TheIndonesian archipelago has been inhabited since prehistoric times, with early human presence evidenced by fossils ofHomo erectus andHomo sapiens, and megalithic sites. By the early second millennium, it had become a crossroads for internationaltrade linking East and South Asia. Over the centuries, external influences—includingHinduism,Buddhism and laterIslam—were absorbed into local societies, which introduced lasting cultural and religious influences. European powers later competed to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands ofMaluku during theAge of Discovery, followed by three and a half centuries ofDutch colonial rule, before Indonesiaproclaimed its independence afterWorld War II.
The Indonesian archipelago has carried different names in the past, such as "East Indies" in this 1855 map.
The nameIndonesia derives from theGreek wordsIndos (Ἰνδός) andnesos (νῆσος), meaning'Indian islands'.[12] The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850,George Windsor Earl, an Englishethnologist, proposed the termsIndunesians—and, his preference,Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago orMalay Archipelago".[13][14] In the same publication, one of his students,James Richardson Logan, usedIndonesia as a synonym forIndian Archipelago.[15][16] Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to useIndonesia. They preferredMalay Archipelago (Dutch:Maleische Archipel); theNetherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularlyIndië;the East (de Oost); andInsulinde.[17]
After 1900,Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.[17]Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularised the name through his bookIndonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first native scholar to use the name wasKi Hajar Dewantara, who established a press bureau in the Netherlands,Indonesisch Pers-bureau, in 1918.[14]
The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Fossils ofHomo erectus ("Java Man") date back between 2 million and 500,000 BCE,[18][19][20] whileHomo sapiens arrived around 50,000 BCE.[21][22] Archaeological discoveries, includingcave paintings in Sulawesi and Borneo and megalithic sites across Sumatra, Sulawesi, and eastern Indonesia, reflect early human settlement and ritual practices.[23][24][25]
Around 2000 BCE,Austronesian peoples migrated into the archipelago fromTaiwan,[26] gradually spreading eastward and shaping much of Indonesia's linguistic and cultural foundations.[27][28] By the 8th century BCE, favourable agricultural conditions and the development ofwet-field rice cultivation supported the emergence of villages and early polities by the first century CE.[29] The archipelago's strategic location facilitated sustained contact with civilisations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.[30][31][32]
From the 7th century, maritime kingdoms such asSrivijaya rose to prominence on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences.[33][34] Between the 8th and 10th centuries, theSailendra andMataram dynasties left enduring architectural legacies, includingBorobudur andPrambanan.[35] Following a failedMongol invasion of Java,[36] theMajapahit empire emerged in the late 13th century, dominating much of the archipelago.[37] Islambegan to take root around the same time in northern Sumatra,[38] and gradually became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century. It blended with existing local traditions, producing a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.[39]
European involvement in the archipelago began in the early 16th century withPortuguese traders seeking control of the spice trade.[40] The Dutch soon followed, establishing theDutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) in 1602.[41] Over time, the VOC became the dominant European power until its dissolution in 1800, after which its possessions were transferred to theDutch state as theDutch East Indies.[42] Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous and uneven,[43] facing resistance acrossJava,Sumatra,Bali, andAceh.[44][45] Consolidation of Dutch colonial rule over Indonesia's modern boundaries was largely completed only in the early 20th century,[43][46][47] after the Dutch established posts inwestern New Guinea.[48]
Indonesia's physical geography is defined by its vast archipelagic extent and diverse landforms. It lies between latitudes11°S and6°N and longitudes95°E and141°E,[85] and is the world's largestarchipelagic state, stretching 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south.[86] The exact number of Indonesia's islands varies according to different sources, usually ranging from 13,000 to 17,000, with around 922 permanently inhabited.[87][3] Its five main islands areSumatra,Java,Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia),Sulawesi, andNew Guinea (shared withPapua New Guinea).[88]
The country features diverse topography, including towering mountains, vast lakes, and extensive river systems. At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft),Puncak Jaya in New Guinea is Indonesia's highest peak,[89] whileLake Toba inSumatra, covering 1,145 km2 (442 sq mi), is the largest lake.[90] The country's major rivers, primarily inKalimantan, includeKapuas,Barito andMahakam, serving as vital transportation and communication routes for remote riverine communities.[91]
Indonesia's climate is shaped by its equatorial position and monsoon systems. The former helps ensure a relatively stable climate year-round,[92] characterised by two main seasons: thedry season from May to October and thewet season from November to April,[92] with no extremes of summer and winter. The climate is predominantlytropical rainforest, with cooler climates in higher areas over 500 metres (1,600 feet) above sea level.[85]
Rainfall patterns vary across the archipelago, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation,[93] while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier.[93] The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable,[94] with high humidity (70–90%)[95] and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles.[96] Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as theLombok andSape Straits,[97] rather thantropical cyclones.[98]
Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from theprojected effects of climate change.[100] A temperature rise of 1.5 °C (3 °F)[101][102] could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture,[102] and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires.[102]Rising sea levels would threaten densely populated coastal regions,[103][104] particularly given Indonesia's extensive coastlines. Impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected.[105]
Indonesia's geology is shaped by its position on the PacificRing of Fire, namely a subduction zone where several tectonic plates collide.[e][107] This tectonic activity makes the region highly unstable with volcanoes and earthquakes.[107] Around 130 volcanoes are classified as active,[107] stretching fromSumatra throughJava,Bali and theLesser Sunda Islands, and theBanda Islands to northeasternSulawesi.[108]Volcanic ash, while harmful to agriculture, has created fertile soils that have historically sustained the high population densities of regions with volcanoes,[109] such as Java and Bali.
Recognised byConservation International as one of 17megadiverse countries,[114] Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian andAustralasian species.[115] TheSunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) have a wealth of Asian fauna as they were once linked to mainland Asia,[116][117] while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to their separation from the continental landmasses.[118][119]
Indonesia boasts 54,716 kilometres (33,999 miles) of coastline,[3] featuring extensive coastal and marine ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves,[12] as well as coral reefs in theCoral Triangle that harbour the highest diversity ofcoral reef fish globally.[120] TheWallace Line marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace andWeber Lines (calledWallacea) hosting particularly high levels of endemic biodiversity.[121][122][123] In addition, 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forests are located in Indonesia.[124]
Indonesia experiences significantenvironmental challenges due to peatland degradation, deforestation[125][f] and the overexploitation of natural resources associated with industries such as logging and plantation agriculture,[126] particularly palm oil cultivation.[128][129][130] This situation threatens indigenous and endemic species, including the critically endangeredBali myna,[131]Sumatran orangutan,[132] andJavan rhinoceros,[133] and it is often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[134] In academic discourse, some scholars have labelled the level of environmental degradation in Indonesia as ecocide.[135][136]
In response, Indonesia has designated 27 million hectares (14% of the land area) asprotected areas[137] as of 2020, and has established an extensive network of marine reserves.[138] Its conservation framework includes 54 national parks, several of which are recognised asWorld Heritage Sites,World Network of Biosphere Reserves, and wetlands of international importance under the 1971Ramsar Convention.[139] These protected areas encompass a wide range of ecosystems, including tropical rainforests and mangroves, and are intended to safeguard biodiversity while supporting sustainable resource use and local livelihoods.[140]
Despite these measures, conservation efforts are hindered by persistent obstacles.[141] Studies have noted that enforcement and management capacity vary across regions,[137] while pressures from deforestation, land-use change, and resource exploitation continue to affect ecosystems and wildlife populations.[142] Habitat loss and environmental degradation have contributed to the decline of numerous species, including several classified as threatened or endangered.[140]
Legislative authority is vested in thePeople's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR), Indonesia's highest representative body that is responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising state policies.[146][11] It consists of two houses: thePeople's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), which has 580 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and theRegional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD), which has 152 members and focuses on regional matters.[147] Since 1998, reforms have expanded the governance role of the DPR.[143]
Judicial authority is exercised by several key institutions. TheSupreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the highest judicial body, handling final appeals and case reviews.[148] TheConstitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) adjudicates constitutional and political matters,[148] while the country's Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) overseesIslamic personal law cases.[149] Additionally, theJudicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) monitors judicial performance, and works to uphold the integrity and independence of the judiciary.[150]
Since 1999, electoral politics in Indonesia have been characterised by a competitivemulti-party system in which no party has secured an outright majority of seats in thelegislative elections.[151] Political parties are commonly classified as secular-nationalist or Islamic-oriented,[g][152] though political competition is typically shaped less by ideological commitments than by pragmatic coalition-building suited to prevailing political conditions.[153]Power sharing among parties is widespread,[154] and governing coalitions are often oversized.[151] Unlike in many democracies, parties frequently establish alliances before elections rather than afterward.[153]
Indonesia held its firstgeneral election in 1955, and since2004, the president and the legislature has been directly elected for a five-year term. Members of the DPR are elected through party-based contests, while members of the DPD are elected on a non-partisan basis to represent provincial constituencies.[147][143] Indonesia’s archipelagic geography and dispersed population make its national elections among the most logistically complex in the world. Ballots and electoral materials must be transported by land, sea, and air to remote islands, mountainous areas, and isolated communities.[155]
Indonesia is administratively divided into several levels of regional government. At the highest subnational level areprovinces, each governed by an electedgovernor (gubernur) and a provincial legislature (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD). Provinces are subdivided intoregencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), headed by elected regents (bupati) and mayors (wali kota) and supported by local legislatures (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota); since the implementation of regional autonomy in 1999, these units have served as the primary administrative level responsible for most public services.[78] Below regencies and cities aredistricts (kecamatan), which in turn are subdivided intovillages,[156] the lowest level of administration, comprising self-governing rural villages (desa) and administratively subordinate urban villages (kelurahan).[157]
Villages are further organised into neighbourhood and community associations (rukun tetangga, RT, andrukun warga, RW),[158] with additional local subdivisions such as hamlets (dusun ordukuh) in Java.[156] Nine provinces possessspecial autonomous status reflecting historical, cultural, or political circumstances. These includeAceh, which has the authority to implement aspects of Islamic law;[159]Jakarta, whose designation stems from its role as the national capital;[160] andYogyakarta, which retains a hereditary sultanate within the republican system.[161] Special autonomy is also granted to the six provinces inPapua to increase local self-governance and address concerns of separatism and development.[162]
Jakarta hosts the headquarters of ASEAN and functions as the organisation's main diplomatic hub.[163]
Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (bebas aktif) foreign policy, a term coined in 1948 by the country's first vice-president,Mohammad Hatta.[164] With this policy, the country aims to navigate great power politics, maintain autonomy, and avoid alignment.[165] Foreign policy is directed by the president[166][11] and implemented by theMinistry of Foreign Affairs,[167] with the parliament providing a role in oversight.[168] Indonesia is considered to be amiddle power in global politics.[169]
As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia considers ASEAN the cornerstone of its foreign policy.[170] Outside of its immediate region, Indonesia hasactively supported Palestine[171] while refraining from formaldiplomatic relations with Israel, although discreet ties exist.[172] Since the start of the 21st century, Indonesia has developed closerelations with China, primarily relating to trade and investments in infrastructure,[173] while at the same time maintaining a strategicpartnership with the United States, focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts.[174]
TheIndonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) consists of theArmy (TNI-AD),Navy (TNI-AL) (including theMarine Corps), andAir Force (TNI-AU), with active personnel numbering approximately 300,400 in the Army, 65,000 in the Navy, and 30,100 in the Air Force.[180] Established during theIndonesian National Revolution, the TNI initially engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias,[181] and eventually developed a territorial structure that focuses on maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats.[182]
During the New Order, the military exercised a direct political role under a doctrine known as "dual function" (dwifungsi).[183] Reforms in 1998 removed the military's overt political involvement, although it continued to retain political influence.[182][184] In addition, the military's involvement in commercial enterprises has drawn scrutiny.[185] Defence spending has remained below 1% since 2007,[186] a relatively modest allocation for a country of Indonesia's geographic scale and strategic challenges.[187]
Since independence, Indonesia has faced separatist movements and insurgencies, notably inAceh andPapua.[188][189] While the former ended in 2005,[84] the latter has continued alongside implementation of regional autonomy[190] and well-documented human rights abuses by the TNI.[i] Indonesia's historical military engagements includeconflicts with the Netherlands overDutch New Guinea, opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia (Konfrontasi), the anti-communist mass killings, and theinvasion of East Timor, which was Indonesia's largest military operation.[192][193]
Riots on the streets of Jakarta on 14 May 1998, part of awave of civil unrest that involved attacks on property and individuals associated with the ethnic Chinese community.
Law enforcement in Indonesia is primarily carried out by theIndonesian National Police (POLRI), which operates under the direct authority of the President. POLRI is tasked with law enforcement and maintaining public order and security, alongside various other agencies, supervised and trained by POLRI, that perform policing functions for specific public services.[194]
The exercise of law enforcement and state authority has intersected with longstanding human rights concerns. Indonesia has a documented history of racial discrimination and conflicts, affectingChinese Indonesians,Papuans,[195][196] and populations impacted by the government'stransmigration program.[197] Other minorities, including religious minorities andLGBTQ individuals, also experience discrimination and social hostility.[83][198][199][200]
Human rights oversight in Indonesia is shaped by social, historical, and institutional factors, with varying outcomes across regions. TheNational Commission on Human Rights (Komnas HAM), established in 1993, serves as the primary independent body responsible for monitoring and investigating abuses.[201] The commission is generally regarded as an important institutional safeguard, though observers note limitations in its authority and capacity to ensure compliance.[202]
Indonesia operates amixed economy where the private sector and the government play significant roles.[205] As the onlyG20 member state in Southeast Asia,[206] it has the region's largest economy by GDP (ranking insidetop 20 in nominal terms andtop 10 by purchasing power parity) and is classified as anewly industrialised country. In recent years, services and industry have accounted for the largest shares of gross domestic product, while agriculture remains a major source of employment,[207] particularly outside urban centres.
The structure of the economy hasshifted considerably since independence. It was initially mostly agrarian before undergoing industrialisation and urbanisation from the late 1960s.[208] Economic diversification accelerated in the 1980s and 1990s as manufactured exports expanded, contributing to rapid growth and poverty reduction.[209][210] This growth was interrupted by theAsian financial crisis of the late 1990s, which caused a sharp economic contraction.[211] Since the early 2000s, a combination of banking reforms,[212][213] fiscal discipline, and flexible exchange-rate policies has supported a steady recovery, with growth rates generally remaining stable in the following two decades,[214] including after the2008 financial crisis and theCOVID-19 pandemic.[212][215]
Despite sustained growth, a range of structural constraints remain, including uneven regional development,[216][217] a large informal sector,[218] low productivity,[219] infrastructure limitations,[220] and regulatory and governance hurdles.[221] Indonesia possesses abundant resources that continue to shape its economy. Its extractive industries produce commodities such as coal, nickel, petroleum, and natural gas,[222] while its agricultural sector is a major global supplier of products including palm oil, coffee, and spices.[223] The country also imports refined petroleum products and industrial inputs, and its major trade partners are primarily in Asia, alongside the United States.[222]
Borobudur inCentral Java, the world's largest Buddhist temple, is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia.[224]
Tourism is a significant source of revenue to the economy, drawing on Indonesia's natural landscapes and cultural heritage. In 2023, it contributedUS$14 billion to GDP and drew 11.6 million international visitors.[225] Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, China, and India are among the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.[226]
The country is renowned for its rich and diverse natural ecosystems, with forests covering 47.7% of its land area.[127] Popular natural destinations include the rainforests of Sumatra and Kalimantan, particularly the Orangutan wildlife reserves.[227] Indonesia also has one of the world's longest coastlines, stretching 54,716 kilometres (33,999 mi).[3] Cultural tourism features prominently, with attractions like the ancientBorobudur andPrambanan temples,[228] theToraja highlands,[229] and the cultural festivals ofBali.[230]
Government spending on research and development in Indonesia has historically been a small proportion of national expenditure,[236] which has shaped the pace and scale of scientific and technological development.[237] Historical innovations include thepinisi boats of theBugis andMakassar people,[238] while the most recent ones include theSosrobahu road construction technique that has been used internationally.[239][240]
Indonesia is one of the few developing countries with an aircraft manufacturing industry.[241] The state-ownedIndonesian Aerospace (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia, PTDI) has domestically produced theN219,[242] collaborated with Spain'sCASA to develop theCN-235,[241] and supplied components toBoeing andAirbus.[243] Beyond aerospace, another state-led industrial capability is evident in rail manufacturing, where the country produces passenger trains and freight wagons through theIndonesian Railway Industry (Industri Kereta Api, INKA), which exports trains to international markets, including Africa and New Zealand.[244]
Indonesia's transport system reflects its archipelagic geography and population concentration on Java.[249] Roads form the backbone of land transport,[250] and public bus networks support mobility in most large cities.Transjakarta operates one of the world's largest bus rapid transit systems,[251] whileride-hailing services[252] and informal transport modes supplement conventional systems and are widely used.[j][253][254] In rural areas, village transport services known asangdes (angkutan pedesaan) help connect smaller communities to cities.[255]
Whoosh is the first high-speed rail in Southeast Asia and Southern Hemisphere. It is expected to be extended to the country's second largest city,Surabaya.[256]
Indonesia is amajor energy producer and consumer[k] due to its large population, industrial base and resource endowment. Totalinstalled power generation capacity in 2023 stands at 70.8 gigawatts (GW),[265] with coal forming the largest source of power.[266][267] Other significant sources include natural gas, oil and renewables such as geothermal, hydropower and solar.[268] The state-ownedState Electricity Company (Perusahaan Listrik Negara, PLN) holds a monopoly on power generation, transmission and distribution across the country.[269]
Indonesia's energy mix remains dependent on non-renewable sources, particularly coal and followed by natural gas and oil.[270] Renewables, including geothermal, hydropower and solar account for a limited but gradually increasing share.[271] The potential for renewable energy is substantial, particularly geothermal, where the country ranks as one of the world's largest producers.[268] The country is an important exporter of energy commodities, including coal and liquefied natural gas,[272][222][273] while also importing refined petroleum products.[265]
The government has outlined plans to diversify energy sources and increase the share of renewables as part of longer-term efforts to reduce emissions.[274][270] However, the country has insufficient infrastructure for renewable energy, struggles to provide electricity to remote areas,[275] and continues to rely heavily on coal.[276]
A map of districts (kecamatan) coloured by population density as measured by person per square kilometres
Indonesia's population is large and regionally diverse, with significant variation in settlement patterns and social composition. The country's most recentcensus in 2020 recorded a population of 270.2 million,[5] ranking Indonesia as the world'sfourth most populous country, with the population growing at a rate of 1.25% between 2010 and 2020.[5] Java, the world's most populated island, is home to 56% of the population.[5] The overall population density stands at 141 people per square kilometre (370 people/mi2),[5] but Java's density is significantly higher, reaching 1,171 people per square kilometre (3,030 people/mi2).[277] Indonesia's first post-colonial census in 1961 recorded a population of 97 million,[278] and projections estimate it will grow to 335 million by 2050.[279] The country maintains a relatively young demographic, with a median age of 31.5 years as of 2024.[3]
Indonesia's population distribution is highly uneven, reflecting its diverse geography andvarying levels of development.[280] It ranges from the bustlingmegacity of Jakarta to remote anduncontacted tribes in Papua.[281] As of 2024, approximately 59% of Indonesians live in urban areas,[282] with Jakarta as the country'sprimate city and the world'smost populous urban area, housing nearly 42 million people according to the United Nations.[283] In addition, about 8 millionIndonesians reside overseas, with large communities in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and Taiwan.[284]
Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups,[285] predominantly descended fromAustronesian peoples speakingProto-Austronesian languages, likely from modern-day Taiwan.[286] TheMelanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping.[27][287][26] The Javanese, making up 40% of the population,[288] are the largest ethnic group and the politically dominant one,[289] primarily residing in central and eastern Java, with sizeable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include theSundanese,Malay,Batak,Madurese,Betawi,Minangkabau, andBugis.[288][l] A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.[290]
The official language,Indonesian, is a standardized variety ofMalay based on itsprestige dialect originating around the Riau-Johor region, which became the archipelago'slingua franca over the course of centuries.[291][m] It was firstpromoted by nationalists in the 1920s and gained official status in 1945, following independence, under the nameBahasa Indonesia, and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance.[294] While nearly all Indonesians speakBahasa, most also speak one of over 700 local languages,[295] often as theirfirst language. These are predominantly from theAustronesian family, with more than 150Papuan languages in eastern Indonesia.[296]Javanese is the most widely spoken local language[295] and holds co-official status inYogyakarta.[297]
TheDutch and other European-descended populations like theIndos, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering only around 200,000 in 1930.[298] The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration.[299][300] Dutch fluency exists today in small numbers among some older generations and legal professionals,[301] as specific legal codes remain available only in that language.[302]
A map of districts (kecamatan) coloured by plurality/majority religious affiliation and what percentage of citizens it represents
Indonesia officially recognisessix religions:Islam,Protestantism,Roman Catholicism,Hinduism,Buddhism, andConfucianism,[303][304] while acknowledging religious freedom in the constitution.[305][11] As of 2023, 87.1% of the population (244 million Indonesians) are Muslims, making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country,[306][2] withSunnis constituting 99% of the Muslim population.[307][n] Christians, comprising 10% of the population,[2] form majorities in several eastern provinces,[309] while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively.[310][311]
Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's native peoples practisedanimism anddynamism, worshipping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (hyang) inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests.[312] Such beliefs are common to theAustronesian peoples.[312] These indigenous traditions, such as SundaneseSunda Wiwitan,[313] JavaneseKejawèn,[314] and Dayak'sKaharingan,[315] have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javaneseabangan,Balinese Hinduism and Dayak Christianity.[316][317]
A Hindu prayer ceremony atBesakih Temple inBali, the only province whereHinduism is the predominant religion
Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE,[310] followed by Buddhism in the 5th century.[318] Through empires such as Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, both religions played a major role in shaping Indonesia's religious history and left enduring cultural influences that persist even though neither is a majority faith.[319][320] Islam arrived as early as the 8th century[321] through Sunni and Sufi traders from theIndian subcontinent andsouthern Arabian peninsula, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (santri).[39][322] By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, resulting from the blend of trade,dawah, such as by theWali Sanga and Chinese explorerZheng He,[323] and military campaigns by several sultanates.[324][325]
Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonisation, such as byFrancis Xavier,[326][327] though the spread of the former encountered difficulties under the VOC and Dutch colonial eras.[328][329] The latter's primary branches include theDutch Reformed Church andLutheranism,[309] though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country.[330] A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews,[331] though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945.[332] Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta,Manado and Surabaya.[333] One of the remaining synagogues,Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located inTondano, around 31 km from Manado.[333][334]
Religion is central to the lives of the overwhelming majority of Indonesians, reflecting its integral role in the country's society, culture, and identity.[335][336] Interfaith relations are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila, which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance.[337] While it promotes harmony,[338] religious intolerance continues to be a recurring issue.[83][198] Followers ofindigenous religions, officially calledaliran kepercayaan or cultural belief systems, have been subject to a lack of legal and governmental recognition that leads to discrimination as well as uncertainty regarding their exact numbers.[304]
Indonesia hasone of the largest education systems in the world, with over 50 million students, 4 million teachers, and more than 250,000 schools.[339] Overseen by several government ministries,[o] the system follows a 6-3-3-4 structure: six years of elementary school, three years each of junior and senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education.[340] While the literacy rate is high (96%),[3] it is lower in rural areas.[341] Enrolment rates vary across educational levels, with near-universal enrolment in primary education (97.9%), but drop to 81.7% and 64.2% in lower and upper secondary education and around 42.6% for tertiary education.[342][343]
Government spending on education accounted for approximately 1.3% of GDP in 2023.[344] In 2022, there were 4,481 higher education institutions in the country, including universities, Islamic institutions, and open universities.[345] Among these, theUniversity of Indonesia,Gadjah Mada University, and theBandung Institute of Technology stand out as the country's leading institutions, all ranking within the world's top 300 universities.[346]
Issues regarding quality and equity are persistent, particularly urban–rural disparities, inadequate infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers, whose wages are lower than those in neighbouring countries.[347][348] The system also lags behind international benchmarks, such as theProgramme for International Student Assessment (PISA), where Indonesian students consistently rank near the bottom in reading, mathematics, and science.[349] The higher education sector has been struggling with underfunding, low quality, limited research output and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labour market needs.[350][351]
Indonesia has made significant progress in developing itshealthcare system since 1945. Initially, healthcare services were limited, with a shortage of doctors, hospitals, and infrastructure.[352] In the late 1960s, the government began establishingcommunity health centres (puskesmas) to provide basic services in rural areas.[352] With the help of theWorld Health Organization in the 1970s and 1980s, Indonesia implemented an immunisation program to combat diseases like polio and measles.[353] The system experienced a major transformation in 2014 with the launch ofJaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN), auniversal health care managed by theSocial Security Agency on Health (BPJS Kesehatan).[354] It is one of the world's largestsingle-payer systems, covering over 95% of the population (265 million people) by 2023.[355]
Government spending on healthcare accounted for 2.69% of GDP in 2022.[356] Primary healthcare is delivered throughpuskesmas, hospitals, and private clinics.[352] While the healthcare system lags behind those in ASEAN neighbours like Malaysia and Singapore,[357] significant public health outcomes have been achieved, such as an increase in life expectancy (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023),[358] a decline in child mortality (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022),[359] polio eradication in 2014,[353] and decreasing cases of malaria.[360]
Some chronic health issues persist, includingchild stunting that affects 21.6% of children under five according to a 2022 data.[361] Low air quality, particularly in major cities,[362] contributes to respiratory illnesses, while maternal and child health indicators remain areas of concern, with amaternal mortality rate the third highest in the region.[363] Additionally, Indonesia has one of thehighest smoking rates globally (34.8% of adults), contributing to a high prevalence of non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular issues and lung cancer.[364]
Indonesia's culture reflects more than two millennia of interaction between indigenous traditions and external influences. Its cultural development has been shaped by Austronesian and Melanesian heritage, as well as sustained contact with the Indian subcontinent, China, the Middle East, and Europe through trade, migration, and colonisation.[365][366] These interactions have produced a society characterised by diversity in culture, language and ethnicity,[295][285] including artistic expression and social practice.
Indonesian visual arts encompass a wide range of traditional and contemporary forms that reflect regional diversity and historical exchange.[368] Bali'sartistic traditions, such as classicalKamasan andWayang-style painting, are renowned, originating from visual narratives depicted oncandi bas-reliefs from eastern Java.[369] Traditional architecture varies significantly among ethnic groups and regions, with iconic and traditional houses (rumah adat) like Toraja'sTongkonan, Minangkabau'sRumah Gadang, Java'sPendopo, andDayak longhouses each showcasing unique local customs and histories.[370]
Megalithic sculptures discovered in parts of Sumatra, Sulawesi, and eastern Indonesia illustrate tribal arts among communities such as the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja peoples.[25][371][372] From the 8th to the 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture.[373] This period produced monumental works like theBorobudur andPrambanan temples.[374][375] both of which are emblematic of Indonesia's cultural heritage.
Music and dance play an important role in Indonesian cultural life and have long been associated with ritual, storytelling, and communal gatherings. Indigenous musical traditions predate written records, with tribes employing instruments like theangklung,gamelan, andsasando. Over time, external influences enriched Indonesian music, such as thegambus andqasida from the Middle East,[376]keroncong from Portugal,[377] anddangdut, which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements.[378] Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia and Singapore due to cultural similarities andlanguage intelligibility.[379][380]
Indonesia is home to more than 3,000 traditional dances, many of which originated in rituals and religious worship,[381] such as the dance of witch doctors andHudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. In contemporary Indonesia, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak continue to be a living tradition[382]amid the growing popularity of modern and urban dances shaped by Western and South Korean cultures, such aship-hop andK-pop.[383][384]
Clothing traditions also vary widely across the archipelago.Batik andkebaya are widely recognised as national attire, with predominant roots in Javanese culture.[385] Traditional attire varies by region and province, such as the Batakulos, Malay and Minangkabausongket, and Sasakikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.[386]
ThePandavas andKrishna in an act of theWayang Wong performance
Traditional Indonesian theatre encompasses a variety of performance forms that combine storytelling, music, and visual art.Wayang shadow puppetry, is one of the best-known forms, often depicting Hindu epics like theRamayana andMahabharata.[387] Other theatrical traditions includeLudruk,Ketoprak,Sandiwara,Lenong,[388] and Balinese dance dramas, which often incorporate humour, music, and audience interaction.[389] Regional performance traditions reflect local histories and values like the MinangkabauRandai, which combines music, dance, and martial arts (silat) to recount legends and historical narratives.[390] In the modern period, theatre groups such asTeater Koma, have used satire to address social and political themes.[391][392]
Indonesia's film industry began during the Dutch colonial period with the release ofLoetoeng Kasaroeng (1926)[393] and it expanded post-independence withUsmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s.[393][394] During the latter part of the Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment,[393] while Suharto's New Order imposedcensorship to maintain social order.[395] Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such asPengabdi Setan (1980),Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) andWarkop comedy films, but the industry declined in the 1990s.[396]
In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence.[397] Independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion, and love,[395] producing notable films such asKuldesak (1999) andAda Apa dengan Cinta? (2002).[396] TheIndonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia), which gives out theCitra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.[398]
Media and literary traditions in Indonesia reflect both historical continuity and technological change. Early literature includeSanskrit inscriptions from the 5th century and a strongoral tradition,[400] later expressed through written forms such assyair,pantun,hikayat, andbabad.[401] Notable works in this category includeHikayat Hang Tuah andBabad Tanah Jawi. The establishment ofBalai Pustaka in 1917 marked a push to develop indigenous literature, leading to a literary Golden Age in the 1950s and 1960s.[402] Early modern literature originates in the Sumatran tradition[403][404] and has been shaped by political and social change,[402][405] producing works from notable figures likeChairil Anwar,Pramoedya Ananta Toer, andAyu Utami.[406]
Media freedom in Indonesia significantly improved after the fall of Suharto's rule, during which the Ministry of Information tightly controlled the media.[407] The early years of the post-Suharto era was marked by a proliferation of print and electronic media amid greater press freedom.[408][409] Internet use, which began in the early 1990s after the first Internet service provider went commercial,[410] grew rapidly after 2000[411] and began transforming patters of media consumption, which had become evident during the 2010s.[412] By 2023, the country had 210 million internet users, with mobile phones as the primary point of access.[413]
Indonesian cuisine reflects the country's geographic diversity, cultural plurality, and long history of external contact. It comprises numerous regional traditions shaped by indigenous practices and foreign influences, including Chinese, Middle Eastern, Indian, African, and European cuisines.[414] Rice is the primarystaple food across much of the archipelago and is typically served with side dishes of meat, vegetables, or fish.[415] Fundamental ingredients include spices—particularly chilli—along withcoconut milk,[416] fish, and chicken, which contribute to the distinctive flavour profiles found across different regions.[415]
Some popular dishes, such asnasi goreng,gado-gado,mie, andsate, are widely consumed throughout the country.[417] Regional cuisines remain strongly associated with local identities, withMinangkabau dishes likerendang[418] gaining international recognition.[415] Fermented foods also form part of Indonesian culinary traditions, includingoncom, which is produced using various fungal cultures and is especially prevalent in West Java.[419] In 2014, the Ministry of Tourism designatedtumpeng as an icon of Indonesian traditional cuisine, symbolising the nation's diverse food cultures.[420]
A demonstration ofpencak silat, a form of martial arts
Sports in Indonesia include both internationally competitive disciplines and traditional activities.Association football is the most popular sport in terms of nationwide engagement and interest.[421] TheSuper League functions as the country's top-tier competition.Indonesia was the first Asian representative to appear at theFIFA World Cup, taking part in the1938 tournament as the Dutch East Indies.[421] Despite its popularity, the national program has only achieved limited success at the regional level, such as theSoutheast Asian Games (SEA Games).[422]
Badminton has produced Indonesia's most notable international sporting results.[423] The country is among the few to have won both theThomas andUber Cups, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton.[424] Together withweightlifting, badminton contributes the largest share ofIndonesia's Olympic gold medals.[425] Other popular sports includeboxing and basketball, which were featured in the country's multi-sport eventNational Sports Week (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948.[426]
Examples of traditional sports includesepak takraw, bull racing (karapan sapi) inMadura,[427][428] and ritual combat traditions, such ascaci inFlores andpasola inSumba.[429]Pencak silat is an Indonesian martial art,[430] which became an official event at the 2018 Asian Games, where Indonesia emerged as one of the leading competitors.[431] In multi-sport regional competitions, Indonesia has topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977,[432] and ranks second in theall-time medal standings behind Thailand.[433]
^During theIndonesia–Malaysia confrontation in 1965, Indonesia withdrew from the UN due to the latter's election to theUnited Nations Security Council, although it returned 18 months later. It marked the first time in UN history that a member state had attempted a withdrawal.[175]
^These include extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression, as reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC.[191]
^Examples includerickshaws such asbajaj andbecak, as well as shared taxis includingangkot and minibuses.
^Small but significant populations ofethnic Chinese,Indians, Europeans, and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.
^Due to significant contact with other languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences, which include Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Makassarese, Sanskrit, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese, and English.[292][293]
^The rest consists of theShias andAhmadis, who form 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–400,000) of the Muslim population.[304][308]
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