Indigenous music of Australia comprises the music of theAboriginal andTorres Strait Islander peoples of Australia, intersecting with theircultural and ceremonial observances, through the millennia of their individual and collective histories to the present day.[1][2][3][4] The traditional forms include many aspects of performance andmusical instrumentation that are unique to particular regions orAboriginal Australian groups; and some elements of musical tradition are common or widespread through much of the Australian continent, and even beyond. The music of the Torres Strait Islanders is related to that of adjacent parts ofNew Guinea. Music is a vital part of Indigenous Australians' cultural maintenance.[5]
In addition to theseIndigenous traditions and musical heritage, ever since the 18th-century European colonisation of Australia began, Indigenous Australian musicians and performers have adopted and interpreted many of the imported Western musical styles, often informed by and in combination with traditional instruments and sensibilities. Similarly, non-Indigenous artists and performers have adapted, used and sampled Indigenous Australian styles and instruments in their works. Contemporary musical styles such asrock and roll,country,rap,hip hop andreggae have all featured a variety of notable Indigenous Australian performers.
Adidgeridoo is a type ofmusical instrument that, according to western musicological classification, falls into the category of aerophone. It is one of the oldest instruments to date. It consists of a long tube, without finger holes, through which the player blows. It is sometimes fitted with a mouthpiece of beeswax. Didgeridoos are traditionally made ofeucalyptus, but contemporary materials such as PVC piping are used. In traditional situations it is played only by men, usually as an accompaniment to ceremonial or recreational singing, or, much more rarely, as a solo instrument. Skilled players use the technique of circular breathing to achieve a continuous sound, and also employ techniques for inducing multiple harmonic resonances. Although traditionally the instrument was not widespread around the country - it was only used by Aboriginal groups in the most northerly areas - today it is commonly considered the national instrument of Aboriginal Australians and is world-renowned as a unique and iconic instrument. However, many Northern Aboriginal people continue to strenuously object to its frequent, inappropriate, use by both uninitiated Indigenous people of either gender, and by non-Indigenous Australians. Famous players includeDjalu Gurruwiwi,Mark Atkins,William Barton,David Hudson,Joe Geia and Shane Underwood as well as white virtuosoCharlie McMahon.
Aclapstick is a type ofmusical instrument that, according to western musicological classification, falls into the category of percussion. Unlikedrumsticks, which are generally used to strike a drum, clapsticks are intended for striking one stick on another, and people as well. They are of oval shape with paintings of snakes, lizards, birds and more. Also called 'tatty' sticks.[6]
The leaf of theEucalyptus gum tree is used as a hand-held free reed instrument. The instrument was originally used to call birds. An example is the "Coo-ee" call seen in the opening credits of hit television seriesSkippy.[7][8][9][10][11]
The bullroarer (or bull roarer) is an instrument used inceremonial ritual. It consists of a few feet of cord attached to a flat piece of wood. The player holds the free end of the cord and swings the piece of wood around in circles, thus creating a humming sound. The intensity of the sound can be varied by changing the velocity of the rotation.[12][13][14]
Percussive rasp similar to aGüiro or serrated club, along which the edge of a boomerang is drawn to produce a trill.[6]
Manikay are "clan songs" of some groups ofYolngu people of north-eastArnhem Land, includingYirrkala. These songs are often about clan or family history or other historical or mythological events of the area, social relationships and love, and are frequently updated to take into account popular films and music. Similar clan songs are known as emeba onGroote Eylandt.[15] Manikay have been described as the "sacred song tradition performed by the Yolŋu when conducting public ceremonies...a medium through which the Yolŋu interpret reality, define their humanity, reckon their ancestral lineages, and evidence ownership of their hereditary homelands through their ability to sing in the tradition of their ancestors".[16] It is often translated as a "clan song", andethnomusicologists andsocial anthropologists have studied the form since the 1950s.[17]
Manikay is often used to describe the song component of the Arnhem Landceremony, while bunggul (see below) refers to the dance, although each word on its own is also sometimes used to refer to both components.[15][18][19]
Songlines, also known as "dreaming tracks", represent paths across the land or sky marking the routes followed bycreator beings duringThe Dreaming. The paths of the songlines are recorded in traditionalsong cycles, stories, dance, and art, and are often the basis of ceremonies. Intricate series of song cycles identify landmarks andtracking mechanisms for navigation.[20][21][22]
Early visitors and settlers published a number of transcriptions of traditional Aboriginal music.[23][24] The earliest transcription of Aboriginal music was byEdward Jones (Bardd y Brenin) in London in 1793, published inMusical Curiosities, 1811. TwoEora men (of theSydney area inNew South Wales),Yemmerrawanne andBennelong, had travelled to England withArthur Phillip, and while they were in London gave a recital of a song in theDharug language.[25][26]
TheYolngu term Bunggul refers to song, music and dance, which form aceremony in central to easternArnhem Land, Northern Territory. It is performed east of theMann River as far south asMainoru and southeast across the Rose River region toNumbulwar. The songs contain specific words and use a similar structure, and there is often a "final recitative", where lyrics are sung for a long period after thedidjeridu andstick beating has stopped. Some songs tell of epic journeys in the far past, of ancestors in theDreaming;Elkin cited an example of a song series from consisting of 188 songs. Those of theDjatpangarri style, tell of everyday events. The lyrics differ much from song to song, and can vary from performance to performance, improvised by the musicians and lead "songman", within certain structures and patterns. The leader of the ritualchoreographs not only the dancers, but also the music, in this form, in contrast to western Arnhem Land, where the songman leads.[27]
Bunggul is often used to describe the dance component of the ceremony, while manikay refers to the songs.[15][18][19]
TheGarma Festival has a nightly bunggul performance. In 2014,The Monthly's "Best of Australian Arts" edition described the bunggul as "an exhilarating performance" and "an example of one of the world’s oldest musical traditions. We must do everything to recognise its enormous value to our lives as Australians".[19] In 2023, a special bunggul was performed in honour of the recently deceased Yolngu leader and land rights championGalarrwuy Yunupingu.[28]
Kun-borrk (also spelt kunborrk and gunborg[29]) originated east of theAdelaide, southeast towardsKatherine and across to just east of the Mann River and southeast almost to Rose River, then along the coastline beyondBorroloola.[30]
Kun-borrk songs always include actual words, in contrast to other song styles of the region which may consist of sounds, and there are often brief breaks in the songs. The songs nearly always start with the didjeridu, soon followed by sticks (percussion) and vocals in that order. Kun-borrk songs fromKunbarllanjnja (Gunbalanya) almost always follow the order of didjeridu, voice then sticks. Kun-borrk songs terminate most commonly with the didjeridu first, often in conjunction with vocals. Sometimes the vocals finish first, sometimes the clap sticks, but the didjeridu never starts last or finishes last.[30]
David Blanasi is known as a master of the tradition of Kun-borrk, with his grandson Darryl Dikarrna continuing the tradition.[29]
Wajarra are non-sacred songs originating in theGurindji region of theNorthern Territory and performed for fun and entertainment.[31] During the twentieth century they spread great distances across northern and western Australia, including along thestock routes of the pastoral industry, as Aboriginal workers and their families travelled between stations.Wave Hill Station was the site of much of this exchange.[32]
Wangga originated near theSouth Alligator River. An extremely high note starts the song, accompanied by rhythmic percussion, followed by a sudden shift to a low tone. Wangga is typically performed by one or two singers with clapsticks and one didgeridoo player. The occasion is usually a circumcision ceremony or a ceremony to purify a dead person's belongings with smoke.[citation needed]
A number of Indigenous Australians have achieved mainstream prominence, such asJimmy Little (pop),Yothu Yindi (Australian aboriginal rock),Troy Cassar-Daley (country),Jessica Mauboy (pop, R&B),NoKTuRNL (rap metal) and theWarumpi Band (alternative or world music). Indigenous music has also gained broad exposure through theworld music movement and in particular theWOMADelaide festivals.Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu, formerly of Yothu Yindi, attained international success singing contemporary music in English and inone of the languages of theYolngu people.
SuccessfulTorres Strait Islander musicians includeChristine Anu (pop) andSeaman Dan.
Contemporary Indigenous music continues the earlier traditions and also represents a fusion with contemporary mainstream styles of music, such asrock andcountry music.The Deadlys provide an illustration of this with rock, country,pop among the styles played. Traditional instruments such as thedidjeridu andclapsticks are commonly used, giving the music a distinctive feel.
Country music has remained particularly popular among the Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples for decades, as documented inClinton Walker's seminalBuried Country.Tom Foster,Dougie Young and Jimmy Little were pioneers and Troy Cassar-Daley is among Australia's successful contemporary Indigenous performers of country music. Aboriginal artistsKev Carmody andArchie Roach employ a combination of folk-rock and country music to sing about Aboriginal rights issues, using the song type calledbarnt[further explanation needed].[33] The documentary, book and soundtrackBuried Country showcases significant Indigenous musicians from the 1940s to the 1990s.[34]
The movieWrong Side of the Road and itssoundtrack (1981), highlighting Indigenous disadvantage in urban Australia, gave broad exposure to the bandsUs Mob andNo Fixed Address.
Australianhip hop music andrap music has a number of Aboriginal exponents,[35] including the award-winningBaker Boy, 2019Young Australian of the Year, who raps and sings inYolngu Matha.[36][37]
The genre-defyingMojo Juju has been nominated for or won several awards since 2018, and her music has been featured in a number of television shows includingUnderbelly: Razor,Underbelly: Squizzy andRoadtrip Nation.[38]
Thelma Plum released her debut album,Better in Blak, in July 2019.[39]
DOBBY is an Aboriginal/Filipino musician, mostly rapper and drummer, who has played with the Sydney band Jackie Brown Jr. As a member of theMurrawarri Republic, he sings inMurrawarri language as well as English, and is a political activist for Aboriginal issues.[40][41][42]
The nephew ofDr M. Yunupiŋu and the son ofStuart Kellaway, both founding members of Yothu Yindi, started their own band,King Stingray, whose sound they call "Yolngusurf rock". Their first single, written by Yirrnga Yunupiŋu and Roy Kellaway, was released in October 2020.[43]
In 2024, and at the age of 80, blues musicianKankawa Nagarra (Olive Knight)'s debut album,Wirlmarni, won the prestigiousAustralian Music Prize (AMP).[44]
TheCentre for Aboriginal Studies in Music (CASM), founded in 1972, now exists as part of theNational Centre for Aboriginal Language and Music Studies at theUniversity of Adelaide, located within theElder Conservatorium. While it has in the past (1980s) offered three-year diploma courses, as of 1993[update] it offers only a one-year foundation course, owing to funding cuts over the years.[45] CASM has access to astate-of-the-art dedicatedrecording studio, along with teaching and practice rooms, a dance room, a keyboard suite, and computer suites.[46] Notable alumni include the bandsColoured Stone,No Fixed Address,Kuckles, andUs Mob,[47] as well as musiciansZaachariaha Fielding (of the duoElectric Fields),Ellie Lovegrove,Nathan May,Tilly Tjala Thomas, andSimi Vuata.[47][45]
| Genres | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Organisations | |||||
| Awards |
| ||||
| Charts | |||||
| Festivals |
| ||||
| Media | |||||
| National anthem | |||||
| Cities and regions | |||||
| |||||
