 signs but in a late addendum to the list, he added 2 additional signs, identified in then recently discovered inscriptions, which he had not been able to include in the sign list before publishing.
^Numbered according to the convention for the Indus script proposed byAsko Parpola.
^Witzel (1999) underlines the prefixing nature of these words and calls them Para-Munda, a language related to but not belonging toProto-Munda.
^(..)ibra, a partial name of a king ofMeluhha, a place associated with the Indus Civilisation, is briefly attested in an Akkadian inscription, but no full names are attested.
^Mahadevan has compared this seal to sign 7, which resembles a human figure with horns, arguing the comparison supports, among other evidence, a suggested Dravidian phonetic reading of the sign,kaṇṭh(a).[85] Numbering convention for the Indus script byAsko Parpola.
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