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| Total population | |
|---|---|
| 983,700 (2021 census)[1][a] | |
| Languages | |
| MostlyEnglish (Australian English,Australian Aboriginal English, small minorityTorres Strait English) Minority: Australian Aboriginal languages Torres Strait Creole Australian Kriol | |
| Religion | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Papuans,Melanesians |
Indigenous Australians are the variousAboriginal Australian peoples of Australia, and the ethnically distinct people of theTorres Strait Islands. The termsAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples,First Nations of Australia,First Peoples of Australia, andFirst Australians are also common. Many Indigenous Australians prefer to identify with their specific cultural group.[2][b]
Estimates from the 2021 census show there were 983,700 Indigenous Australians, representing 3.8% of the Australian populations. Of these Indigenous Australians, 92% identified as Aboriginal, 4% identified as Torres Strait Islander, and 4% identified with both groups.[1] About 84% spoke English at home and 9% spoke an Australian Indigenous language at home. Just over half hold secular or other spiritual beliefs or no religious affiliation; about 40% are Christian; and about 1% adhere to a traditional Aboriginal religion.
The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians moved into what is now the Australian continent about 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, during thelast glacial period, arriving byland bridges and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia. The ancestors of today'sTorres Strait Islanders arrived from what is nowPapua New Guinea around 2,500 years ago, and settled the islands on the northern tip of the Australian landmass.
Aboriginal Australians were complexhunter-gatherers with diverse economies and societies. There were about 600 tribes or nations and 250 languages with various dialects.[5][6] Certain groups engaged infire-stick farming[7] andfish farming,[8] and builtsemi-permanent shelters.[9][10] The extent to which some groups engaged in agriculture is controversial.[11][12][13] Torres Strait Islanders were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonalhorticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas. They also developed agriculture on some of their islands. Villages had appeared in their areas by the 14th century.[14][15]
The Indigenous population prior to British settlement in 1788 has been estimated from 318,000[16] to more than 3,000,000.[17] A population collapse, principally from new infectious diseases, followed British colonisation in 1788.[18][19]Massacres,frontier armed conflicts and competition over resources with British settlers also contributed to the decline of the Aboriginal population.[20][21]
From the 1930s, the Indigenous population began to recover and Indigenous communities founded organisations to advocate for their rights. From the 1960s, Indigenous people won the right to vote in federal and state elections, and some won the return of parts of their traditional lands. In 1992, theHigh Court of Australia, in theMabo Case, found that Indigenous native title rights existed incommon law. By 2021, Indigenous Australians had exclusive or shared title to about 54% of the Australian land mass.[22] Since 1995, theAustralian Aboriginal flag and theTorres Strait Islander flag have been officialflags of Australia.
From the 19th to the mid-20th century, government policyremoved manymixed heritage children from Aboriginal communities, with the intent to assimilate them to what had become the majority white culture. In 1997 theAustralian Human Rights Commission found that the policy constituted genocide.[23][24]
There are a number of contemporary appropriate terms to use when referring to Indigenous peoples of Australia. In contrast to when settlers referred to them by various terms, in the 21st century there is consensus that it is important to respect the "preferences of individuals, families, or communities, and allow them to define what they are most comfortable with" when referring to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.[2]
The wordaboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century to mean "first or earliest known, indigenous". It comes from theLatinab (from) andorigo (origin, beginning).[25] The term was used in Australia as early as 1789 to describe itsAboriginal peoples. It became capitalised and was used as the common term to refer to both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. Today, the latter peoples are not included in this term. The term "Aborigine" (as opposed to "Aboriginal") is often disfavoured, as it is regarded as havingcolonialist connotations.[26][2][27]
While the term "Indigenous Australians" has grown in popularity since the 1980s,[28] many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples dislike it. They feel that it is too generic[4] and removes their distinct clan and people identity. However, many people think that the term is useful and convenient, and can be used where appropriate.[2]
In recent years[when?], terms such as "First Nations",[29] "First Peoples"[30] and "First Australians" have become more common.[2]
Being as specific as possible, for example naming thelanguage group (such asArrernte), ordemonym relating to geographic area (such asNunga), is preferred as a way to affirm and maintain a sense of identity.[31][32]
British colonists from their early settlement used the term "Black" to refer to Aboriginal Australians[33] and later Torres Strait Islanders. While the term originally related toskin colour and was often used pejoratively,[2] today the term is used to indicate Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander heritage or culture in general. It refers to any people of such heritage regardless of their level of skin pigmentation.[34]
In the 1970s, with a rise in Aboriginal activism, leaders such asGary Foley proudly embraced the term "Black". For example, writerKevin Gilbert's book of that time was entitledLiving Black. The book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community, includingRobert Jabanungga, who reflected on contemporary Aboriginal culture.[35]Living Black is also the name of an Australian TV news and current affairs program covering "issues affecting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians".[36] It is presented and produced byKarla Grant, anArrernte woman.[37]
Use of the term "Black" varies depending on context, and its use may be deemed inappropriate.[2] Furthermore, the term sometimes causes confusion as it can refer to Indigenous Australians, other groups such asAfrican Australians and Melanesian Australians (South Sea Islanders,Papua New Guinean Australians, andFijian Australians) or allBlack people.[38]
A significant number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people use the term "Blackfella" and its associated forms to refer to Aboriginal Australians.[2][39][40]
The termblak is sometimes used as part of a wider social movement (seen in terms such as "Blaktivism" and "Blak History Month"[41]). The term was coined in 1991 by photographer and multimedia artistDestiny Deacon, in an exhibition entitledBlak lik mi. For Deacon's 2004 exhibition at theMuseum of Contemporary Art,blak was defined in a museum guide as: "a term used by some Aboriginal people to reclaim historical, representational, symbolical, stereotypical and romanticised notions of Black or Blackness. Often used as ammunition or inspiration."[42] Deacon said that removing thec fromblack to "de-weaponise the term 'blackcunt'"[43] was "taking on the 'colonisers' language and flipping it on its head".[44]
Contemporary Aboriginal arts in the 21st century are sometimes referred to as a "Blak" arts movement, expressed in names such as BlakDance,[45] BlakLash Collective,[46] and the title ofThelma Plum's song and album,Better in Blak. Melbourne has an annual Blak & Bright literary festival,[47] Blak Dot Gallery, Blak Markets, and Blak Cabaret.[44]
"Aboriginal Australians" refers to the various peoples indigenous to mainland Australia and associated islands, excluding the Torres Strait Islands.
The term Aboriginal Australians includes many regional groups that may be identified under names based on local language, locality, or what they are called by neighbouring groups. Groups can overlap, contain sub-groups. Groups can also evolve over time, and significant changes have occurred since colonisation. The word "community" is often used to describe groups identifying bykinship,language, or belonging to a particular place or "country". An individual community may identify itself by many names, each of which can have alternative English spellings.
Throughout the history of the continent, there have been many different Aboriginal groups, each with its own individuallanguage, culture, and belief structure. At the time of British settlement, there were over 200 distinct languages.[48]
Torres Strait Islanders are the Indigenous Melanesian people of theTorres Strait Islands, which are part of the state ofQueensland. They are ethnically distinct from the Aboriginal peoples of the rest of Australia. Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify fully asTorres Strait Islanders. A further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage.[49]
TheTorres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands,[50] which were annexed by Queensland in 1879.[50]
![Geographical distribution of people with Torres Strait Islander Indigenous status[51]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTorres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg)
![Geographical distribution of people with both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Indigenous status[51]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBoth_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg)
![Geographical distribution of people with Torres Strait Islander ancestry[51]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTorres_Strait_Islander_ancestry.jpg)
![Indigenous status of population in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population[51]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTorres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_Indigenous_Status.jpg)
![Ancestry of population in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population (Torres Strait Islander or other)[51]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTorres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_ancestry.jpg)
![Languages used at home by Torres Strait Islanders in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population[51]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTorres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg)
![Religious affiliations of Torres Strait islanders in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population[51]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTorres_Strait_Islander_Religious_affiliation.jpg)
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people also sometimes refer to themselves by descriptions that relate to theirecological environment, such assaltwater people for coast-dwellers (including Torres Strait Islander people[52]),[53][54][55][56][57]freshwater people,[58][59]rainforest people,[60][61][62]desert people,[63][64][65] orspinifex people,[4] (the latter referring to thePila Nguru ofWestern Australia).[66][67]
The ancestors ofAboriginal Australians moved into what is now the Australian continent about 50,000 to 65,000 years ago,[68][69][70][71] during thelast glacial period, arriving byland bridges and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia.[72]
The first phase of occupation of the Torres Strait Islands began about 4,000 years ago. By 2,500 years ago more of the islands were occupied and a distinctiveTorres Strait Islander maritime culture emerged. Agriculture also developed on some islands and by 700 years ago villages appeared.[73]
Several settlements of humans in Australia have been dated around 49,000 years ago.[74][75]Luminescence dating of sediments surrounding stone artefacts atMadjedbebe, a rock shelter in northern Australia, indicates human activity as early as 65,000 years BP.[76] Genomic studies, however, suggest that the main wave of modern humans into Australia ancestral to Aboriginal Australians happened as recently as 37,000 to 50,000 years ago.[77][78][79] Accordingly, earlier groups either went extinct or contributed around ~2% ancestry to modern Aboriginal Australians.[80][81][82][83] Indigenous Australians and other Oceanians were probably part of the samesouthern route dispersal as the ancestors ofAncient Ancestral South Indians,Andamanese, andEast Asians.[84][85][79][86][87]
The earliest anatomically modern human remains found in Australia (and outside of Africa) are those ofMungo Man; they have been dated at 42,000 years old.[88][89] The initial comparison of themitochondrial DNA from the skeleton known asLake Mungo 3 (LM3) with that of ancient and modern Aboriginal peoples indicated that Mungo Man is not related to Australian Aboriginal peoples.[90] The sequence has been criticised as there has been no independent testing, and it has been suggested that the results may be due to posthumous modification and thermal degradation of the DNA.[91][92][93][94] Although the contested results seem to indicate that Mungo Man may have been an extinct subspecies that diverged before the most recent common ancestor of contemporary humans,[90] the administrative body for theMungo National Park believes that present-day local Aboriginal peoples are descended from theLake Mungo remains.[95]
It is generally believed that Aboriginal people are the descendants of a single migration into the continent, a people that split from the ancestors of East Asians.[96][87]
Recent work with mitochondrial DNA suggests a founder population of between 1,000 and 3,000 women to produce the genetic diversity observed, which suggests that "initial colonisation of the continent would have required deliberate organised sea travel, involving hundreds of people".[97] Aboriginal people seem to have lived a long time in the same environment as the now extinctAustralian megafauna.[98]
Genetic studies have suggested that Aboriginal Australians largely descended from anEastern Eurasian population wave during theInitial Upper Paleolithic, and are most closely related to otherOceanians, such asMelanesians. The Aboriginal Australians also show affinity toAncient Ancestral South Indians, theAndamanese people, as well as toEast Asian peoples. Phylogenetic data suggests that an early initial eastern non-African (ENA) or East-Eurasian meta-population trifurcated, and gave rise to Australasians (Oceanians), the Ancient Ancestral South Indians,Andamanese and the East/Southeast Asian lineage including the ancestors ofNative Americans,[85][79][86][84] although Papuans may have also received some geneflow from an earlier group (xOOA) as well, around 2%,[99] next to additional archaic admixture in theSahul region.[86][c][100]
Rasmussen et al. 2011 shows that Aboriginal Australian have a lower proportion of European alleles compared to Asians, which they believe is indicative of a multiple dispersal model.[102] Genetically, while Aboriginal Australians are most closely related toMelanesian (includingPapuan) people, McEvoy et al. 2010[103] believed there is also another component that could indicate Ancient Ancestral South Indian admixture or more recent European influence. Research indicates a single foundingSahul group with subsequent isolation between regional populations which were relatively unaffected by later migrations from the Asian mainland, which may have introduced thedingo 4,000–5,000 years ago. The research also suggests a divergence from the Papuan people ofNew Guinea and theMamanwa people of thePhilippines about 32,000 years ago, with a rapid population expansion about 5,000 years ago.[103] A 2011 genetic study found evidence that the Aboriginal, Papuan and Mamanwa peoples carry some of the alleles associated with theDenisovan peoples of Asia, (not found amongst populations in mainland Asia) suggesting that modern and archaic humans interbred in Asia approximately 44,000 years ago, before Australia separated from New Guinea and the migration to Australia.[104][105] A 2012 paper reports that there is also evidence of a substantial genetic flow from India to northern Australia estimated at slightly over four thousand years ago, a time when changes in tool technology and food processing appear in the Australian archaeological record, suggesting that these may be related.[106] Bergström et al 2016 and Nagle et al 2016 could not replicate 2012 study, noting that Indigenous Australians split from mainland Asia 50,000 years ago.[107][108] Mallick et al. 2016 and Mark Lipson et al. 2017 study found that the bifurcation of Eastern Eurasian and Western Eurasian dates back to least 45,000 years ago, with Australasians nested inside the Eastern Eurasian clade.[96][87] Vallini et al. 2024 noted that the divergence between Ancient East Eurasians and West Eurasians most likely occurred on thePersian Plateau >48,000 years ago, with East Eurasians dispersing throughout the Asia-Pacific region >45,000 years ago.[79]
Aboriginal Australian men havehaplogroup C-M347 in high frequencies with peak estimates ranging from 60.2%[109] to 68.7%.[110] In addition, the basal form K2* (K-M526) of the extremely ancienthaplogroup K2 – whose subcladeshaplogroup R,haplogroup Q,haplogroup M andhaplogroup S can be found in the majority of Europeans, South Asians,Native Americans and theIndigenous peoples of Oceania – has only been found in living humans today amongst Aboriginal Australians. 27% of them may carry K2* and approximately 29% of Aboriginal Australian males belong to subclades ofK2b1, also known asM andS.[111]
Aboriginal Australians possess deep rooted clades of both mtDNAhaplogroup M andhaplogroup N.[112]
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Aboriginal people in some regions lived asforagers andhunter-gatherers. Although Aboriginal society was generally mobile, orsemi-nomadic, moving according to the changing food availability found across different areas as seasons changed, the mode of life and material cultures varied greatly from region to region, and there were permanent settlements[113] and agriculture[114] in some areas. The greatest population density was to be found in the southern and eastern regions of the continent, theRiver Murray valley in particular.[115]
There is some evidence that, before outside contact, some groups of Aboriginal Australians had a complex subsistence system with elements of agriculture, that was only recorded by the first European explorers. One early settler took notes on the life styles of theWathaurung people whom he lived near in Victoria. He saw women harvestingmurnong tubers, a native yam that is now almost extinct. However, the area that they were harvesting from was already cleared of other plants, making it easier to harvest murnong (also known as yam daisy) exclusively.[115]
Along the northern coast of Australia,parsnip yams were harvested by leaving the bottom part of the yam still stuck in the ground so that it would grow again in the same spot.[116] Similar to many other farmers in the world, Aboriginal peoples used slash-and-burn techniques to enrich the nutrients of their soil. However, sheep and cattle later brought over by Europeans would ruin this soil by trampling on it.[116] To add on the complexity of Aboriginal farming techniques, farmers deliberately exchanged seeds to begin growing plants where they did not naturally occur.[117] In fact there were so many examples of Aboriginal Australians managing farm land in a complex manner that Australian anthropologistNorman Tindale was able to draw an Aboriginal grain belt, detailing the specific areas where crops were once produced.[118]
In terms of aquaculture, explorerThomas Mitchell noted large stone fish traps on the Darling River at Brewarrina. Each trap covers a pool, herding fish through a small entrance that would later be shut. Traps were created at different heights to accommodate different water levels during floods and droughts.[119]
Technology used by Indigenous Australian societies before European contact included weapons, tools, shelters, watercraft, and themessage stick. Weapons includedboomerangs, spears (sometimes thrown with awoomera) with stone or fishbone tips, clubs, and (less commonly) axes.[120] TheStone Age tools available included knives with ground edges, grinding devices, and eating containers.Fibrecraft was well-developed, and fibre nets, baskets, and bags were used for fishing, hunting, and carrying liquids. Trade networks spanned the continent, and transportation includedcanoes. Shelters varied regionally, and includedwiltjas in theAtherton Tablelands,paperbark andstringybark sheets and raised platforms inArnhem Land, whalebonehuts in what is now South Australia, stone shelters in what is now western Victoria, and a multi-room pole and bark structure found inCorranderrk.[121] A bark tent or lean-to is known as ahumpy, gunyah, or wurley. Clothing included thepossum-skin cloak in the southeast,buka cloak in the southwest andriji (pearl shells) in the northeast.
There is evidence that some Aboriginal populations in northern Australia regularlytraded withMakassan fishermen from Indonesia before the arrival of Europeans.[122][123]
The Indigenous population prior to British settlement has been estimated from 300,000[16] to more than 3,000,000.[17][124][97] Recent archaeological finds suggest that a population of 500,000 to 750,000 could have been sustained, with some ecologists estimating that a population of one million to two million people was possible.[124][125]
The geographic distribution of the pre-contact population is a matter of academic debate. Pardoe argues that the distribution was similar to that of the current Australian population, the majority living in the south-east, centred along theMurray River.[126] However, Evans suggests that the area which is now Queensland was the most densely populated.[127]
In 2011, Ørsted-Jensen proposed the following distribution of the pre-contact population:
| State/territory | Estimates of population share | Pre-contact | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1930 | 1988 | ||
| Queensland | 38.2% | 37.9% | 34.2% |
| Western Australia | 19.7% | 20.2% | 22.1% |
| Northern Territory | 15.9% | 12.6% | 17.2% |
| New South Wales | 15.3% | 18.9% | 10.3% |
| Victoria | 4.8% | 5.7% | 5.7% |
| South Australia | 4.8% | 4.0% | 8.6% |
| Tasmania | 1.4% | 0.6% | 2.0% |
The Torres Strait peoples' fishing economy relied on boats, which they built themselves. There is also evidence of the construction of large, complexbuildings on stilts anddomed structures usingbamboo, withthatched roofs, which catered for extended family members living together.[115][unreliable source?]
British exploration of the Australian coastline began with the buccaneerWilliam Dampier in 1688 and 1699. Dampier was impressed neither by the country nor the people of the west Australian coast.[128] Almost a century later, the explorerJames Cook mapped the east coast of Australia and claimed the territory for Britain in the name ofKing George III.[129] Cook was impressed both by the land and the people whom he encountered, writing in his journal: "From what I have said of the Natives ofNew Holland they may appear to some to be the most wretched people upon Earth, but in reality they are far more happier than we Europeans; being wholy unacquainted not only with the superfluous but the necessary conveniencies so much sought after in Europe, they are happy in not knowing the use of them. They live in a Tranquillity which is not disturb'd by the Inequality of Condition".[130]
Nevertheless, Cook also noted in his journal two men at Botany Bay who "seem'd resolved to oppose" his first landing. According to Cook, after one of the men threw a rock, Cook fired a musquet loaded with small shott, which struck him with little effect.[131] Some shott was lodged into one of the men's shields and was taken back to England by Cook, where it remains in the British Museum.[132]
Cook spent a greater period of time among the Guugu Yimithirr people around modernCooktown in Queensland, where his ship was nearly wrecked on the Great Barrier Reef. Here relations were generally amicable and Cook recorded words from their language including "kangaroo", though a fight broke out when the British took turtles from the river without sharing them. Peace was restored when an elder presented Cook with a broken-tipped spear as a peace offering – remembered as a first "act of reconciliation". The encounter is commemorated annually by the Guugu Yimithirr to this day.[133]
Cook's favourable impression of the East Coast of Australia led directly to the commencement of the British colonisation of Australia, commencing at Sydney in 1788. TheFirst Fleet of British ships was commanded by GovernorArthur Phillip, who had been instructed to "endeavour by every possible means to open an intercourse with the natives, and to conciliate their affections", and to enjoin his British subjects to "live in amity and kindness with them" so as "to cultivate an acquaintance with them without their having an idea of our great superiority over them".[134]
British colonisation of Australia began with the arrival of theFirst Fleet inBotany Bay, New South Wales, in 1788. Settlements were subsequently established inTasmania (1803),Victoria (1803),Queensland (1824),Western Australia (1826), and theColony of South Australia (1836).[135]
The first settlement in theNorthern Territory was built after CaptainGordon Bremer took possession of theTiwi Islands ofBathurst andMelville, claiming them for thecolony of New South Wales, although that settlement failed after a few years,[136] along with a couple of later attempts; permanent settlement was only finally achieved atDarwin in 1869.
Australia was the exception to British imperial colonisation practices, in that no treaty was drawn up setting out terms of agreement between the settlers and native proprietors, as was the case in North America andNew Zealand.[135] Many of the men on the First Fleet had had military experience among Native American tribes in North America, and tended to attribute to the Aboriginal people alien and misleading systems or concepts likechieftainship andtribe with which they had become acquainted in the northern hemisphere.[137]
British administrative control began in the Torres Strait Islands in 1862, with the appointment of John Jardine, police magistrate atRockhampton, as Government Resident in the Torres Straits. He originally established a small settlement onAlbany Island, but on 1 August 1864 he went to Somerset Island.[138] English missionaries arrived onErub (Darnley Island) on 1 July 1871.[139] In 1872 the boundary of Queensland was extended to includeThursday Island and some other islands in Torres Strait within 60 miles (97 km) of the Queensland coast, and in 1879 Queenslandannexed the other islands, which became part of the Britishcolony of Queensland.[138]
One immediate consequence was a series of epidemics of European diseases such asmeasles,smallpox andtuberculosis. In the 19th century, smallpox was the principal cause of Aboriginal deaths, and vaccinations of the "native inhabitants" had begun in earnest by the 1840s.[19] This smallpox epidemic in 1789 is estimated to have killed up to 90% of theDarug people. The cause of the outbreak is disputed. Some scholars have attributed it to European settlers,[140][141] but it is also argued thatMacassan fishermen fromSouth Sulawesi and nearby islands may have introduced smallpox to Australia before the arrival of Europeans.[142] A third suggestion is that the outbreak was caused by contact with members of theFirst Fleet.[143] A fourth theory is that the epidemic was ofchickenpox, not smallpox, carried by members of the First Fleet, and to which the Aboriginal people also had no immunity.[144][145][146][147] Moreover, Aboriginal people were infected with sexually transmitted infections, especially syphilis and gonorrhea.
Another consequence of British colonisation was European seizure of land and water resources, with the decimation of kangaroo and other food sources which continued throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries as rural lands were converted for sheep and cattle grazing.[148] Settlers also participated in the rape and forcible prostitution of Aboriginal women.[149]
Some Europeans, for example escaped convicts, lived in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities.[150]
In 1834 there occurred the first recorded use ofAboriginal trackers, who proved very adept at navigating their way through the Australian landscape and finding people.[151]
During the 1860s,Tasmanian Aboriginal skulls were particularly sought internationally for studies intocraniofacial anthropometry. The skeleton ofTruganini, a Tasmanian Aboriginal who died in 1876, was exhumed within two years of her death despite her pleas to the contrary by theRoyal Society of Tasmania, and later placed on display. Campaigns continue to have Aboriginal body parts returned to Australia for burial; Truganini's body was returned in 1976 and cremated, and her ashes were scattered according to her wishes.[citation needed]
Place names sometimes reveal discrimination, such as Mount Jim Crow inRockhampton, Queensland (nowMount Baga), as well as racist policies, like Brisbane's Boundary Streets, which used to indicate boundaries where Aboriginal people were not allowed to cross during certain times of the day.[152] There is ongoing discussion about changing many of these names.[153][154]
Throughout most of the 19th and 20th centuries, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people had their lives under the jurisdiction of various state-based protection laws. TheseActs of Parliament appointedProtectors of Aborigines andAboriginal Protection Boards, whose role was to control the lives of Indigenous Australians.[155] Wages were controlled by the Protectors, and Indigenous Australians received less income than their non-Indigenous counterparts in employment.[156][157]
During this time, many Aboriginal people were victims of slavery by colonists alongsidePacific Islander peoples who were kidnapped from their homes, in a practice known asblackbirding. Between 1860 and 1970, under the guise of protectionist policies, people, including children as young as 12, were forced to work on properties where they worked under horrific conditions and most did not receive any wages.[158] In thepearling industry, Aboriginal peoples were bought for about 5 pounds, with pregnant Aboriginal women "prized because their lungs were believed to have greater air capacity".[159] Aboriginal prisoners in the Aboriginal-only prison onRottnest Island, many of whom were there on trumped up charges, were chained up and forced to work.[160] In 1971, 373 Aboriginal men were found buried in unmarked graves on the island.[161] Up until June 2018, the former prison was being used as holiday accommodation.[162]
From 1810, Aboriginal peoples were moved onto mission stations, run by churches and the state.[163] After this period of protectionist policies that aimed to segregate and control Aboriginal populations, in 1937 the Commonwealth government agreed to move towards assimilation policies. These policies aimed to integrate Aboriginal persons who were "not of full blood" into the white community in an effort to eliminate the "Aboriginal problem". As part of this, there was an increase in the number of children forcibly removed from their homes and placed with white people, either in institutions or foster homes.[164]
As part of the colonisation process, there were many conflicts and clashes between colonists and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people across the continent and islands. In Queensland, the killing of Aboriginal peoples was largely perpetrated by civilian "hunting" parties and the Native Police, armed groups of Aboriginal men who were recruited at gunpoint and led by government officers to eliminate Aboriginal resistance.[165] There is evidence that massacres of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, which began with arrival of British colonists, continued until the 1930s. Researchers at theUniversity of Newcastle underLyndall Ryan have been mapping the massacres.[166] as of 2020[update] they have mapped almost 500 places where massacres happened, with 12,361 Aboriginal people killed and 204 Colonists killed,[167] numbering at least 311 massacres over a period of about 140 years. After losing a significant number of their social unit in one blow, the survivors were left very vulnerable – with reduced ability to gather food, reproduce, or fulfill their ceremonial obligations, as well as defend themselves against further attack.[168]
Estimating the total number of deaths during the frontier wars is difficult due to lack of records and the fact that many massacres of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander were kept secret.[166] It is often quoted that 20,000 Aboriginal Australians and 2000 colonists died in the frontier wars;[169] however, recent research indicates at least 40,000 Aboriginal dead and 2,000 to 2,500 settlers dead.[170] Other research indicates a minimum of 65,000 Aboriginal peoples may have been killed in Queensland alone.[171]
There have been arguments over whether deaths of Aboriginal peoples, particularly in Tasmania, as well as the forcible removal of children from Aboriginal communities, constitutesgenocide.[172] There has been a broad range of historical research on the massacres and treatment of Aboriginal peoples, including by Lyndall Ryan at the Centre for 21st Century Humanities,[173] the Frontier Conflict Database,[174] and the Australian Commonwealth government's Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) Report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children From their Families.[175]
According to the analysis of Justice Ronald Wilson in the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Report Australia's policy of forcible removal was genocidal in nature. Quoting Raphael Lemkin, Wilson defined genocide as "a coordinated plan of different actions aimed at the destruction of the essential foundations of the lives of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves."[176] The objectives of which were "the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, the destruction of personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups."[176]
Wilson states that "Genocide can be committed by means other than actual physical extermination. It is committed by the forcible transfer of children, provided the other elements of the crime are established."[175] He points out that "Genocide is committed even when the destruction has not been carried out. A conspiracy to commit genocide and an attempt at genocide are both crimes which are committed whether or not any actual destruction occurred."[175] Further, Wilson found that "The debates at the time of the drafting of the Genocide Convention establish clearly that an act or policy is still genocidal when it is motivated by a number of objectives. To constitute an act of genocide the planned extermination of a group need not be solely motivated by animosity or hatred."...and that "reasonable foreseeability...is sufficient to establish the Convention's intent element."[175] He concluded that "The policy of forcible removal of children from Indigenous Australians to other groups for the purpose of raising them separately from and ignorant of their culture and people could properly be labelled 'genocidal' in breach of binding international law from at least 11 December 1946...The practice continued for almost another quarter of a century."[175]
There are few memorials in Australia acknowledging the widespread massacres of Aboriginal Peoples, and no memorials describing it as genocide. However, the massacres were often recorded by Australians as place names, for example:Murdering Gully in Newcastle, Murdering Creek at Lake Weyba, Skull Pocket and Skeleton Creek near Cairns, Rifle Creek near Mt Molloy Qld, Skull Lagoon near Mt Carbine Qld, Skull Hole near Winton Qld, Battle Camp Road, Range and Station east of Laura Qld, Slaughterhouse Creek (Waterloo Creek) NSW.[177]
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The Stolen Generations were those children of Australian Aboriginal andTorres Strait Islander descent who were forcibly removed[178] from their families by the Australianfederal andstate government agencies andchurch missions for the purpose of eradicating Aboriginal culture, underacts of their respective parliaments.[e][179] The forcible removal of these children occurred in the period between approximately 1871[180] and 1969,[181][182] although in some places children were still being taken in the 1970s.[f]
By 1900, the recorded Indigenous population of Australia had declined to approximately 93,000.[16] However, this was only a partial count, as both Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders were poorly covered, with desert Aboriginal peoples not counted at all until the 1930s.[citation needed] During the first half of the twentieth century, many Indigenous Australians worked asstockmen onsheep stations andcattle stations for extremely low wages. The Indigenous population continued to decline, reaching a low of 74,000 in 1933 before numbers began to recover. By 1995, population numbers had reached pre-colonisation levels, and in 2010 there were around 563,000 Indigenous Australians.[125]
Although, asBritish subjects, all Indigenous Australians were nominally entitled to vote, generally only those who merged into mainstream society did so. Only Western Australia and Queensland specifically excluded Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from the electoral rolls. Despite theCommonwealth Franchise Act 1902, which excluded "Aboriginal natives of Australia, Asia, Africa and Pacific Islands except New Zealand" from voting unless they were on the roll before 1901, South Australia insisted that all voters enfranchised within its borders would remain eligible to vote in the Commonwealth, and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people continued to be added to their rolls, albeit haphazardly.[citation needed]
Despite efforts to bar their enlistment, over 1,000 Indigenous Australians fought for Australia in the First World War.[183]
1934 saw the first appeal to theHigh Court by an Aboriginal Australian, and it succeeded. Dhakiyarr was found to have been wrongly convicted of the murder of a white policeman, for which he had been sentenced to death; the case focused national attention onAboriginal rights issues. Dhakiyarr disappeared upon release.[184][185] In 1938, the 150th anniversary of the arrival of the BritishFirst Fleet was marked as aDay of Mourning and Protest at an Aboriginal meeting in Sydney, and has since become marked around Australia as "Invasion Day" or "Survival Day" by Aboriginal protesters and their supporters.[186]
Hundreds of Indigenous Australians served in the Australian armed forces during World War Two – including with theTorres Strait Light Infantry Battalion and TheNorthern Territory Special Reconnaissance Unit, which were established to guardAustralia's North against the threat of Japanese invasion.[187] However, most were denied pension rights and military allotments, except in Victoria, where each case was judged individually, without a blanket denial of rights accruing from their service.[g]
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The 1960s was a pivotal decade in the assertion of Aboriginal rights and a time of growing collaboration between Aboriginal activists and white Australian activists.[188] In 1962, Commonwealth legislation guaranteed Aboriginal people the right to vote inCommonwealth elections, which had previously been denied to Indigenous people in Queensland and Western Australia.[189] A group ofUniversity of Sydney students organised a bus tour of western and coastal New South Wales towns in 1965 to raise awareness of the state of Aboriginal health and living conditions. ThisFreedom Ride also aimed to highlight the social discrimination faced by Aboriginal people and encourage Aboriginal people themselves to resist discrimination.[190]
As mentioned above, Indigenous Australians received lower wages than their non-Indigenous counterparts in employment. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Queensland in particular had their income quarantined by the Protector and were allowed a minimal amount of their income.[156][157] In 1966,Vincent Lingiari led the famousWave Hill walk-off (Gurindji strike) of Indigenous employees ofWave Hill Station in protest against poor pay and conditions[191] (later the subject of thePaul Kelly andKev Carmody song "From Little Things Big Things Grow").[192] Since 1999, theQueensland Government, under pressure from theQueensland Council of Unions, has established a number of schemes to give any earned income not received at the time back to Indigenous Australians.[156][157]
The landmark1967 referendum called by Prime MinisterHarold Holt allowed theCommonwealth to make laws with respect to Aboriginal people by modifyingsection 51(xxvi) of the Constitution, and for Aboriginal people to be included when the country does a count to determine electoral representation by repealingsection 127. The referendum passed with 90.77% voter support.[193]
In the controversial 1971Gove land rights case, Justice Blackburn ruled that Australia had beenterra nullius before British settlement, and that no concept ofnative title existed in Australian law. Following the 1973Woodward commission, in 1975 the federal government underGough Whitlam drafted the Aboriginal Land Rights Bill. This was enacted the following year under theFraser government as theAboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976, which recognised Aboriginal Australians' system of land rights in the Northern Territory, and established the basis upon which Aboriginal people in the NT could claim rights to land based ontraditional occupation.[194][195][196][197]
In 1985, the Australian government returned ownership ofUluru (Ayers Rock) to thePitjantjatjara Aboriginal people.[198] In 1992, theHigh Court of Australia reversed Justice Blackburn's ruling and handed down its decision in theMabo Case, declaring the previous legal concept ofterra nullius to be invalid and confirming the existence ofnative title in Australia.[199][200]
Indigenous Australians began to serve in parliaments from the late 1960s.[201] In 1971,Neville Bonner joined theAustralian Senate as a Senator for Queensland for theLiberal Party, becoming the first Indigenous Australian in the Federal Parliament. A year later, theAboriginal Tent Embassy was established on the steps ofParliament House inCanberra. In 1976, SirDouglas Nicholls was appointed as the 28th Governor of South Australia, the first Aboriginal person appointed to vice-regal office.[202] In thegeneral election of 2010,Ken Wyatt of theLiberal Party became the first Indigenous Australian elected to theAustralian House of Representatives. In thegeneral election of 2016,Linda Burney of theAustralian Labor Party became the second Indigenous Australian, and the first Indigenous Australian woman, elected to theAustralian House of Representatives.[203] She was immediately appointedShadow Minister for Human Services.[204]
In sportEvonne Goolagong Cawley became the world number-one ranked tennis player in 1971 and won 14 Grand Slam titles during her career. In 1973Arthur Beetson became the first Indigenous Australian to captain his country in any sport when he first led the Australian National Rugby League team,the Kangaroos.[205] In 1982,Mark Ella became captain of theAustralia national rugby union team.[206] In 2000, Aboriginal sprinterCathy Freeman lit theOlympic flame at the opening ceremony of the2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, and went on to win the400 metres at the Games. In 2019, tennis playerAshleigh Barty was ranked world number one.[207]
In 1984,a group ofPintupi people who were living a traditionalhunter-gatherer desert-dwelling life were tracked down in theGibson Desert in Western Australia and brought in to a settlement. They are believed to have been the lastuncontacted people in Australia.[208][209]
During this period, the federal government enacted a number of significant, but controversial, policy initiatives in relation to Indigenous Australians. A representative body, theAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC), was set up in 1990.[210]
Reconciliation between non-Indigenous and Indigenous Australians became a significant issue in Australian politics in the late 20th century. In 1991, theCouncil for Aboriginal Reconciliation was established by the federal government to facilitate reconciliation. In 1998, a Constitutional Convention which selected a Republican model for a referendum included just six Indigenous participants, leading Monarchist delegateNeville Bonner to end his contribution to the convention with his Jagera tribal "Sorry Chant" in sadness at the low number of Indigenous representatives.[211]
An inquiry into theStolen Generations was launched in 1995 by theKeating government, and the final report delivered in 1997 – theBringing Them Home report – estimated that around 10% to 33% of all Aboriginal children had been separated from their families for the duration of the policies.[212] The succeedingHoward government largely ignored the recommendations provided by the report, one of which was a formal apology to Aboriginal Australians for the Stolen Generations.[212]
The republican model, as well as a proposal for a new Constitutional preamble which would have included the "honouring" of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, was put toreferendum but did not succeed.[211] In 1999, the Australian Parliament passed aMotion of Reconciliation drafted by Prime MinisterJohn Howard in consultation with Aboriginal SenatorAden Ridgeway naming mistreatment of Indigenous Australians as the most "blemished chapter in our national history", although Howard refused to offer any formal apology.[213]
On 13 February 2008, Prime MinisterKevin Rudd issued a formalapology to Australia's Indigenous peoples, on behalf of the federal government of Australia, for the suffering caused by the Stolen Generations.[214]
In 2001, the Federal Government dedicatedReconciliation Place in Canberra. On 13 February 2008, Prime MinisterKevin Rudd reversed Howard's decision and issued apublic apology to members of theStolen Generations on behalf of the Australian Government.[215]
ATSIC was abolished by the Australian Government in 2004 amidst allegations of corruption.[210]
TheNorthern Territory National Emergency Response (also known as the Intervention) was launched in 2007 by the government of Prime MinisterJohn Howard, in response to theLittle Children are Sacred report into allegations ofchild abuse among Aboriginal communities in the NT. The government banned alcohol in prescribed communities in the Territory; quarantined a percentage ofwelfare payments for essential goods purchasing; dispatched additional police and medical personnel to the region; and suspended the permit system for access to Aboriginal communities.[216] In addition to these measures, thearmy were released into communities[217] and there were increased police powers, which were later further increased with the so-called "paperless arrests" legislation.[218]
In 2010, United Nations Special Rapporteur James Anaya found the Emergency Response to be racially discriminatory, and said that aspects of it represented a limitation on "individual autonomy".[219][220] These findings were criticised by the government's Indigenous Affairs MinisterJenny Macklin, the Opposition and Indigenous leaders likeWarren Mundine andBess Price.[221][222]
In 2011, the Australian government enacted legislation to implement theStronger Futures policy, which is intended to address key issues that exist within Aboriginal communities of the Northern Territory such as unemployment, school attendance and enrolment,alcohol abuse, community safety and child protection, food security and housing and land reforms. The policy has been criticised by organisations such asAmnesty International and other groups, including on the basis that it maintains "racially-discriminatory" elements of theEmergency Response Act and continues control by the federal government over "Aboriginal people and their lands".[223]
In 2010, the federal government appointed a panel comprising Indigenous leaders, other legal experts and some members of parliament (including Ken Wyatt) to provide advice on how best to recognise Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in thefederal Constitution. The panel's recommendations, reported to the federal government in January 2012,[215] included deletion of provisions of the Constitution referencing race (Section 25 andSection 51(xxvi)), and new provisions on meaningful recognition and further protection from discrimination.[h] Subsequently, aproposed referendum on Constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians was ultimately abandoned in 2013.
TheUluru Statement from the Heart[224] was released 26 May 2017 by delegates to an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Referendum Convention, held nearUluru in Central Australia. The statement calls for a "First Nations Voice" in the Australian Constitution and a "Makarrata Commission" to supervise a process of "agreement-making" and "truth-telling" between government and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.[225] The statement references the1967 referendum which brought about changes to the Constitution to include Indigenous Australians.
The Australian Bureau of Statistics estimates that in 2021 there were 983,700 Indigenous Australians, of whom 901,700 were Aboriginal, 39,540 Torres Strait Islander, and 39,540 identifying as both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander.[1]
The Indigenous population from 1971 to 2021 are given below. These are based on initial census counts and have not been adjusted for undercounting and other factors.[226]
| Census | Population | Percentage |
|---|---|---|
| 1971 | 115,953 | 0.9% |
| 1976 | 160,915 | 1.2% |
| 1981 | 159,897 | 1.1% |
| 1986 | 206,104 | 1.5% |
| 1991 | 265,378 | 1.6% |
| 1996 | 352,970 | 2.0% |
| 2006 | 455,028 | 2.2% |
| 2011 | 548,368 | 2.5% |
| 2016 | 649,171 | 2.7% |
| 2021 | 812,728 | 3.2% |
Over time Australia has used various means to determine membership of ethnic groups such aslineage,blood quantum, birth andself-determination. From 1869[clarification needed] until well into the 1970s, children under 12 years of age with 25% or less Aboriginal blood were considered "white" and were oftenremoved from their families by the AustralianFederal andState government agencies andchurch missions, underacts of their respective parliaments in order that they would have "a reasonable chance of absorption into the white community to which they rightly belong".[229] Grey areas in determination of ethnicity led to people of mixed ancestry being caught in the middle of divisive policies which often led to absurd situations:[230]
In 1935, an Australian of part Indigenous descent left his home on a reserve to visit a nearby hotel where he was ejected for being Aboriginal. He returned home but was refused entry to the reserve because he was not Aboriginal. He attempted to remove his children from the reserve but was told he could not because they were Aboriginal. He then walked to the next town where he was arrested for being an Aboriginal vagrant and sent to the reserve there. DuringWorld War II he tried to enlist but was rejected because he was an Aborigine so he moved to another state where he enlisted as a non-Aborigine. After the end of the war he applied for a passport but was rejected as he was an Aborigine, he obtained an exemption under the Aborigines Protection Act but was now told he could no longer visit his relatives as he was not an Aborigine. He was later told he could not join theReturned Servicemens Club because he was an Aborigine.
In 1983 theHigh Court of Australia (in theCommonwealth v Tasmania or "Tasmanian dam(s) case")[231] defined an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander as "a person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and is accepted as such by the community in which he or she lives". The ruling was a three-part definition comprising descent, self-identification and community identification. The first part – descent – was genetic descent and unambiguous, but led to cases where a lack of records to prove ancestry excluded some. Self- and community identification were more problematic as they meant that an Indigenous person separated from his or her community due to a family dispute could no longer identify as Aboriginal.[232][233]
As a result, there arose court cases throughout the 1990s where excluded people demanded that their Aboriginality be recognised. As a result, lower courts refined the High Court test when subsequently applying it. In 1995, Justice Drummond in theFederal Court held inGibbs v Capewell "...either genuine self-identification as Aboriginal alone or Aboriginal communal recognition as such by itself may suffice, according to the circumstances." This contributed to an increase of 31% in the number of people identifying as Indigenous Australians in the 1996 census when compared to the 1991 census.[234] In 1998Justice Merkel held inShaw v Wolf that Aboriginal descent is "technical" rather than "real" – thereby eliminating a genetic requirement.[233] This decision established that anyone can classify him or herself legally as an Aboriginal, provided he or she is accepted as such by his or her community.[232]
Indigenous Australians have been counted in every census albeit only approximately and using inconsistent definitions.[235][236] Section 127 of theConstitution, which was repealed in 1967, had excluded "aboriginal natives" from being counted in the overall population statistics for each state and territory and nationally with theAttorney-General[who?] providing a legal advice that a person was an "aboriginal native" if they were a "full-blood aboriginal".[237][238] As a consequence of section 127, Indigenous Australians in remote areas uninhabited by non-Indigenous Australians were not counted prior to 1967 in censuses and sometimes estimated.[238]
Post 1967, Torres Strait Islanders were considered a separate Indigenous people.[239] Prior to 1947, Torres Strait Islanders were considered to be Aboriginal in censuses.[239] In the 1947 census, Torres Strait Islanders were considered to bePolynesian and in the 1954 and 1961 censuses were considered to bePacific Islanders.[239] In the 1966 census, Torres Strait Islanders were considered to be Aboriginal.[239]
A "Commonwealth working definition" for Indigenous Australians was developed from 1968 and endorsed byCabinet in 1978 which contains elements of descent,self-identification and community recognition in contrast to the earlier preponderance of Aboriginal blood definition.[240][241]
As there is no formal procedure for any community to record acceptance, the primary method of determining Indigenous population is from self-identification on census forms. TheAustralian Census includes counts based on questions relating to individuals' self-identification as Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander, or of both origins.[242] Owing to various difficulties which lead to under-counting, theAustralian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) follows a set method to estimate total numbers.[243]
The 2006 Australian census showed growth in the Indigenous population (recorded as 517,000) at twice the rate of overall population growth since 1996, when the Indigenous population stood at 283,000.[citation needed] In the2011 census, there was a 20% rise in people who identify as Aboriginal.[244] In the2016 census, there was another 18.4% rise on the 2011 figure. 590,056 respondents identified themselves as Aboriginal, 32,345Torres Strait Islander, and a further 26,767 both Aboriginal andTorres Strait Islanders.[245] In the2021 Australian census, 812,000 people identified as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander, representing 3.2% of the population. This was an increase from 2.8% in 2016 (i.e. about 25% increase[246]), and 2.5% in 2011.[247] However, the net undercount of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people was 17.4%,[248] and the estimated Indigenous population is around 952,000 to 1,000,000, or just under 4 per cent of the total population.[246]
Growth to 2016 was mainly in major cities and along the eastern coast of Australia. In 2018 the ABS published a report exploring the reasons for these findings, with some of the factors behind the increase being higher fertility rates of Indigenous women; people entering the population through migration; variation in census coverage and response rates; and people changing how they self-identify between census years.[249] Another factor might be the children of mixed marriages: the proportion of Aboriginal adults married (de facto orde jure) to non-Aboriginal spouses increased to 78.2% in the 2016 census,[250] (up from 74% in 2011,[251] 64% in 1996, 51% in 1991 and 46% in 1986); it was reported in 2002 that up to 88% of the offspring of mixed marriages subsequently self-identify as Indigenous Australians.[234][needs update]
In the 2016, over 33% of the Indigenous population lived in major cities, compared with about 75% of the non-Indigenous population, with a further 24% in "inner regional" areas (compared with 18%), 20% in "outer regional" (8%), while nearly 18% lived in "remote" or "very remote" areas (2%).[252] (Ten years earlier, 31% were living in major cities and 24% in remote areas.[253])[needs update]
As of 2021, 84% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders spoke only English at home. Nine percent spoke an Australian Indigenous language at home.[254]
Humans arrived in Australia 50,000 to 65,000 years ago[255][256] but it is possible that the ancestor language of existing Indigenous languages is as recent as 12,000 years old.[257] Over 250Australian Aboriginal languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact.[258] The National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS) for 2018-19 found that more than 120 Indigenous language varieties were in use or being revived, although 70 of those in use are endangered.[259] The 2021 census found that 167 Indigenous languages were spoken at home by 76,978 Indigenous Australians.[260] NILS and the Australian Bureau of Statistics use different classifications for Indigenous Australian languages.[261]
According to the 2021 census, the classifiable Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island languages with the most speakers are Yumplatok (Torres Strait Creole) (7,596 speakers), Kriol (7,403),Djambarrpuyngu (3,839),Pitjantjatjara (3,399),Warlpiri (2,592),Murrinh Patha (2,063) andTiwi (2,053). There were also over 10,000 people who spoke an Indigenous language which could not be further defined or classified.[262]
Several extinct Indigenous languages are being reconstructed. For example, the last fluent speaker of theNgarrindjeri language died in the late 1960s; using recordings and written records as a guide, a Ngarrindjeri dictionary was published in 2009,[263] and the Ngarrindjeri language is today spoken in complete sentences.[264]
Aboriginal languages are divided into two main groups: thePama–Nyungan languages which is spoken across about 90% of the continent, and the non-Pama–Nyungan. Recent research suggests that an ancestor language to all Aboriginal languages was spoken 12,000 years ago and spread across the continent in the past 6,000 years.[257][265]
Three languages are spoken on the islands of theTorres Strait, within Australian territory, by the Melanesian inhabitants of the area: Yumplatok (Torres Strait Creole) (7,596 speakers used the language at home in 2021),Kalaw Lagaw Ya (875 speakers) andMeriam Mir (256 speakers).[262] Meriam Mir is aPapuan language, while Kalaw Lagaw Ya is an Australian language.
A number of English-basedcreoles have arisen in Australia after European contact, of which Kriol and Yumplatok (Torres Strait Creole) are among the strongest and fastest-growing Indigenous languages. Kriol is spoken in theNorthern Territory andWestern Australia, and Torres Strait Creole in Queensland and south-west Papua. It is estimated that there are 20,000 to 30,000 speakers of Indigenous creole languages.[266]
Before British colonisation, there were perhaps five to sixteen languages on Tasmania,[267] possibly related to one another in fourlanguage families.[268] The last speaker of a traditional Tasmanian language,Fanny Cochrane Smith, died in 1905.[269]Palawa kani is an in-progress constructed language, built from a composite of surviving words from various Tasmanian Aboriginal languages.[270]
Traditional Indigenous languages often incorporated sign systems to aid communication with the hearing impaired, to complement verbal communication, and to replace verbal communication when the spoken language was forbidden for cultural reasons. Many of these sign systems are still in use.[271]
Cross-cultural miscommunication can sometimes occur between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples. According to Michael Walsh andGhil'ad Zuckermann, Western conversational interaction is typically "dyadic", between two particular people, where eye contact is important and the speaker controls the interaction; and "contained" in a relatively short, defined time frame. However, traditional Aboriginal conversational interaction is "communal", broadcast to many people, eye contact is not important, the listener controls the interaction; and "continuous", spread over a longer, indefinite time frame.[272][273]
In Aboriginal communities knowledge and decision making is shared between tribal elders. Travellers had to seek elder recognition and acknowledge local Elders – this is increasingly practiced in public events in Australia. Within Aboriginal belief systems, a formative epoch known as "the Dreaming" or "the Dreamtime" stretches back into the distant past when the creator ancestors known as the First Peoples travelled across the land, and naming as they went. Indigenous Australia'soral tradition and religious values are based upon reverence for the land and a belief in this Dreamtime.[274] The Dreaming is at once both the ancient time of creation and the present-day reality of Dreaming. Different language and cultural groups each had their own belief structures; these cultures overlapped to a greater or lesser extent, and evolved over time. Majorancestral spirits include theRainbow Serpent,Baiame,Dirawong andBunjil.[citation needed] Knowledge contained in the Dreaming has been passed down through different stories,songlines, dances and ceremonies, and even today provides a framework for ongoing relationships,kinship responsibilities and looking after country.[275]
Traditional healers (known asNgangkari in theWestern desert areas of Central Australia) were highly respected men and women who not only acted as healers or doctors, but were generally also custodians of important Dreaming stories.[276]
Torres Strait Islander people have their own traditional belief systems. Stories of the Tagai represent Torres Strait Islanders as sea people, with a connection to the stars, as well as a system of order in which everything has its place in the world.[275][277] Some Torres Strait Islander people share beliefs similar to the Aboriginal peoples' Dreaming and "Everywhen" concepts, passed down inoral history.[278]
Christianity andEuropean culture have had a significant impact on Indigenous Australians, their religion and their culture. As in manycolonial situations, the churches both facilitated the loss of Indigenous culture and religion and also facilitated its maintenance.[279] In some cases, such as atHermannsburg, Northern Territory andPiltawodli in Adelaide, the work of missionaries laid the foundations for laterlanguage revival. The German missionariesChristian Teichelmann andSchürmann went toAdelaide and taught the localKaurna people only intheir own language and created textbooks in the language.[280][281] However, somemissionaries taught only in English, and someChristian missions were involved in the placement of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children after they were removed from their parents upon orders of the government, and are therefore implicated in theStolen Generations.
The involvement of Christians in Aboriginal affairs has evolved significantly since 1788.[279] The Churches became involved in mission work among Aboriginal peoples in the 19th century as Europeans came to control much of the continent, and the majority of the population was eventually converted. Colonial clergy such as Sydney's first Catholic archbishop,John Bede Polding, strongly advocated for Aboriginal rights and dignity.[282] Around the year 2000, many churches and church organisations officially apologised for past failures to adequately respect Indigenous cultures and address the injustices of the dispossession of Indigenous people.[279][283]
A small minority of Aboriginal people arefollowers of Islam as a result of intermarriage with"Afghan" camel drivers brought to Australia in the late 19th and early 20th century to help explore and open up the interior.[284]
From the 1870s,Christianity spread throughout the Torres Strait Islands, and it remains strong today among Torres Strait Islander people everywhere. TheLondon Missionary Society mission led by Rev. Samuel Macfarlane arrived onErub (Darnley Island) on 1 July 1871, establishing its first base in the region there. The Islanders refer to this as "The Coming of the Light", or "Coming of Light"[285] and all Island communities celebrate the occasion annually on 1 July.[139] However the coming of Christianity did not spell the end of the people's traditional beliefs; their culture informed their understanding of the new religion, as theChristian God was welcomed and the new religion was integrated into every aspect of their everyday lives.[285]
In the 2016 Census, Australia's Indigenous and non-Indigenous population were broadly similar with 54% (vs 55%) reporting aChristian affiliation, while less than 2% reported traditional beliefs as their religion, and 36% reported no religion. The proportion of Indigenous people who reported no religion has increased gradually since 2001, standing at 36% in 2016. According to "Table 8: Religious Affiliation by Indigenous Status", 347,572 Indigenous people (out of the total 649,171 in Australia) declared an affiliation to some form of Christianity, with a higher proportion of Torres Strait Islander than Aboriginal people in this number. 7,773 reported traditional beliefs; 1,511 Islam; other religions numbered less than 1,000 each. However the question is optional; 48,670 did not respond, and in addition, nearly 4,000 were reported as "inadequately described".[i](In the 2006 census, 73% of the Indigenous population reported an affiliation with a Christian denomination, 24% reported no religious affiliation and 1% reported affiliation with an Australian Aboriginal traditional religion.[286])
Australia has a tradition of Aboriginal art which is thousands of years old, the best known forms being Australian rock art andbark painting. Evidence of Aboriginal art can be traced back at least 30,000 years,[287] with examples of ancient rock art throughout the continent. Some of these are in national parks such as those of theUNESCO listed sites atUluru andKakadu National Park in theNorthern Territory, but examples can also within protected parks in urban areas such as atKu-ring-gai Chase National Park in Sydney.[288][289][290] TheSydney rock engravings are between 5000 and 200 years old.Murujuga, in north-westernWestern Australia was heritage-listed in 2007[291] and inscribed as aWorld Heritage Site in July 2025.[292][293]
In terms of age and abundance,cave art in Australia is comparable to that ofLascaux andAltamira (Upper Paleolithic sites in Europe),[294] and Aboriginal art is believed to be the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world.[295] There are three major regional styles: the geometric style found in Central Australia, Tasmania, the Kimberley and Victoria, known for its concentric circles, arcs and dots; the simple figurative style found inQueensland; and the complex figurative style found inArnhem Land andthe Kimberley. These designs generally carry significance linked to the spirituality of theDreamtime.[287] Paintings were usually created in earthy colours, from paint made fromochre. Such ochres were also used to paint their bodies for ceremonial purposes.[296][297]
Several styles of Aboriginal art have developed in modern times, including thewatercolour paintings of theHermannsburg School and the acrylicPapunya Tula "dot art" movement. Some notable Aboriginal artists includeWilliam Barak (c. 1824–1903) andAlbert Namatjira (1902–1959).
Since the 1970s, Indigenous artists have employed the use of acrylic paints – with styles such as that of theWestern Desert Art Movement becoming globally renowned 20th-century art movements.
TheNational Gallery of Australia exhibits a great many Indigenous art works, including those of theTorres Strait Islands who are known for their traditional sculpture and headgear.[298]
Aboriginal art has influenced many non-Indigenous artists, such asMargaret Preston (1875–1963) andElizabeth Durack (1915–2000).
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Music and dance have formed an integral part of thesocial,cultural andceremonial observances of people through the millennia of the individual and collective histories of Australian Indigenous peoples to the present day.[300][301][302][303] Around 1950, the first research into Aboriginal music was undertaken by the anthropologistA. P. Elkin, who recorded Aboriginal music inArnhem Land.[304]
The various Aboriginal peoples developed unique musical instruments and styles. Thedidgeridoo, which is widely thought to be a stereotypical instrument of Aboriginal people, was traditionally played by Aboriginal men of the easternKimberley region andArnhem Land (such as the Yolngu).[305]Bullroarers andclapsticks were used across Australia.Songlines relate to theDreamtime in Aboriginal culture, overlapping withoral lore.[306]Corroboree is a generic word to explain different genres of performance, embracing songs, dances, rallies and meetings of various kinds.[307]
Indigenous musicians have been prominent in various contemporary styles of music, including creating asub-genre of rock music as well as participating inpop and other mainstream styles.Hip hop music is helping preserve some Indigenous languages.[308]
TheAboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts inBrisbane teaches acting, music and dance, and theBangarra Dance Theatre is an acclaimed contemporary dance company.
ForTorres Strait Islander people, singing and dancing is their "literature" – "the most important aspect of Torres Strait lifestyle. The Torres Strait Islanders preserve and present their oral history through songs and dances;... the dances act as illustrative material and, of course, the dancer himself is the storyteller" (Ephraim Bani, 1979).[309]
There was no written form of the many languages spoken by Indigenous peoples before colonisation. A letter to GovernorArthur Phillip written byBennelong in 1796 is the first known work written in English by an Aboriginal person.[310] Before that, Indigenous societies wereoral. Their cultural isolation for most of the last 65,000 years proved a perfect situation for the construction and preservation of some of the world's oldest stories.[311] The historicYirrkala bark petitions of 1963 are the first traditional Aboriginal documents recognised by theAustralian Parliament.[312]
In the 20th century,David Unaipon (1872–1967), known as the first Aboriginal author, is credited for providing the first accounts of Aboriginal mythology written by an Aboriginal person, in hisLegendary Tales of the Aborigines (1924–1925).Oodgeroo Noonuccal (1920–1995) was a famous Aboriginal poet, writer and rights activist, credited with publishing the first book of verse by an Aboriginal author,We Are Going (1964).[313]Sally Morgan's novelMy Place (1987) was considered a breakthrough memoir in terms of bringing Indigenous stories to a wider audience. The talents of playwrightsJack Davis andKevin Gilbert were recognised.Poetry by Indigenous poets, including traditional song-poetry – ranging from sacred to everyday – has been published since the late 20th century.[j]
Writers coming to prominence in the 21st century includeAlexis Wright;Kim Scott (twice winner of theMiles Franklin Award);Tara June Winch;Melissa Lucashenko; playwright and comedy writerNakkiah Lui; in poetryYvette Holt; and in popular fictionAnita Heiss. Leading activistsMarcia Langton, who wroteFirst Australians (2008) andNoel Pearson (Up From the Mission, 2009) are as of 2020[update] active contemporary contributors to Australian literature. JournalistStan Grant has written several non-fiction works on what it means to be Aboriginal in contemporary Australia, andBruce Pascoe has written both fiction and non-fiction works.AustLit'sBlackWords project provides a comprehensive listing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Writers and Storytellers. TheLiving Archive of Aboriginal Languages contains stories written in traditional languages of theNorthern Territory.
 | It has been suggested that this section besplit out into another article titledIndigenous Australians in the performing arts. (Discuss)(January 2020) |
Australian cinema has a long history, and the ceremonies of Indigenous Australians were among the first subjects to be filmed in Australia – notably a film of Aboriginal dancers in Central Australia, shot by the anthropologistBaldwin Spencer andF.J. Gillen in 1900–1903.[314]
Jedda (1955) was the first Australian feature film to be shot incolour film, the first to star Aboriginal actors in lead roles (Ngarla Kunoth andRobert Tudawali), and the first to be entered at theCannes Film Festival.[315] 1971'sWalkabout was a British film set in Australia; it was a forerunner to many Australian films related to indigenous themes and introducedDavid Gulpilil to cinematic audiences.Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith (1976), directed byFred Schepisi, was an award-winning historical drama from a book byThomas Keneally, about the tragic story of an Aboriginalbushranger.Peter Weir's 1977 mystery dramaThe Last Wave, also starring Gulpilil and featuring elements of Aboriginal beliefs and culture, won severalAACTA Awards.
The canon of films related to Indigenous Australians increased from the 1990s, withNick Parson's filmDead Heart (1996) featuringErnie Dingo andBryan Brown;[316]Rolf de Heer'sThe Tracker (2002), starringGary Sweet and David Gulpilil;[317] andPhillip Noyce'sRabbit-Proof Fence (2002).[318]
Thesoundtrack of the 2006 filmTen Canoes directed byRolf de Heer was filmed entirely in dialects of theYolŋu Matha language group, with the main version featuring subtitles and English narration by David Gulpilil. The film won theUn Certain Regard Special Jury Prize at the2006 Cannes Film Festival.[319][320]The Straits, a 2012 drama series for TV based on an idea by Torres Strait Islander actorAaron Fa'aoso, was partly filmed in the Torres Strait Islands and starred Fa'aoso andJimi Bani (fromMabuiag Island), as well asPapua New Guinean actors.[321] The documentary TV seriesBlue Water Empire (aired 2019), featuring Fa'aoso and Bani, tells the story of Torres Strait Islands frompre-colonial era up to contemporary times.
Many Indigenous actors, directors, producers and others have been involved in the production of film andTV series in the 21st century:Ivan Sen,Rachel Perkins (with her companyBlackfella Films),Aaron Pedersen,Deborah Mailman,Warwick Thornton,Leah Purcell,Shari Sebbens,Sally Riley,Luke Carroll andMiranda Tapsell,Wayne Blair, andTrisha Morton-Thomas, among others, with many of them well-represented in award nominations and wins.[322] The filmsSweet Country (2017),Top End Wedding (2019) and TV seriesCleverman andTotal Control (2019), all made by Aboriginal film-makers and featuring Aboriginal themes, were well-received and in some cases won awards.
The third series of thesketch comedy TV seriesBlack Comedy, co-written byNakkiah Lui,Adam Briggs,Steven Oliver and others, and featuring many Indigenous actors, began to air in January 2020.[323]
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Though lost to history, many traditional forms of recreation were played and while these varied from tribe to tribe, there were often similarities. Ball games were quite popular and played by tribes across Australia, as were games based on use of weapons. There is extensive documented evidence of traditional football games being played. Perhaps the most documented is a game popularly played by tribes in westernVictorian regions of theWimmera,Mallee andMillewa by theDjab wurrung,Jardwadjali andJarijari people. Known asMarn Grook, it was a type of kick and catch football game played with a ball made ofpossum hide.[327] According to some accounts, it was played as far away as theYarra Valley by theWurundjeri people,[328]Gippsland by theGunai people, and theRiverina in south-westernNew South Wales. Some historians claim that Marn Grook had a role in the formation ofAustralian rules football, and many Aboriginal people, from children in remote communities to professional players at the highest level, theAustralian Football League, play the modern game. Well-known players includeGraham Farmer,Gavin Wanganeen,Adam Goodes andLance Franklin. Goodes was also theAustralian of the Year for 2014.
A team of Aboriginal cricketers from the Western District of Victoriatoured England in 1868, making it the first Australian sports team to travel overseas. Cricketer andAustralian rules football pioneerTom Wills coached the team in an Aboriginal language he learnt as a child, andCharles Lawrence accompanied them to England.Johnny Mullagh, the team's star player, was regarded as one of the era's finest batsmen.[329]
Evonne Goolagong became the world number-one ranked femaletennis player, with 14major tennis titles.Ashleigh Barty, inspired by Goolagong, also reached number-one and won three major singles titles. SprinterCathy Freeman earned gold medals in theOlympics, World Championships, andCommonwealth Games.Lionel Rose earned a world title inboxing.Arthur Beetson,Laurie Daley andGorden Tallis captained Australia inrugby league, whileMark Ella captained Australia inrugby union.Nathan Jawai andPatty Mills have played in theNational Basketball Association.
Sporting teams include theIndigenous All-Stars,Flying Boomerangs andIndigenous Team of the Century in Australian rules football, and theIndigenous All Stars,NSW Koori Knockout and theMurri Rugby League Team in rugby league.
To this day, the forced removal of children known as theStolen Generations has had a huge impact on the psyche, health and well-being of Indigenous Australians; it has seriously impacted not only the children removed and their parents, but their descendants as well. Not only were many of thechildren abused –psychologically,physically, orsexually – after being removed and while living in group homes or adoptive families, but were also deprived of their culture alongside their families.[212] This has resulted in the disruption oforal culture, as parents were unable to communicate their knowledge to their children, and thus much has been lost.[212]
There are many issues facing Indigenous people in Australia today when compared with the non-Indigenous population, despite some improvements. Several of these are interrelated, and include health (including shorterlife expectancy and higher rates ofinfant mortality), lower levels of education and employment, inter-generational trauma, highimprisonment rates,substance abuse and lack of political representation.[330]
Some demographic facts are related to these issues, as cause or result:
The federal government'sClosing the Gap strategy, created in 2008 and coordinated by theNational Indigenous Australians Agency since July 2019, aims to address multiple areas to improve the lives of Indigenous peoples. Draft targets for 2019 were created by theCouncil of Australian Governments (COAG) in December 2018. These were in the following areas:[333]
Social and cultural determinants such asdiscrimination, lack of education or employment (and thereforeincome), and cultural disconnection can impact both physical and mental health, and contemporary disadvantage is related to colonisation and its ongoing impact.[330][334]
Successive censuses have shown, that (after adjusting for demographic structures) Indigenous Australians experience greater rates ofrenal disease, severalcommunicable diseases (such astuberculosis andhepatitis C virus),type 2 diabetes,respiratory disease, poormental health and other illnesses than the general population.[334][332]
The life expectancy of Indigenous Australians is difficult to quantify accurately. Indigenous deaths are poorly identified, and the official figures for the size of the population at risk include large adjustment factors. Two estimates of Indigenous life expectancy in 2008 differed by as much as five years.[335] The ABS introduced a new method in 2009,[336] but problems remained. A 2013 study, referring to the national Indigenous reform policy, Closing the Gap, looked at the difficulties in interpreting the extent of the gap because of differing methods of estimating life expectancy between 2007 and 2012.[k] The 2019 report by the Close the Gap campaign reported that the gap in life expectancy was "widening rather than closing".[337] Life expectancy for Aboriginals and Torres Strait islanders was 71.6 for men and 75.6 for women as of 2016–2017.
Infant mortality (ages 0–4) was twice as high as for non-Indigenous children in 2014–2016.[330]
Mental health,suicide andself-harm remain major concerns, with the suicide rate being double that of the non-Indigenous population in 2015, and young people experiencing rising rates of mental health difficulties.[330] There are high incidences ofanxiety,depression,PTSD and suicide amongst theStolen Generations, with this resulting in unstable parenting and family situations.[330]
Many Indigenous communities suffer from a range of health, social and legal problems associated withsubstance abuse of both legal and illegal drugs, including but not limited toalcohol abuse,petrol sniffing, the use of illegal drugs such asmethamphetamine,cannabis, andsmoking tobacco.[334] Tobacco use has been estimated to be the "greatest contributor (23%) to the gap in the disease burden between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians", with Indigenous people 2.5 times more likely to smoke daily than non-Indigenous Australians.[338]
Indigenous Australians were 1.6 times more likely toabstain completely from alcohol than non-Indigenous people in 2012–2013.Foetal alcohol syndrome has been a problem, but the rate of pregnant women drinking had halved between 2008 and 2015 (from 20% to 10%).[334]
Petrol sniffing has been a problem among some remote communities.[339] A 2018longitudinal study by theUniversity of Queensland (UQ), commissioned by theNational Indigenous Australians Agency,[l] reported that the number of people sniffing petrol in the 25 communities studied had declined by 95.2%, from 453 to just 22, related to the distribution of a new, low aromatic petrol,Opal, in NT in 2005.[340][341][342][343]
The 2018 UQ study also reported that alcohol and cannabis were the drugs causing most concern.Ice was reported present in 8 of the 25 communities, but nearly all only occasional use.[342]
There is a significant gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people in educational attainment. This presents significant issues for employment. As of 2018[update], Indigenous students or adults, when compared with non-Indigenous peers:[344]
Closing the Gap has focused on improving education for Indigenous people, with some success. Attainment of Year 12 or equivalent for ages 20–24 has increased from 47.4% in 2006 to 65.3% in 2016. This has led to more Indigenous people undertaking higher orvocational education courses. According to theClosing the Gap report, Indigenous students in higher education award courses more than doubled in number over the decade from 2006 (9,329) to 2017 (19,237).[344]
However, most of the Closing the Gap targets for education are not on track. In general, the gaps have improved (such as in NAPLAN results) or not devolved (school attendance rate remaining stable for several years) have not met targets. Remoteness seems to be a factor; students in isolated or remote communities do not perform or attend as well as students in urban areas.[345] TheClosing the Gap Report 2019 reported that of the seven targets, only two – early childhood education and Year 12 attainment – had been met. Only Year 9 numeracy was on track in all states and territories, with variations among them.[344]
TheAboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts was established as a training centre by the state and federal governments in 1997.
Compared to the national average, Indigenous people experience high unemployment and poverty rates. As of the2018 Closing the Gap Report, the Indigenous employment rate had decreased from 48% to 46.6% between 2006 and 2016, while the non-Indigenous employment rate remained steady at around 72% (a 25.4% gap). The employment rate for Indigenous women, however, increased from 39% to 44.8% in the same period.[346]
The Racial Discrimination Act was introduced in 1975, and the Anti-Discrimination Act, in 1977. Legal action alone cannot prevent all forms of racism, however, these Acts were put into law to place checks on the system.[347]
A 2016 ABS report on labour force characteristics show low employment rates.[348] An analysis of the figures suggested significant barriers to Indigenous people gaining employment, possibly including job location, employer discrimination, and lack of education and others. A big factor is education. Those with adegree had an employment probability of 85% (for males) and 74% (for females) for gaining employment, decreasing along with qualifications, so that those who have completed Year 9 and below have a 43% (male) and 32% (female) probability of gaining employment. Other factors, unlike education, are not covered by government policy, such as discrimination and unfair treatment. Employed Indigenous Australians were more likely to experience discrimination than those who are unemployed, and it has been found that the second most common source of unfair treatment (after members of the public) is at work or applying for work. There was also a significant lack of consultation with Indigenous peoples on the methods they think best to tackle issues like unemployment.[349]
Indigenous Australians are over-represented in Australia's criminal justice system. As of September 2019[update], Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander prisoners represented 28% of the total adult prisoner population,[350] while accounting for 3.3% of the general population.[242] In May 2018, Indigenous women made up 34% of all women imprisoned in Australia.[351] A 2017–2018 report into youth justice undertaken by theAustralian Institute of Health and Welfare reported that about half (a total of 2,339) of the young people aged 10–17 under supervision in 2016–2017 were Indigenous, although of that age group, Indigenous youth represent 5% of the general population. It concludes from the data that there is a clear issue occurring not only within Australia'scriminal justice system, but within communities as a whole.[352]
Explanations given for this over-representation include the economic position of Indigenous Australians, the knock-on effects of thestolen generations and disconnection from land, the effects of their health and housing situations, their ability to access an economic base such as land and employment, their education, and the use of alcohol and other drugs.[353][354]
Indigenous Australians are also over-represented asvictims of crime, in particular,assault. Indigenous women are highly over-represented in this figure, accounting for a higher proportion of assault victims than the non-Indigenous category.[355]
In 2007, theNorthern Territory Government commissioned aBoard of Inquiry into the Protection of Aboriginal Children from Sexual Abuse, which produced a report known as theLittle Children are Sacred report. This suggested, based largely onanecdotal evidence, that children in remote Aboriginal communities in NT were suffering from widespreadsexual abuse.[356] TheAustralian Human Rights Commission'sSocial Justice Report 2008 said that the 2005–2006 ABS statistics did not appear to support the "allegations of endemic child abuse... that was the rationale for theNTER" ("The Intervention" by theHoward government) that followed.[357]
The rate of family violence in Indigenous Australian communities, especially in the Northern Territory, has been high for many years, and under-reported.[358] It has been estimated to be around 34 times greater than the national rate, and, in the worst areas, up to 80 times.[359] There is no single cause for this high rate, but several probable causes or aggravating factors have been suggested by various researchers and stakeholders, including: dispossession of land and subsequent displacement of communities; childhood abuse experienced by theStolen Generations, along withintergenerational trauma; economicdisadvantage; violent family environments; poor health; inadequate housing;racism; loss ofAboriginal identity; and many others.[360] An AIHW survey covering eight years to 2019, published in December 2021, revealed that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people accounted for 28 per cent of all hospitalisations due to family violence, despite only making up 3.3% of the total population. Various reasons were suggested by experts, including Aboriginal men's control of decision-making, and limited independence for women owing to economic factors; barriers in access to services; racism by some police and other services; and lack of enough Aboriginal-run organisations providing culturally safe services.[361]
As the federal government, upon being urged by experts to create the means to halt the violence in 2021,[362] announced an extraA$10.7 million "to boost frontline services in the Northern Territory... and to work towards ourClosing the Gap commitments", in addition to other funding already committed to the states and NT under the National Partnership on Family, Domestic and Sexual Violence Responses.[363]
In 2021, Australia's government, led by Prime MinisterScott Morrison, announced the creation of a reparations fund for members of the Stolen Generations—Indigenous Australians who were forcibly removed from their homes as children. This policy of forced assimilation, which continued into the 1970s, has had lasting impacts on Indigenous communities. The reparations fund includes one-off payments of 75,000 Australian dollars to victims, as part of a broader initiative to address the serious disadvantages faced by Australia's Indigenous population.[364]
In addition, there's an emerging solidarity between Black and Indigenous communities for finding land justice and reparations. Initiatives like the Indigenous-led Land Back movement and various Black community organizations are working towards reclaiming land and advocating for financial restitution for civil and human rights violations. These movements utilize cooperative structures to advance land justice, emphasizing the importance of communal wealth and regenerative systems that are not extractive of people or the planet.[365]
| It has been suggested that this section besplit out into another article titledIndigenous Australian politics. (Discuss)(January 2020) |
Since the 20th century there have been a number of individuals and organisations who have instigated significant events in the struggle for political representation, land rights and other political issues affecting the lives of Indigenous Australians:[366]
Under Section 41 of theAustralian Constitution, Aboriginal Australians always had the legal right to vote in Australian Commonwealth elections if their State granted them that right. This meant that all Aboriginal peoples outside Queensland and Western Australia had a legal right to vote. The right of Indigenous ex-servicemen to vote was affirmed in 1949 and all Indigenous Australians gained the unqualified right to vote in Federal elections in 1962.[189] Unlike other Australians, however, voting was not made compulsory for Indigenous people, and it was not until the repeal ofSection 127 of the Constitution of Australia following the1967 referendum that Indigenous Australians were counted in the population for the purposes of distribution of electoral seats.[citation needed]
As of January 2020[update], six Indigenous Australians have been elected to theAustralian Senate:Neville Bonner (Liberal, 1971–1983),Aden Ridgeway (Democrat, 1999–2005),Nova Peris (Labor, 2013–2016),Jacqui Lambie (2014–2017, 2019–incumbent),Pat Dodson (Labor, 2016–incumbent), and formerNorthern Territory MLAMalarndirri McCarthy (Labor, 2016–incumbent).
Following the2010 Australian Federal Election,Ken Wyatt of theLiberal Party won the Western Australian seat of Hasluck, becoming the first Indigenous person elected to theAustralian House of Representatives.[367][368] His nephew,Ben Wyatt, was concurrently serving as Shadow Treasurer in theWestern Australian Parliament and in 2011 considered a challenge for the Labor Party leadership in that state.[369]Linda Burney became the second Indigenous person, and the first woman, to serve in the federal House of Representatives.
In March 2013,Adam Giles of theCountry Liberal Party (CLP) becameChief Minister of the Northern Territory – the first Indigenous Australian to become head of government in a state or territory of Australia.[370]Hyacinth Tungutalum, also of the CLP, was the first Indigenous person elected to any Australian(stateor territory) parliament. ATiwi man fromBathurst Island, he was elected to the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly in October 1974 as the member forTiwi.[371]
A number of Indigenous people represent electorates at state and territory level, andSouth Australia has had an Aboriginal Governor, SirDouglas Nicholls. The first Indigenous Australian to serve as a minister in any government wasErnie Bridge, who entered the Western Australian Parliament in 1980.Carol Martin was the first Aboriginal woman elected to a State parliament in Australia (theWestern Australian Legislative Assembly) in 2001, and the first woman minister wasMarion Scrymgour, who was appointed to the Northern Territory ministry in 2002 (she became Deputy Chief Minister in 2008).[189] Representation in the Northern Territory has been relatively high, reflecting the high proportion of Aboriginal voters. The 2012 Territory election saw large swings to the conservative CLP in remote Territory electorates, and a total of five Aboriginal CLP candidates won election to the Assembly, along with one Labor candidate, in a chamber of 25 members. Among those elected for the CLP were high-profile activistsBess Price andAlison Anderson.[372]
Forty people identifying as being of Indigenous Australian ancestry have been members of the ten Australian legislatures.[201] Of these, 22 have been in theNorthern Territory Legislative Assembly. TheNorthern Territory has an exceptionally high Indigenous proportion (about one third) of its population.Adam Giles, who wasChief Minister of the Northern Territory from 2013 to 2016, was the first Indigenous head of government in Australia.[370] In 1974,the year of its creation, the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly was also the first Australian parliament to have an Indigenous member elected to it.[373]
The2022 election featured the largest number of Indigenous candidates in Australian history, with four running for the Coalition, eleven for Labor, and seventeen for the Greens.[374] The Greens Victorian senate ticket were all Aboriginal.[375][376][377]
As of 2023[update], Indigenous Australians members of the senate represent 10.5% of the 76 Senate seats, and 1.9% in the House. The total representation is at 4.8%, far above the national population of 3.3%.[378]
TheAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC) was set up as a representative body in 1990 under theHawke government. In 2004, theHoward government disbanded ATSIC and replaced it and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Services (ATSIS) Regional and State Offices[379] with an appointed network ofIndigenous Coordination Centres (ICC) that administer Shared Responsibility Agreements and Regional Partnership Agreements with Aboriginal communities at a local level.[380] ICCs operate as whole-of-government centres, housing staff from a number of departments to deliver services to Indigenous Australians.[379]
Major political parties in Australia have tried to increase Indigenous representation within their parties. One suggestion for achieving this is to introduceseat quotas, as in theMaori electorates in New Zealand.[381][382]
In October 2007, just before the calling of afederal election, the then Prime Minister,John Howard, revisited the idea of bringing a referendum to seek recognition of Indigenous Australians in the Constitution (his government having previously sought to include recognition of Indigenous peoples in thePreamble to the Constitution in the1999 Australian republic referendum). His announcement was seen by some as a surprising adoption of the importance of the symbolic aspects of the reconciliation process, and reaction was mixed. TheAustralian Labor Party initially supported the idea; howeverKevin Rudd withdrew this support just before the election, earning a rebuke from activistNoel Pearson.[383]
TheGillard government (2010–2013), withbi-partisan support, convened anExpert Panel to consider changes to theAustralian Constitution that would see recognition for Indigenous Australians, who delivered their report, which included five recommendations for changes to the Constitution as well as recommendations for the referendum process, in January 2012.[384][385] The Government promised to hold a referendum on the constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians on or before the federal election due for 2013.[386] The plan was abandoned in September 2012, with MinisterJenny Macklin citing insufficient community awareness for the decision.[citation needed]
In December 2015, the 16-member Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Referendum Council was jointly appointed by the Prime Minister,Malcolm Turnbull, and Leader of the Opposition,Bill Shorten. After six months of consultation, the First Nations National Constitutional Convention met over four days from 23 to 26 May 2017, and ratified theUluru Statement from the Heart by astanding ovation from the gathering of 250 Indigenous leaders. TheStatement calls for a "First Nations Voice" in the Australian Constitution and a "Makarrata Commission"[366] (Makarrata is aYolngu word "describing a process of conflict resolution, peacemaking and justice").[387]
In May 2019, Prime MinisterScott Morrison created the position ofMinister for Indigenous Australians, aCabinet portfolio in theSecond Morrison Ministry, with Ken Wyatt as the inaugural officebearer.[388][389] On 30 October 2019, Wyatt announced the commencement of a "co-design process" aimed at providing an Indigenous voice to Parliament. The Senior Advisory Group is co-chaired by ProfessorTom CalmaAO, Chancellor of theUniversity of Canberra, and Professor DrMarcia Langton, Associate Provost at theUniversity of Melbourne, and comprises a total of 20 leaders and experts from across the country.[390].[391] The first meeting of the group was held in Canberra on 13 November 2019.[392]
About 22% of land in Northern Australia (Kimberley,Top End andCape York) is now Aboriginal-owned.[393][394] In the last decade, nearly 200 native title claims covering 1.3 million km2 of land – approximately 18% of the Australian continent – have been approved.[395]
In 1992, inMabo v Queensland, the High Court of Australia recognised native title in Australia for the first time. The majority in the High Court rejected the doctrine ofterra nullius, in favour of the concept of native title.[396]
In 2013, an Indigenous group describing itself as theMurrawarri Republic declared independence from Australia, claiming territory straddling the border between the states of New South Wales and Queensland.[395] Australia's Attorney General's Department indicated it did not consider the declaration to have any meaning in law.[395]
In 2014, another Indigenous group describing itself as theSovereign Yidindji Government declared independence from Australia.[397]
Unlike in other parts of the formerBritish Empire, like theTreaty of Waitangi in New Zealand, no treaty has ever been concluded between Indigenous Australians and an Australian government. However, although there is still no move toward a treaty at federal level, it is contended that theNoongar Settlement (South West Native Title Settlement) inWestern Australia in 2016 constitutes a treaty, and at the state and territory levels there are currently (early 2018) other negotiations and preparatory legislation.[398] InSouth Australia, however, following the2018 state election negotiations have been "paused".[399] In June 2018, theParliament of Victoria passed a bill to advance the process of establishing a treaty with Aboriginal Victorians.[400] The VictorianFirst Peoples' Assembly was elected in November 2019 and sat for the first time on 10 December 2019.[401][402]
After the arrival of European settlers in New South Wales, some Indigenous Australians became translators and go-betweens; the best-known wasBennelong, who eventually adopted European dress and customs and travelled to England where he was reportedly presented toKing George III.[403] Others, such asPemulwuy,Yagan, andWindradyne, became famous for armed resistance to the European settlers.
During the twentieth century, as social attitudes shifted and interest in Indigenous culture increased, there were more opportunities for Indigenous Australians to gain recognition.Albert Namatjira became a painter, and actors such asDavid Gulpilil,Ernie Dingo, andDeborah Mailman became well known. Bands such asYothu Yindi, and singersChristine Anu,Jessica Mauboy andGeoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu, have combined Indigenous musical styles and instruments with pop/rock, gaining appreciation amongst non-Indigenous audiences. PolymathDavid Unaipon is commemorated on theAustralian $50 note.
While relatively fewIndigenous Australians have been elected to political office (Neville Bonner,Aden Ridgeway,Ken Wyatt,Nova Peris,Jacqui Lambie andLinda Burney remain the only Indigenous Australians to have been elected to theAustralian Federal Parliament), Aboriginal rights campaigner SirDouglas Nicholls was appointed Governor of the State ofSouth Australia in 1976, and many others have become famous through political activism – for instance,Charles Perkins' involvement in theFreedom Ride of 1965 and subsequent work; or Torres Strait IslanderEddie Mabo's part in the landmarknative title decision that bears his name. The voices of Cape York activistsNoel Pearson andJean Little, and academicsMarcia Langton andMick Dodson, today loom large in national debates. Some Indigenous people who initially became famous in other spheres – for instance, poetOodgeroo Noonuccal – have used their celebrity to draw attention to Indigenous issues.
In health services,Kelvin Kong became the first Indigenous surgeon in 2006 and is an advocate of Indigenous health issues.[404][405][406][407]
The timing of human arrival in Australia was estimated ... from approximately 43–47 ka
... the ancestors of present-day East Eurasians emerged from the Hub at ~45 kya (Fig. 1A, red branch). These emergent groups subsequently colonised most of Eurasia and Oceania.
This implies that ancestors of all non-Africans sequenced so far resided in a common population at this time, and further suggests that modern human remains older than 50,000 years from outside Africa represent different non-African populations.
Australasian, one of three deeply branching East Asian lineages (with AASI and ESEA). AA includes modern-day Papuans and Aboriginal Australians.
A single major migration of modern humans into the continents of Asia and Sahul ... Ancestral Ancient South Indians with no West Eurasian relatedness, East Asians, Onge (Andamanese hunter–gatherers) and Papuans all derive in a short evolutionary time from the eastward dispersal of an out-of-Africa population [46,47]
We find divergence times dating back to ∼50 kya, thus excluding the Y chromosome as providing evidence for recent gene flow from India into Australia.
give no support for colonization events during the Holocene, from either India or elsewhere.
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{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)The journey of the Saltwater people of the Gold Coast as documented by photographer David Kelly and narrated by Ben Allmon
Text may have been copied from this source, which is available under aAttribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence. (Seehere.Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)Web sources
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TheqpGraph analysis confirmed this branching pattern, with the Leang Panninge individual branching off from the Near Oceanian clade after the Denisovan gene flow, although with the most supported topology indicating around 50% of a basal East Asian component contributing to the Leang Panninge genome (Fig. 3c, Supplementary Figs. 7–11).
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