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Indo-European sound laws

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Linguistic aspect of the Proto-Indo-European languages
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As theProto-Indo-European language (PIE) broke up,its sound system diverged as well, as evidenced in varioussound laws associated with thedaughterIndo-European languages.Especially notable is the palatalization that produced thesatem languages, along with the associatedruki sound law. Other notable changes include:

Bartholomae's law in Indo-Iranian, andSievers's law inProto-Germanic and (to some extent) various other branches, may or may not have been common Indo-European features. A number of innovations, bothphonological andmorphological, representareal features common to theItalic andCeltic languages; among them the development oflabiovelars tolabial consonants in some Italic and Celtic branches, producing "p-Celtic" and "q-Celtic" languages (likewise "p-Italic" and "q-Italic", although these terms are less used). Another grouping with many sharedareal innovations comprises Greek, Indo-Iranian, and Armenian; among its common phonological innovations areGrassmann's law in Greek and Indo-Iranian, and weakening of pre-vocalic /s/ to /h/ in Greek, Iranian and Armenian.

Consonants

[edit]

The following table shows the Proto-Indo-European consonants and theirreflexes in selected Indo-European daughter languages. Background and further details can be found in various related articles, includingProto-Indo-European phonology,Centum and satem languages, the articles on the various sound laws referred to in the introduction, and the articles on the various IE proto-languages, language groups and language phonologies. For development of thelaryngeals and syllabic consonants, see thevowels table below.

Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
PIEIndo-IranianBalto-SlavicAlb.Arm.Anatol.Toch.GreekItalicCelticGermanic
SanskritAvestanO.C.S.Lith.Hitt.LatinOld IrishGothicEnglish
normalC+[j][C 1]normal-C-[C 2][C 1]
*pp; ph[pʰ][C 3]p; f[C 4]ph;
w[C 5]		p, pppptp∅f;
b[β][C 6]		f;
v, f[C 2]
*tt; th[t̪ʰ] ;[C 3]
ṭ; ṭh		t; θ[C 4]ttʿ[tʰ]t, tt;
z[ts][C 7]		t;
c[c][C 7]		ts; tt/ss[C 5]ttth[θ]þ[θ];
d[ð];[C 6]		th;
d;[C 6]
*ḱś[ɕ]sš[ʃ]th[θ];
k[C 8]		sk, kkk;
ś[ɕ][C 8]		kc[k]c[k]ch[x]h;
g[ɣ][C 6]		h;
∅;[C 2]
y[C 6]
*kk; c[t͡ɕ];[C 7]
kh[kʰ][C 3]		k; c[tʃ];[C 7]
x[C 4]		k;
č[tʃ];[C 7]
c[ts][C 9]		kk;
q[c][C 9]		kʿ[kʰ]
*kʷk;
s;[C 7]
q[c][C 9]		ku, kkup;
t;[C 7]
k[C 10]		qu[kʷ];
c[k][C 11]		ƕ[ʍ];
gw, w[C 6]
wh;
w[C 6]
*bb; bh[C 3]b; β[C 12]bpbptbb[b]-[β]-p
*dd; dh;[C 3]
ḍ; ḍh		d; δ[C 12]dd;
dh[ð][C 2]		tts;
ś[ɕ][C 7]		dz[zd] >[z]dd[d]-[ð]-t
*ǵj[d͡ʑ];
h[ɦ][C 3]		zž[ʒ]dh[ð];
g[C 8]		c[ts]kk;
ś[ɕ][C 8]		ggg[ɡ]-[ɣ]-kc / k;
ch[C 9]
*gg; j[d͡ʑ];[C 7]
gh;[C 3] h[ɦ][C 3]		g; j[dʒ];[C 7]
γ[C 12]		g;
ž[ʒ];[C 7]
dz[C 9]		ggk
*gʷg;
z;[C 7]
gj[ɟ][C 9]		kub;
d;[C 7]
g[C 10]		u[w>v];
gu[ɡʷ][C 13]		b[b]-[β]-q[kʷ]qu
*bʰbh[bʱ]b; β[C 12]bb;
w[C 2]		pph[pʰ]ptf;[C 14]
b		b[b];
b[β];[C 2]
f[C 15]		b;
v / f[C 16]
*dʰdh[dʱ], h[C 17]d; δ[C 12]dtt;
c[c][C 7]		th[tʰ]tt/ssf;[C 14]
d;
b[C 18]		d[d]-[ð]-d;
d[ð];[C 2]
þ[C 15]		d
*ǵʰh[ɦ]zž[ʒ]dh[ð];
d[C 8]		j[dz];
z[C 2]		kk;
ś[ɕ][C 7]		kh[kʰ]h;
h / g[C 8]		g[ɡ]-[ɣ]-g;
g[ɣ];[C 2]
g[x][C 15]		g;
y / w[C 16]
*gʰgh[ɡʱ];
h[ɦ][C 7]		g; j[dʒ];[C 7]
γ[C 12]		g;
ž[ʒ];[C 7]
dz[C 9]		ggg;
ǰ[dʒ][C 7]
*gʷʰg;
z;[C 7]
gj[ɟ][C 9]		kuph[pʰ];
th[tʰ];[C 7]
kh[kʰ][C 10]		f;[C 14]
g /
u[w];[C 2]
gu[ɡʷ][C 13]		g;
b;[C 14]
w;[C 2]
gw[C 13]		g;
b;[C 14]
w[C 2]
ssh[h,x]ssh[ʃ];
gj[ɟ];[C 19]
h[C 2]		h;
∅[C 2]		š[s]s;
ṣ[ʂ]		h;[C 14]
s;[C 20][C 15]/
∅;[C 2]
[¯][C 21]		is;
r[C 2]		sʃ-[h]-s;
z[C 6]		s;
r[C 6]
ṣ[ʂ][C 22]š[ʃ][C 22]x[x][C 22]š[ʃ][C 22]
*mminmm[m]-[w̃]-m
*-m[C 15]m˛[˜]n∅nn--m [˜]n∅
*nn, ṇnn;
˛[˜][C 15]		nn;
ñ[ɲ]		ninn
*lr (dial. l)rll;
ll[ɫ][C 2]		l /
ɫ[ɫ>ɣ]		lill
*rr; l[C 17]rr[ɾ];
rr[r][C 2]		rirr
*yy[j]j[j]gj[ɟ];
∅		∅y[j]z[zd] >[z] /
h;
∅[C 2]		?ii[j];
∅[C 2]		∅jy
*wv[ʋ]v[w]vv[ʋ]vg / www > h / ∅iu[w>v]f-∅-w
PIESkr.Av.O.C.S.Lith.Alb.Arm.Hitt.Toch.GreekGreek+/j/LatinOld IrishGothicEnglish

Notes for table 1:

  1. ^abA capitalC stands forconsonant in this table
  2. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstBetween vowels
  3. ^abcdefghBefore an original*h₂.
  4. ^abcBefore a consonant or original laryngeal.
  5. ^abAfter a vowel.
  6. ^abcdefghiFollowing an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
  7. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuBefore a (PIE) front vowel (*i,*e).
  8. ^abcdefBefore asonorant.
  9. ^abcdefghBefore secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
  10. ^abcBefore or after a (PIE)*u
  11. ^Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u,*o).
  12. ^abcdefInYounger Avestan, after a vowel.
  13. ^abcAfter*n.
  14. ^abcdefAt the beginning of a word
  15. ^abcdefAt the end of a word.
  16. ^abBetween vowels, or between a vowel and*r,*l (on either side)
  17. ^abrare
  18. ^After*u,*r or before*r,*l.
  19. ^Before a stressed vowel
  20. ^Before or after an obstruent (*p,*t,*k, etc.; s)
  21. ^Before or after a resonant (*r,*l,*m,*n).
  22. ^abcdAfter*r,*u,*k,*i (Ruki sound law).

Consonant clusters

[edit]

Proto-Indo-European also had numerousconsonant clusters, such as st, ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters, however, show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

[icon]
This sectionneeds expansion with: thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, *sy, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law, coda clusters. You can help byadding to it.(August 2016)
Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
PIEIndo-IranianBalto-SlavicAlb.Arm.Anatol.Toch.GreekItalicCelticGermanic
Skr.Av.O.C.S.Lith.Hitt.LatinOld IrishGothicEnglish
normalC+[j]
*srsrrstrsrrr[r](a)rš(ša)rʃʃrrhn/afr-, -br-srstrstr
*twtvθβtvtvtkʿ[kʰ]ttu, ddus-, -ss-n/ap?tþwthw
*dʰwdhvðβdvdvd?tu, dufddwdw
*dwdv(e)rktu, dubtwtw
*tltrslkl, sltlkltl
*dlll
*dnnn, ṇṇ
*ḱwśvspsvšvssk, šn/aqu[kʷ]cu[kʷ]ƕ[xʷ]wh
*ǵʰwhvzvžvz
*ǵwjvq[kʷ]qu[kw]
*swsvxuu[xʷ]svsvv, d[CC 1]kʿ[kʰ]normal dev.hn/asu[sw]sswsw
*spsp, spʰ[CC 2]sp[CC 3]spfsp[CC 3]
/ pʿ[pʰ]		normal dev.sp[CC 3]?spfsp[CC 4]
*sbʰspʰ, pʰspʰ
*sdd; ḷ[CC 5] > ḍ, ḍḍzdzdzdstd-t-[d]stst
*sdʰdh; ḷh[CC 5] > ḍh, ḍḍhzdzdzdsth-t-[d]zdd
*stst; ṣṭ[CC 5]st[CC 3]stsht[ʃt]st[CC 3]normal dev.st[CC 3]s; tt/ss[CC 6]stst[CC 4]
*sḱch[t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 6]s?skš?h?? č`; c`[CC 6]normal dev.sk;[CC 3]
kh[kʰ];[CC 7]
skh[skʰ][CC 8]		sc[sk]sc[sk]sk[CC 4]sh[ʃ]
*sksk, {śc, ch}[CC 9]sk, sč[CC 3]normal dev.?sk[CC 3]normal dev.
*skʷnorm.squ[skʷ]sq[CC 4]
*t+t[tst]tt; tth[CC 10]st; sθ?[CC 11]stss?zt, zzašt, zzazz[tst]ss?stssss / st
*sǵjj
*sgʰjj[CC 9]
*dtttstststsssss [s]
*ddʰddʰzddt
*dʰtddʰzd, stststss
*ptptftt?pttptptcht[xt]ft[CC 4]
*ḱtṣṭ[ʂʈ]št[ʃt]stšt[ʃt]ktct[kt]ht[CC 4]ght[t][CC 4]
*ktktxtt?kt
*kʷtptct[kt]
*pspspspss, ssfsps
*tsts
*ḱskṣšsh[ʃ]ksx[ks]hsx[ks]
*kskṣ[CC 5]xš[CC 5](ks)
*kʷskʷspsx[ks]
*ǵskṣ
*gskṣ
*gʷskṣ
*ǵʰskṣžks
*gʰskṣ
*gʷʰskṣps
*tḱkṣškkts
*tkkṣxškt
*tkʷkṣ
*dǵkṣ
*dgkṣ
*dgʷkṣ
*dʰǵʰkṣzžtktk/kkhth
*dʰgʰkṣtk
*dʰgʷʰkṣγžktsphths
PIESkr.Av.O.C.S.Lith.Alb.Arm.Hitt.Toch.GreekGreek+/j/LatinOld IrishGothicEnglish

Notes to Table 2:

  1. ^Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).
  2. ^rare
  3. ^abcdefghiIn contrast to*s normally giving h in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.
  4. ^abcdefgGermanic spirant law:*p,*t,*k,*kʷ remain stops when preceded by another stop or*s.
  5. ^abcdeAfter r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
  6. ^abcBetween vowels.
  7. ^After*r,*l,*m,*n,*t,*d, possibly other consonants?
  8. ^After (Greek) th causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō).[clarification needed]
  9. ^abBefore front vowels.
  10. ^Before an original laryngeal.
  11. ^Before a consonant or original laryngeal.

Vowels and syllabic consonants

[edit]

This table shows the Proto-Indo-European vowels andsyllabic consonants (as reconstructed both before and after the acceptance oflaryngeal theory), and theirreflexes in selected Indo-European daughter languages. Background and further details can be found in various related articles, includingProto-Indo-European phonology, the articles on the various sound laws referred to in the introduction, and the articles on the various IE proto-languages, language groups and language phonologies.

Trad. PIELaryng. PIESkr.Av.O.C.S.Lith.Arm.Alb.Toch.Hitt.GreekLatin[V 1]Proto-CelticGothic[V 2]Old English[V 1]
normalumlauted[V 3]
*e*e,*h₁eaeje, ie, e, i; ja[V 4]äe, ʔe, iei; aí[ɛ][V 5]e; eo[V 6]i; ie[V 6]
*a(*a[V 7]),*h₂eoaaha, aāha, aaaæ; a;[V 8] ea[V 6]e; ie[V 6]
*o*h₃eo, aaa, eao
*oa; ā[V 9]
*ə[V 10]*h₁[V 10]ii, ∅∅a, ∅ā∅eaa, ∅
*h₂[V 10]ḫa
*h₃[V 10]∅o
*-*h₁-[V 11]∅e (a?)∅a, ∅e (o)∅
*h₂-[V 11]aḫaa
*h₃-[V 11]a, hao
*ē*ē,*eh₁āěėio, uaa/e?; ā?[V 12]ē, e, iēīēǣ
*ā(*ā[V 7]),*eh₂ao[oː]aa/o?a, ahā > ē[V 13]āāōē
*ō*ō,*eh₃uouea/ā?; ū?[V 12]a, āōā; ū[V 12]
*i*iiьiii; e[V 14]äi, īii; aí[ɛ][V 5]i
*ī*ih₁īiy[iː]iiīīei[iː]ī
*ih₂i
or(j)a?[V 15]		yāī or(j)ā?[V 15]
*ih₃ī or(j)ō?[V 15]
*ei*ei,*h₁eiai > ēai > ōi,
āi > aē[V 9]		ei; ie[V 16]ieēeiīē
*oi*oi,*h₃eiěai; ie[V 16]ee, aiē, aioiūoiáiāǣ
*ai(*ai[V 7]),*h₂eiaiaeai
*ēi*ēiāi > ai; ā[V 12]āi; ā(i)[V 12]iiēēiī?ei[iː]ī
*ōi*ōi (*oei)y; u[V 12]ai; ui[V 12]e, aiaiōiōu[V 12]áiāǣ
*āi*eh₂eiěaiāi > ēi[V 13]ae
*u*uuъuuu; y[V 17]äuuuu; o[V 18]u; aú[ɔ][V 5]u; o[V 19]y
*ū*uh₁ūyūy; i[V 12]uūūȳ
*uh₂u
or(w)a?[V 15]		wāū or(w)ā?[V 15]
*uh₃ū or(w)ō?[V 15]
*eu*eu,*h₁euau > ōə̄u; ao[V 9]juiauoyeueuūouiuēoīe
*ou*ou,*h₃euuauao, auouáuēa
*au(*au[V 7]),*h₂euawauau
*ēu*ēuāu > auāuuiaueū?iuēo
*ōu*ōuaauōáuēa
*m̥*m̥aęim̃; um̃[V 20]amaäma, unaemem, amumumym
*m̥̅*mh₁āìm; ùm[V 20]amamāmēmā
*mh₂mā > mē[V 13]
*mh₃mō
*m̥m*m̥mamьm/ъmim; um[V 20]amamemam
*n̥*n̥aęiñ; uñ[V 20]anänanaenen, anununyn
*n̥̄*nh₁āìn; ùn[V 20]ananānēnā
*nh₂nā > nē[V 13]
*nh₃nō
*n̥n*n̥nanьn/ъniñ; uñ[V 20]ananenan
*l̥*l̥r̥ərəlь/lъil̃; ul̃[V 20]alil, li; ul, luälallaolli;[V 21] alulul; ol[V 19]yl
l̥̄*lh₁īr; ūr[V 22]arəìl; ùl[V 20]alaallālēlā
*lh₂lā > lē[V 13]
*lh₃lō
*l̥l*l̥lir; ur[V 22]arьl/ъlil; ul[V 20]al, laalelal
*r̥*r̥r̥ərərь/rъir̃; ur̃[V 20]arir, ri; ur, ruärar, urraorri;[V 21] araúr[ɔr]ur; or[V 19]yr
*r̥̄*rh₁īr; ūr[V 22]arəìr; ùr[V 20]arararārērā
*rh₂rā > rē[V 13]
*rh₃rō
*r̥r*r̥rir; ur[V 22]arьr/ъrir; ur[V 20]arararar
Trad. PIELaryng. PIESkr.Av.O.C.S.Lith.Arm.Alb.Toch.Hitt.GreekLatin[V 1]Proto-CelticGothic[V 2]normalumlauted[V 3]
Old English[V 1]

Notes:

  1. ^abcdIn initial syllables only.
  2. ^abIn non-final syllables only.
  3. ^abBeforei,ī, or /j/ in the next syllable inProto-Germanic (i-umlaut).
  4. ^In a closed syllable.
  5. ^abcBeforer, h. Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.
  6. ^abcdBeforeh, w, or beforer, l plus a consonant ("breaking").
  7. ^abcdThe existence of PIE non-allophonica is disputed.
  8. ^Before a back vowel in the next syllable (a restoration).
  9. ^abcIn open syllables (Brugmann's law).
  10. ^abcdBetween consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.
  11. ^abcAt the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.
  12. ^abcdefghiIn a final syllable.
  13. ^abcdefā >ē in Attic and Ionic dialects only.
  14. ^Beforeā in the following syllable.
  15. ^abcdefThe so-calledbreaking is disputed (typical examples are*proti-h₃kʷo- > Ved.prátīkam ~ Gk.πρόσωπον;*gʷih₃u̯o- > Ved.jīvá- ~ Arm.keank‘, Gk.ζωός;*duh₂ro- > Ved.dūrá- ~ Arm.erkar, Gk.δηρός)
  16. ^abUnder stress.
  17. ^Beforei in the following syllable.
  18. ^Beforewa.
  19. ^abcBefore a non-high vowel in the next syllable (a-mutation).
  20. ^abcdefghijklIn the neighbourhood of labiovelars.
  21. ^abBefore a stop orm.
  22. ^abcdIn the neighbourhood of labials.

Examples

[edit]

See thelist of Proto-Indo-European roots hosted at Wiktionary.

*p

[edit]

*pṓds, ~*ped-, "foot".[1]

*t

[edit]

*tréyes, "three".[1]

*ḱ

[edit]

*ḱm̥tóm, "hundred" (from earlier*dḱm̥tóm)[1]

*k

[edit]

*kréwh₂s, "raw flesh"[1]

Sound laws within PIE

[edit]

A few phonological laws can be reconstructed that may have been effective prior to the final breakup of PIE byinternal reconstruction.

See also

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^abcdMeier-Brügger, Michael; Gertmenian, Charles (translator) (2003).Indo-European linguistics. Berlin [u.a.]: de Gruyter. pp. 101–131.ISBN 3-11-017433-2.{{cite book}}:|first2= has generic name (help)
  2. ^Hock, Hans Heinrich (1986).Principles of historical linguistics. Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter. p. 132.ISBN 3-11-010600-0.
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