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Indigenous Philippine folk religions are the distinct native religions of variousethnic groups in the Philippines, where most follow belief systems in line withanimism. These indigenous folk religions[1] include a set of local worship traditions that are devoted to theanito ordiwata (and their variables), terms which translate to gods, spirits, and ancestors.[2][3][4] Many of the narratives within the indigenous folk religions are orally transmitted to the next generation, but many have traditionally been written down as well. The Spanish colonizers have claimed that the natives did not have religious writings, but records show otherwise. Accounts, both from Chinese and Spanish sources have explicitly noted the existence of indigenous religious writings. There are also Spanish records of indigenous religious books and scrolls, along with indigenous statues of gods, being burned by colonizers. In some sources, the Spanish claim that no such religious writings exist, while within the same chronicle, they record such books being burned on their own order. The writings were written on native reeds and leaves using iron points and other local pens, similar to how things are written on a papyrus, and fashioned either as scrolls or books. Some were written on bamboos.[5] 0.23% of the population of the Philippines are affiliated with the Indigenous Philippine folk religions according to the 2020 national census,[6] an increase from the previous 0.19% from the 2010 census.[7]
The profusion of different terms arises from the fact that theseIndigenous religions mostly flourished in the pre-colonial period before the Philippines had become a single nation.[8] The various peoples of the Philippines spoke different languages and thus used different terms to describe their religious beliefs. While these beliefs can be treated as separate religions, scholars have noted that they follow a "common structural framework of ideas" which can be studied together.[3] The various Indigenous Philippine religious beliefs are related to the various religions of Oceania and the maritime Southeast Asia, which draw their roots from Austronesian beliefs as those in the Philippines.[4][9]
The folklore narratives associated with these religious beliefs constitute what is now calledPhilippine mythology, and is an important aspect of the study ofPhilippine culture andFilipino psychology.
Historian T. Valentino Sitoy, in his review of documents concerning pre-Spanish religious beliefs, notes three core characteristics which shaped the religious worldview of Filipinos throughout the archipelago before the arrival of Spanish colonizers. First, Filipinos believed in the existence of parallelspirit world, which was invisible but had an influence on the visible world. Second, Filipinos believed that there were spirits (diwata) everywhere - ranging from the high creator gods to minor spirits that lived in the environment such as trees or rocks or creeks. Third, Filipinos believed that events in the human world were influenced by the actions and interventions of these spirit beings.[3]
The indigenous religions in the Philippines are the ancient beliefs and traditions of various ethnic groups in the country. Most of them believe in animism, where it is believed that all things people, animals, plants, and even nature have a spirit or soul calledDiwa. In these religions, there are two main types of spirits:[1][2][3][4]
Diwata – This refers to deities, gods, and nature spirits.
Anito – These are wooden statues and the spirits or souls of the dead, especially those of ancestors.
The worddiwata has many forms in different Filipino languages, such asdewatu,divata,duwata,ruwata,dewa,dwata, ordiya. In Tagalog, a related word isdiwa, which means "spirit" or "essence."[10][11][12]
Anito or theancestor spirits (umalagad), and nature spirits and deities (diwata) in the Indigenousanimistic religions ofprecolonial Philippines.Anito can be also divided into two main categories: theancestor spirits (ninunò), and deities and nature spirits (diwata).[8][13][14][12]
Pag-anito (also called mag-anito or anitohan) is aséance, ritual where people communicate with the spirits of the dead or their ancestors. It is often done with the help of a shaman called ababaylan inVisayan or akatalonan inTagalog who acts as amedium to connect with these spirits. This ritual is usually accompanied by celebrations or other ceremonies. If the ritual involves talking to nature spirits or deities instead, it is calledpagdiwata (also magdiwata or diwatahan). The wordanito can also mean worship or making an offering to a spirit.[4][8][15]
When Spanish missionaries arrived in the Philippines, the word "anito" came to be associated with the physical representations of spirits that featured prominently inpaganito rituals. During theAmerican rule of the Philippines (1898–1946), the meaning of theSpanish wordidolo ("a thing worshiped") has been further conflated with the English word "idol", and thusanito has come to refer almost exclusively to the carved figures or statues (taotao) of ancestral spirits.[8][16]
The belief inanito orancestor worship is sometimes referred to asanitism in scholarly literature (Spanish:anitismo oranitería). literally means veneration of thespirits of the dead.[13][17][18][19] The wordanitism, or the Hispano-Filipino formanitismo,[20] though not in current usage, it was a precolonial Tagalog religion, a continual invocation and adoration of the anitos, the souls or spirits of their ancestors. From its original meaning of "ancestral spirit".[21]
Many Indigenous Filipino cultures assert the existence of a high god, creator god, or sky god.[4] Among the Tagalogs, the supreme god was known asBathala, who was additionally described as Maykapal (the all-powerful) or Lumikha (the creator). Among the Visayan peoples the creator God is referred to asLaon, meaning "the ancient one." Among the Manuvu, the highest god was called Manama. Among most of the Cordilleran peoples (with the Apayao region as an exception), the creator and supreme teacher is known asKabuniyan.[4]
In most cases, however, these gods were considered such great beings that they were too distant for ordinary people to approach.[2] People thus tended to pay more attention to "lesser gods" or "assistant deities" who could more easily approached, and whose wills could more easily be influenced.[2][4]
Lesser deities in Filipino religions generally fit into three broad categories: nature spirits residing in the environment, such as a mountain or a tree; guardian spirits in charge of specific aspects of daily life such as hunting or fishing; and deified ancestors or tribal heroes. These categories frequently overlap, with individual deities falling into two or more categories, and in some instances, deities evolve from one role to another, as when a tribal hero known for fishing becomes a guardian spirit associated with hunting.[4]
Each ethnic group has their own concept and number of the soul of a being, notably humans. In most cases, a person has two or more souls while he or she is alive. The origin of a person's soul have been told through narratives concerning the Indigenous Philippine folk religions, where each ethnic religion has its unique concept on soul origin, soul composition, retaining and caring for the soul, and other matters, such as the eventual passage of the soul after the person's life is relinquished. In some cases, the souls are provided by certaindeities such as the case among the Tagbanwa, while in others, the soul comes from certain special regions such as the case among the Bisaya. Some people have two souls such as the Ifugao, while others have five souls such as the Hanunoo Mangyan. In general, a person's physical and mental health contribute to the overall health of the person's souls. In some instances, if a soul is lost, a person will become sick, and if all living souls are gone, then the body eventually dies. However, there are also instances in which the body can still live despite the loss of all of its souls, such as the phenomenon called mekararuanan among the Ibanag. Overall, caring for one's self is essential to long life for the souls, which in turn provide a long life to the body.[4][22][23][24][25]
Ghosts or ancestral spirits, in a general Philippine concept, are the spirits of those who have already died. In other words, they are the souls of the dead. They are different from the souls of the living, in which, in many instances, a person has two or more living souls, depending on the ethnic group.[25] Each ethnic group in the Philippine islands has their own terms for ghosts and other types of souls.[25] Due to the sheer diversity of Indigenous words for ghosts, terms likeespirito[25] andmulto, both adopted from Spanish words such asmuerto, have been used as all-encompassing terms for the souls or spirits of the dead in mainstream Filipino culture.[26] While ghosts in Western beliefs are generally known for their sometimes horrific nature, ghosts of the dead for the various ethnic groups in the Philippines are traditionally regarded in high esteem. These ghosts are usually referred to as ancestral spirits who can guide and protect their relatives and community,[13] though ancestral spirits can also cast harm if they are disrespected.[25] In many cases among various Filipino ethnic groups, spirits of the dead are traditionally venerated and deified in accordance to ancient belief systems originating from the Indigenous Philippine folk religions.[27]
Throughout various cultural phases in the archipelago, specific communities of people gradually developed or absorbed notable symbols in their belief systems. Many of these symbols or emblems are deeply rooted in indigenous epics, poems, and pre-colonial beliefs of the natives. Each ethnic group has their own set of culturally important symbols, but there are also "shared symbols" which has influenced many ethnic peoples in a particular area. Some examples of important Anitist symbols are as follow:
Indigenousshamans are the spiritual leaders of variousethnic peoples of thePhilippine islands from thepre-colonial era to the present era. These shamans, many of whom are still extant, are almost always women oreffeminate men (asog orbayok). They are believed to havespirit guides, by which they could contact and interact with the spirits and deities (anito ordiwata) and thespirit world. Their primary role are asmediums duringpag-anitoséance rituals. There are also various subtypes of shamans specializing in the arts ofhealing andherbalism,divination, andsorcery. Numerous types of shamans use different kinds of items in their work, such as talismans or charms known asagimat or anting-anting, curse deflectors such asbuntot pagi, and sacred oil concoctions, among many other objects. All social classes, including the shamans, respect and revere their deity statues (calledlarauan,bulul,manang, etc.), which represent one or more specific deities within their ethnic pantheon, which includes non-ancestor deities and deified ancestors.[46] More general terms used by Spanish sources for native shamans throughout the archipelago were derived fromTagalog andVisayananito ("spirit"); these include terms likemaganito andanitera.[47][48][49]
The "negative" counterparts ofPhilippine shamans are thePhilippine witches, which include different kinds of people with differing occupations and cultural connotations depending on the ethnic group they are associated with. They are completely different from the Western notion of what a witch is. Examples of witches in a Philippine concept are the mannamay,mangkukulam, andmambabarang.[50] As spiritual mediums and divinators, shamans are notable for countering and preventing the curses and powers of witches, notably through the usage of special items and chants. Aside from the shamans, there are also other types of people who can counter specific magics of witches, such as the mananambal, which specializes in counteringbarang.[50] Shamans can also counter the curses of supernatural beings such asaswangs. However, because they are mortal humans, the physical strength of shamans are limited compared to the strength of an aswang being. This gap in physical strength is usually bridged by a dynamics of knowledge and wit.[22][51][52] Philippine witches are not necessarily evil, as they can also serve for the good of society. In cases where a crime was met by injustice as the instigator was not persecuted properly or was acquitted despite mounting evidences, the victims or their family and friends can ask aid from witches to bring justice by way of black magic, which differs per ethnic association. In traditional beliefs outside of mainstream Filipino movie renditions, it is believed that black magic in cases of injustice does not affect the innocent.[53][54][55][56]
Ancient Filipinos and Filipinos who continue to adhere to the indigenous Philippine folk religions generally do not have so-called "temples" of worship under the context known to foreign cultures.[8][13][57] However, they do have sacredshrines, which are also called asspirit houses.[8] They can range in size from small roofed platforms, to structures similar to a small house (but with no walls), to shrines that look similar to pagodas, especially in the south where early mosques were also modeled in the same way.[58] These shrines were known in various indigenous terms, which depend on the ethnic group association.[note 1] They can also be used as places to storetaotao and caskets of ancestors. Among Bicolanos,taotao were also kept inside sacred caves calledmoog.[8][59][60][61]
During certain ceremonies,anito are venerated through temporary altars near sacred places. These were calledlatangan orlantayan in Visayan, anddambana orlambana in Tagalog.[note 2] These bamboo orrattan altars are identical in basic construction throughout most of the Philippines. They were either small roofless platforms or standing poles split at the tip (similar to atiki torch). They held halved coconut shells, metal plates, ormartaban jars as receptacles for offerings.Taotao may sometimes also be placed on these platforms.[8][59]
Other types of sacred places or objects of worship ofdiwata include the material manifestation of their realms. The most widely venerated werebalete trees (also callednonok,nunuk,nonoc, etc.) andanthills ortermite mounds (punso). Other examples include mountains, waterfalls, tree groves, reefs, and caves.[8][13][62][63][64]
Many ethnic peoples in the country have a shared "mountain worship culture", where specific mountains are believed to be the abodes of certain divinities or supernatural beings and aura. Mythical places of worship are also present in some mythologies. Unfortunately, a majority of these places of worship (which includes items associated with these sites such as idol statues and ancient documents written insuyat scripts) were brutalized and destroyed by the Spanish colonialists between the 15th to 19th centuries, and were continued to be looted by American imperialists in the early 20th century. Additionally, the lands used by the native people for worship were mockingly converted by the colonialists as foundation for their foreign churches and cemeteries. Examples of indigenous places of worship that have survived colonialism are mostly natural sites such as mountains, gulfs, lakes, trees, boulders, and caves. Indigenous man-made places of worship are still present in certain communities in the provinces, notably in ancestral domains where the people continue to practice theirindigenous religions.[57][60][65][66]
In traditional dambana beliefs, all deities, beings sent by the supreme deity/deities, and ancestor spirits are collectively calledanitos ordiwata. Supernatural non-anito beings are calledlamang-lupa (beings of the land) orbantay-tubig (beings of the sea or other water bodies). Thedambana is usually taken care of by thePhilippine shamans, the indigenous spiritual leader of thebarangay (community), and to some extent, thedatu (barangay political leader) and thelakan (barangay coalition political leader) as well. Initially unadorned and revered minimally,[67]damabanas later on were filled with adornments centering on religious practices towardslarauan statues due to trade and religious influences from various independent and vassal states.[68] It is adorned with statues home toanitos traditionally-calledlarauan, statues reserved for future burial practices modernly-calledlikha, scrolls or documents withsuyatbaybayin calligraphy,[69] and other objects sacred todambana practices such aslambanog (distilled coconut wine),tuba (undistilled coconut wine),bulaklak or flowers (likesampaguita,santan,gumamela,tayabak, and nativeorchids),palay (unhusked rice),bigas (husked rice), shells, pearls, jewels, beads, native crafts such asbanga (pottery),[70] native swords and bladed weapons (such askampilan,dahong palay,bolo, andpanabas), bodily accessories (likesingsing or rings,kwintas or necklaces, andhikaw or earrings), war shields (such askalasag), enchanted masks,[71] battle weapons used inpananandata or kali, charms calledagimat oranting-anting,[72] curse deflectors such asbuntot pagi, native garments and embroideries, food, and gold in the form of adornments (gold belts, necklace, wrist rings, and feet rings) and barter money (piloncitos and gold rings).[73][74] Animal statues, notably nativedogs, guard adambana structure along with engravings and calligraphy portraying protections and theanitos.[75][76]
In 2014, the international astronomical monitoring agencyMinor Planet Center (MPC) named Asteroid 1982 XB3757 Anagolay, after the Tagalog goddess of lost things, Anagolay.[77] In 2019, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) named star Wasp 34 as Aman Sinaya, the Tagalog deity of the ocean, while planet Wasp 34-b was named as Haik, a Tagalog sea god.[78] On the same year, the world's largest caldera was named as theApolaki Caldera, after the god of sun in various indigenous religions in Luzon.[79] In 2021, three bridges in Albay were named after three heroes from the Bicolano religious epic, Ibalon, namely Baltog, Handyong, and Bantog.[80] In 2024,UNESCO inscribed theHinilawod Epic Chant Recordings into its Asia-PacificMemory of the World Register.[81]
In accordance to theNational Cultural Heritage Act, as enacted in 2010, thePhilippine Registry of Cultural Property (PReCUP) was established as the national registry of the Philippine Government used to consolidate in one record all cultural property that are deemed important to the cultural heritage, tangible and intangible, of the Philippines. The registry safeguards a variety of Philippine heritage elements, including oral literature, music, dances, ethnographic materials, and sacred grounds, among many others.[82] The National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Law, as enacted in 1992 and expanded in 2018, also protects certain Anitist sacred grounds in the country.[83]
The indigenous Philippine folk religions were widely spread in the archipelago, prior to the arrival of Abrahamic religions. The majority of the people, however, had converted to Christianity due to Spanish colonization from the 16th to the late 19th century, which continued through the 20th century during and after American colonization.[13][64] During thePhilippine Revolution, there were proposals to revive the indigenous Philippine folk religions and make them thenational religion, but the proposal did not prosper, as the focus at the time was the war against American colonizers.[84]
The Philippine Statistics Authority notes in the 2020 national census, that 0.23% of the Filipino national population are affiliated with indigenous Philippine folk religions, which they wrote as "tribal religions" in their census.[6] This is an increase from the previous 2010 census which recorded 0.19%.[7] Despite the current number of adherents, many traditions from indigenous Philippine folk religions have been integrated into the local practice of Catholicism and Islam, resulting in "Folk Catholicism"[1][2] and "Folk Islam".[8] The continued conversion of adherents of the indigenous Philippine folk religions into Abrahamic religions by missionaries is a notable concern, as certain practices and indigenous knowledge continue to be lost because of the conversions.[85]
Anito: 16th century Tagalog and Visayan (according to Spanish records): an idol or deity inhabiting the idol, also maganito: a ceremony for such idols, and anitero: (Sp.) witch doctor, shaman.
A more general terminology that seems be used throughout the archipelago is based on the signifier for the spirit anito. These includemaganito andanitera.
The maganito went by several different names throughout the islands depending on linguistic groups, such as the babaylan, but the term maganito and similar variations appear to be a more universal of a term in Spanish colonial sources. Because of this universality and its indigenous origins, the term maganito will be used as a general term to describe all the animist shaman missionaries came into contact with in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
| General | |
|---|---|
| Supreme deities | |
| Lesser deities | |
| Epic and folklore heroes | |
| Historical people | |
| Historical events | |
| Belief systems | |
| Spiritual persons | |
| Sacred places | |
| Legendary objects | |
| Mythical creatures | |
| Literary works | |
| Popular culture | |
| Literary sources | |
