Indian religions, sometimes also termedIndic religions orDharmic religions, are thereligions that originated in theIndian subcontinent. These religions, which includeBuddhism,Hinduism,Jainism, andSikhism,[web 1][note 1] are also classified asEastern religions. Although Indian religions are connected through thehistory of India, they constitute a wide range of religious communities, and are not confined to the Indian subcontinent.[web 1]
| Religion | Population |
|---|---|
Hindus | 1.25 billion |
Buddhists | 320 million |
Sikhs | 30 million |
Jains | 6 million |
| Others | 4 million |
| Total | 1.61 billion |
Evidence attesting toprehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scatteredMesolithic rock paintings. TheHarappan people of theIndus Valley Civilisation, which lasted from 3300 to 1300 BCE (mature period 2600–1900 BCE), had an early urbanised culture which predates the Vedic religion.[5][better source needed]
The documented history of Indian religions begins with thehistorical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the earlyIndo-Aryan peoples, which were collected and laterredacted into theVedas, as well as theAgamas ofDravidian origin. The period of the composition, redaction, and commentary of these texts is known as theVedic period, which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE.[6] The philosophical portions of the Vedas were summarised inUpanishads, which are commonly referred to asVedānta, variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Veda" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".[7] The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, five[note 2] of the elevenprincipal Upanishads were composed in all likelihood before the 6th century BCE,[8][9] and contain the earliest mentions ofyoga andmoksha.[10]
Theśramaṇa period between 800 and 200 BCE marks a "turning point between the Vedic Hinduism and Puranic Hinduism".[11] The Shramana movement, an ancient Indian religious movement parallel to but separate from Vedic tradition, often defied many of the Vedic and Upanishadic concepts of soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). In the 6th century BCE, the Shramnic movement matured into Jainism[12] and Buddhism[13] and was responsible for the schism of Indian religions into two main philosophical branches of astika, which venerates Veda (e.g., six orthodox schools of Hinduism) andnastika (e.g., Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka, etc.). However, both branches shared the related concepts of yoga,saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) andmoksha (liberation from that cycle).[note 3][note 4][note 5]
The Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE) and early medieval period (500–1100 CE) gave rise to new configurations of Hinduism, especiallybhakti andShaivism,Shaktism,Vaishnavism,Smarta, and smaller groups like the conservativeShrauta.
The early Islamic period (1100–1500 CE) also gave rise to new movements. Sikhism was founded in the 15th century on the teachings ofGuru Nanak and the nine successiveSikh Gurus inNorthern India.[web 2] The vast majority of its adherents originate in thePunjab region. During the period ofBritish rule in India, areinterpretation and synthesis of Hinduism arose, which aided theIndian independence movement.
Scottish historianJames Mill, in his seminal workThe History of British India (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely the Hindu, Muslim, and British periods. This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval, and modern periods", although this periodisation has also received criticism.[16]
Romila Thapar notes that the division of Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to "ruling dynasties and foreign invasions",[17] neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity.[17] The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim conquests took place between the eight and the fourteenth centuries, while the south was never completely conquered.[17] According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on "significant social and economic changes", which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers.[18][note 6]
Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill's periodisation, while Flood and Muesse follow the "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods" periodisation. An elaborate periodisation may be as follows:[19]
The earliest religion followed by the peoples of the Indian subcontinent, including those of theIndus Valley andGanges Valley, was likelylocalanimism that did not havemissionaries.[24]
Evidence attesting toprehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scatteredMesolithic rock paintings such as atBhimbetka, depicting dances and rituals.Neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting theIndus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.[25] OtherSouth Asian Stone Age sites, such as theBhimbetka rock shelters in centralMadhya Pradesh and theKupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.[web 3]
The religion and belief system of the Indus Valley people has received considerable attention, especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of Indian religions that later developed in the area. However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that theIndus script remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partly speculative and largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective.[26] An early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harrapan sites[27] was that ofJohn Marshall, who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or veneration of animals and plants; symbolic representation of the phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni); and, use of baths and water in religious practice. Marshall's interpretations have been much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades.[28][29]
One Indus valley seal shows a seated figure with a horned headdress, surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu godShiva (orRudra), who is associated with asceticism,yoga, and linga; regarded as a lord of animals; and often depicted as having three eyes. The seal has hence come to be known as thePashupati Seal, afterPashupati (lord of all animals), an epithet of Shiva.[28][30] While Marshall's work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections.Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, and that inVedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild animals.[31][32] Herbert Sullivan andAlf Hiltebeitel also rejected Marshall's conclusions, with the former claiming that the figure was female, while the latter associated the figure withMahisha, the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals withvahanas (vehicles) of deities for the four cardinal directions.[33][34] Writing in 2002,Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too far.[30] Despite the criticisms of Marshall's association of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, it has been interpreted as theTirthankaraRishabha by Jains and Vilas Sangave[35] or an earlyBuddha by Buddhists.[27] Historians likeHeinrich Zimmer,Thomas McEvilley are of the opinion that there exists some link between firstJain Tirthankara Rishabha and Indus Valley Civilisation.[36][37]
Marshall hypothesised the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several female figurines, and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect ofShaktism. However the function of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains unclear, and Possehl does not regard the evidence for Marshall's hypothesis to be "terribly robust".[38] Some of thebaetyls interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phallic representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead, while the ring stones that were thought to symboliseyoni were determined to be architectural features used to stand pillars, although the possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be eliminated.[39]
Many Indus Valley seals show animals, with some depicting them being carried in processions, while others showchimeric creations.[40] One seal from Mohen-jodaro shows a half-human, half-buffalo monster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to theSumerian myth of such a monster created by goddessAruru to fightGilgamesh.[41] Some seals show a man wearing a hat with two horns and a plant sitting on a throne with animals surrounding him.[42] Some scholars theorise that this was a predecessor to Shiva wearing a hat worn by some Sumerian divine beings and kings.[42]
In contrast to contemporaryEgyptian andMesopotamian civilisations, the Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering knowledge.[43][44] This may suggest that religious ceremonies, if any, may have been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, or the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purpose, but at present only theGreat Bath at Mohenjo-daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification.[38][45] The funerary practices of the Harappan civilisation is marked by its diversity with evidence of supine burial; fractional burial in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment; and even cremation.[46][47]
The documented history of Indian religions begins with thehistorical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the earlyIndo-Aryans, which were collected and laterredacted into theSamhitas (usually known as theVedas), four canonical collections of hymns ormantras composed in archaicSanskrit. These texts are the centralshruti (revealed) texts ofHinduism. The period of the composition, redaction, and commentary of these texts is known as theVedic period, which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE.[6]
TheVedic Period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas, Brahmanas and the older Upanishads (both presented as discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most importantcanonical texts of Hinduism, and are the codification of much of what developed into its core beliefs.[48]
Some modern Hindu scholars use the "Vedic religion" synonymously with "Hinduism".[49] According to Sundararajan, Hinduism is also known as the Vedic religion.[50] Other authors state that the Vedas contain "the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma"[note 8] which is called "the modern version of the ancient Vedic Dharma".[52] TheArya Samaj recognises the Vedic religion as true Hinduism.[53] Nevertheless, according to Jamison and Witzel:
...to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."[48][note 9]
Therishis, the composers of the hymns of theRigveda, were considered inspired poets and seers.[note 10]
The mode of worship was the performance ofYajna, sacrifices which involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations)[55] in the fire, accompanied by the singing ofSamans and 'mumbling' ofYajus, the sacrificial mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña), and charity (dána).[56] An essential element was the sacrificial fire – the divineAgni – into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God.[citation needed]
Central concepts in the Vedas areSatya andRta.Satya is derived fromSat, the present participle of the verbal rootas, "to be, to exist, to live".[57]Sat means "that which really exists [...] the really existent truth; the Good",[57] andSat-ya means "is-ness".[58]Rta, "that which is properly joined; order, rule; truth", is the principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.[59] "Satya (truth as being) and rita (truth as law) are the primary principles of Reality and its manifestation is the background of the canons of dharma, or a life of righteousness."[60] "Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute, rita is its application and function as the rule and order operating in the universe."[61] Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Panikkar remarks:
Ṛta is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. [...] It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything..."[62]
The term rta is inherited from theProto-Indo-Iranian religion, the religion of theIndo-Iranian peoples prior to the earliest Vedic (Indo-Aryan) andZoroastrian (Iranian) scriptures. "Asha" is theAvestan language term (corresponding toVedic languageṛta) for a concept of cardinal importance[63] to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine. The term "Dharma" was already used in Brahmanical thought, where it was conceived as an aspect of Rta.[64]
Major philosophers of this era were Rishis Narayana, Kanva,Rishaba,Vamadeva, andAngiras.[65]
During the Middle Vedic period, the mantras of the Yajurveda and the older Brahmana texts were composed.[66] TheBrahmans became powerful intermediairies.[67]
Historical roots ofJainism in India is traced back to 9th-century BCE with the rise ofParshvanatha and his non-violent philosophy.[68][69]
The Vedic religion evolved into Hinduism andVedanta, a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms ofIshvara andBrahman. This post-Vedic systems of thought, along with theUpanishads and later texts like theepics (theRamayana and theMahabharata), is a major component of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservativeŚrauta tradition.[citation needed]
Since Vedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms", a process sometimes calledSanskritisation.[70] It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.[70]
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During the time of the shramanic reform movements "many elements of the Vedic religion were lost".[11] According to Michaels, "it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".[11]
The late Vedic period (9th to 6th centuries BCE) marks the beginning of the Upanisadic orVedantic period.[web 4][note 11][71][note 12] This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of theUpanishads,[73] later theSanskrit epics, still later followed by thePuranas.
Upanishads form the speculative-philosophical basis of classical Hinduism and are known asVedanta (conclusion of theVedas).[74] The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.[75]
Scholars believe thatParsva, the 23rd Jaintirthankara lived during this period in the 9th century BCE.[76]
Jainism andBuddhism belong to the śramaṇa traditions. These religions rose into prominence in 700–500 BCE[12][77][78] in theMagadha kingdom., reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India",[79] and were responsible for the related concepts ofsaṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) andmoksha (liberation from that cycle).[80][note 13]
The shramana movements challenged the orthodoxy of the rituals.[81] The shramanas were wandering ascetics distinct from Vedism.[82][83][note 14][84][note 15][85][note 16] Mahavira, proponent of Jainism, andBuddha (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement.
Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept ofsamsara, and the concept of liberation.[80][note 17][86][note 18][88][note 19][note 20] The influence of Upanishads on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars. WhileRadhakrishnan,Oldenberg andNeumann were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon,Eliot andThomas highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads.[91] Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies.[92] In Buddhist texts Buddha is presented as rejecting avenues of salvation as "pernicious views".[93]
Jainism was established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating withParshvanatha (9th century BCE) andMahavira (6th century BCE).[94][note 21]
The 24thTirthankara of Jainism, Mahavira, stressed five vows, includingahimsa (non-violence),satya (truthfulness),asteya (non-stealing), andaparigraha (non-attachment). As per Jain tradition, the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time. The scholars believeParshva, accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to theshramana movement.[95][note 22]
Buddhism was historically founded bySiddhartha Gautama, aKshatriya prince-turned-ascetic,[96] and was spread beyond India through missionaries.[97] It later experienced adecline in India, but survived inNepal[98] andSri Lanka, and remains more widespread inSoutheast andEast Asia.[99]
Gautama Buddha, who was called an "awakened one" (Buddha), was born into theShakya clan living at Kapilavastu and Lumbini in what is now southern Nepal. The Buddha was born at Lumbini, as emperorAshoka's Lumbini pillar records, just before the kingdom ofMagadha (which traditionally is said to have lasted from c. 546–324 BCE) rose to power. The Shakyas claimedAngirasa andGautama Maharishi lineage,[100] via descent from the royal lineage of Ayodhya.
Buddhism emphasises enlightenment (nibbana, nirvana) and liberation from the rounds of rebirth. This objective is pursued through two schools, Theravada, the Way of the Elders (practiced in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, SE Asia, etc.)[101] and Mahayana, the Greater Way (practiced in Tibet, China, Japan, etc.).[102] There may be some differences in the practice between the two schools in reaching the objective.[citation needed]
Both Jainism and Buddhism spread throughout India during the period of theMagadha empire.[citation needed]
Buddhism flourished during the reign of Ashoka of theMaurya Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.[103]
Jainism began its golden period during the reign of EmperorKharavela ofKalinga in the 2nd century BCE due to his significant patronage of the religion. His reign is considered a period of growth and influence for the religion, although Jainism had flourished for centuries before and continued to develop in prominence after his time.[104]
The early Dravidian religion constituted of non-Vedic form ofHinduism in that they were either historically or are at presentĀgamic. The Agamas are non-vedic in origin[105] and have been dated either as post-vedic texts.[106] or as pre-vedic oral compositions.[107] TheAgamas are a collection ofTamil and laterSanskritscriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation ofmurti, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.[108] The worship oftutelary deity, sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is also recognised as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion.[109]
Ancient Tamil grammatical worksTolkappiyam, the ten anthologiesPattuppāṭṭu, the eight anthologiesEṭṭuttokai also sheds light on early religion of ancient Dravidians.Seyon was glorified asthe red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent, asthe favored god of the Tamils.[110]Sivan was also seen as the supreme God.[110] Early iconography ofSeyyon[111] and Sivan[112][113][114][115][116] and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to Indus Valley Civilisation.[112][114][117][118][119][113][120] TheSangam landscape was classified into five categories,thinais, based on the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam, mentions that each of thesethinai had an associated deity such Seyyon inKurinji-the hills,Thirumaal inMullai-the forests, andKotravai inMarutham-the plains, andWanji-ko in theNeithal-the coasts and the seas. Other gods mentioned wereMayyon andVaali who were all assimilated into Hinduism over time. Dravidian linguistic influence[121] on early Vedic religion is evident, many of these features are already present in the oldest knownIndo-Aryan language, the language of theRigveda (c. 1500 BCE),[121] which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian.[122][123] This represents an early religious and cultural fusion[124][note 23] or synthesis[126] between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora, and fauna that went on to influence Hinduism, Buddhism, Charvaka, Sramana, and Jainism.[127][125][128][129]
ThroughoutTamilakam, a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance.[130] The king was 'the representative of God on earth' and lived in a "koyil", which means the "residence of a god". The Modern Tamil word for temple iskoil. Titual worship was also given to kings.[131][132] Modern words for god like "kō" ("king"), "iṟai" ("emperor"), and "āṇḍavar" ("conqueror") now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like the legendary marriage ofShiva to Queen Mīnātchi who ruledMadurai orWanji-ko, a god who later merged intoIndra.[133]Tolkappiyar refers to theThree Crowned Kings as the "Three Glorified by Heaven".[134] In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple.[135]
The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. This mother goddess was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and one, typically associated withShaktism.[136] The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appear predominantly a goddess.[137] In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.[138] Among the early Dravidians the practice of erecting memorial stonesNatukal orHero Stone had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about 16th century.[139] It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.[140]
%2c_gupta_period%2c_krishna_battling_the_horse_demon_keshi%2c_5th_century.JPG)
Flood and Muesse take the period between 200 BCE and 500 BCE as a separate period,[141][142] in which the epics and the first puranas were being written.[142] Michaels takes a greater timespan, namely the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE,[11] which saw the rise of so-called "Classical Hinduism",[11] with its "golden age"[143] during the Gupta Empire.[143]
According toAlf Hiltebeitel, a period of consolidation in the development of Hinduism took place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishad (c. 500 BCE) and the period of the rise of theGuptas (c. 320–467 CE), which he calls the "Hindus synthesis", "Brahmanic synthesis", or "orthodox synthesis".[144] It develops in interaction with other religions and peoples:
The emerging self-definitions of Hinduism were forged in the context of continuous interaction with heterodox religions (Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas) throughout this whole period, and with foreign people (Yavanas, or Greeks; Sakas, or Scythians; Pahlavas, or Parthians; and Kusanas, or Kushans) from the third phase on [between the Mauryan empire and the rise of the Guptas].[145]
The end of the Vedantic period around the 2nd century CE spawned a number of branches that furthered Vedantic philosophy, and which ended up being seminaries in their own right. Prominent among these developers wereYoga,Dvaita,Advaita, and the medievalBhakti movement.[citation needed]
Thesmriti texts of the period between 200 BCE and 100 CE proclaim the authority of the Vedas, and "nonrejection of the Vedas comes to be one of the most important touchstones for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas."[146] Of the six Hindu darsanas, the Mimamsa and the Vedanta "are rooted primarily in the Vedicsruti tradition and are sometimes calledsmarta schools in the sense that they developsmarta orthodox current of thoughts that are based, likesmriti, directly onsruti."[147] According to Hiltebeitel, "the consolidation of Hinduism takes place under the sign ofbhakti."[148] It is theBhagavadgita that seals this achievement. The result is a universal achievement that may be calledsmarta. It views Shiva and Vishnu as "complementary in their functions but ontologically identical".[148]
In earlier writings,Sanskrit 'Vedānta' simply referred to theUpanishads, the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedānta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads. Traditional Vedānta considersshabdapramāṇa (scriptural evidence) as the most authentic means of knowledge, whilepratyakṣa (perception) andanumāna (logicalinference) are considered to be subordinate (but valid).[149][150]
The systematisation of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken byBadarāyana in theBrahma Sutras which was composed around 200 BCE.[151] The cryptic aphorisms of the Brahma Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations. This resulted in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.[152]
After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, includingSamkhya,Yoga,Nyaya,Vaisheshika,Mimāṃsā andAdvaita Vedanta.[153] Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheistic or monotheistic religion, also toleratedatheistic schools. The thoroughlymaterialistic and anti-religious philosophicalCārvāka school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as anāstika ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.[154] Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.[155] Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Samkhya and Mimāṃsā.[citation needed]
Two of Hinduism's most reveredepics, theMahabharata andRamayana were compositions of this period. Devotion to particular deities was reflected from the composition of texts composed to their worship. For example, theGanapati Purana was written for devotion to Ganapati (orGanesha). Popular deities of this era wereShiva,Vishnu,Durga,Surya,Skanda, andGanesha (including the forms/incarnations of these deities).[citation needed]
In the latter Vedantic period, several texts were also composed as summaries/attachments to the Upanishads. These texts collectively called asPuranas allowed for a divine and mythical interpretation of the world, not unlike the ancient Hellenic or Roman religions. Legends and epics with a multitude of gods and goddesses with human-like characteristics were composed.[citation needed]
The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronisedBuddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. Buddhism continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century.[citation needed]
There were several Buddhistic kings whoworshiped Vishnu, such as theGupta Empire,Pala Empire,Chalukyas,Somavanshi, andSatavahana.[156] Buddhism survived followed by Hindus.[157]
Tantrism originated in the early centuries CE and developed into a fully articulated tradition by the end of theGupta period. According to Michaels this was the "Golden Age of Hinduism"[158] (c. 320–650 CE[158]), which flourished during the Gupta Empire[143] (320 to 550 CE) until the fall of theHarsha Empire[143] (606 to 647 CE). During this period, power was centralised, along with a growth of far distance trade, standardisarion of legal procedures, and general spread of literacy.[143] Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but the orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by the patronage of the Gupta Dynasty.[159] The position of the Brahmans was reinforced,[143] and the first Hindu temples emerged during the late Gupta age.[143]
After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states".[160][note 24] The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",[160] as reflected in the TantricMandala, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.[161]
The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.[162][note 25] Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism"[162] was diminished.[162] Rural and devotional movements arose, along withShaivism,Vaisnavism,Bhakti, and Tantra,[162] though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development".[162] Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords.[162] Buddhism lost its position, and began to disappear in India.[162]
In the same periodVedanta changed, incorporating Buddhist thought and its emphasis on consciousness and the working of the mind.[164] Buddhism, which was supported by the ancient Indian urban civilisation lost influence to the traditional religions, which were rooted in the countryside.[165] In Bengal, Buddhism was even prosecuted. But at the same time, Buddhism was incorporated into Hinduism, when Gaudapada used Buddhist philosophy to reinterpret the Upanishads.[164] This also marked a shift from Atman and Brahman as a "living substance"[166] to "maya-vada"[note 26], where Atman and Brahman are seen as "pure knowledge-consciousness".[167] According to Scheepers, it is this "maya-vada" view which has come to dominate Indian thought.[165]
Between 400 and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as thedecline of Buddhism in India continued.[168] Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.[169]
TheBhakti movement began with the emphasis on the worship of God, regardless of one's status – whether priestly or laypeople, men or women, higher social status or lower social status. The movements were mainly centered on the forms of Vishnu (Rama andKrishna) and Shiva. There were however popular devotees of this era ofDurga.[citation needed] The best-known proponents of this movement were theAlvars and theNayanars from southern India. The most popular Shaiva teacher of the south wasBasava, while of the north it wasGorakhnath.[citation needed] Female saints include figures likeAkkamadevi,Lalleshvari andMolla.[citation needed]
The Alvars (Tamil:ஆழ்வார்கள்,āḻvārkaḷ[aːɻʋaːr], those immersed in god) were theTamil poet-saints of south India, who lived between the 6th and 9th centuries CE and espoused "emotional devotion" orbhakti to Vishnu-Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service.[170] The most popular Vaishnava teacher of the south wasRamanuja, while of the north it wasRamananda.[citation needed]
Several important icons were women. For example, within the Mahanubhava sect, the women outnumbered the men,[171] and administration was many times composed mainly of women.[172] Mirabai is the most popular female saint in India.[173][174]
Sri Vallabha Acharya (1479–1531) is a very important figure from this era. He founded theShuddha Advaita (Pure Non-dualism) school of Vedanta thought.
According toThe Centre for Cultural Resources and Training,
Vaishanava bhakti literature was an all-India phenomenon, which started in the 6th–7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs. The religion ofAlvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions.[web 8]
In the 12th and 13th centuries,Turks andAfghans invaded parts of northern India and established theDelhi Sultanate in the formerRajput holdings.[175] The subsequentSlave dynasty ofDelhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancientGupta Empire, while theKhalji dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing.[citation needed]
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During the 14th to 17th centuries, a greatBhakti movement swept through central and northern India, initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers orSants.Ramananda,Ravidas,Srimanta Sankardeva,Chaitanya Mahaprabhu,Vallabha Acharya,Sur,Meera,Kabir,Tulsidas,Namdev,Dnyaneshwar,Tukaram, and other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement in the North whileAnnamacharya,Bhadrachala Ramadas,Tyagaraja, and others propagated Bhakti in the South. They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste, and the subtle complexities of philosophy, and simply express their overwhelming love for God. This period was also characterised by a spate of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces.
Lingayatism is a distinct Shaivite tradition in India, established in the 12th century by the philosopher and social reformer Basavanna.[citation needed] The adherents of this tradition are known as Lingayats. The term is derived from Lingavantha in Kannada, meaning "one who wearsIshtalinga on their body" (Ishtalinga is the representation of the God). In Lingayat theology,Ishtalinga is an oval-shaped emblem symbolising Parasiva, the absolute reality. Contemporary Lingayatism follows a progressive reform–based theology propounded, which has great influence in South India, especially in the state of Karnataka.[176]
According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and 16th century,
... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophival teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy.[177]
The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted byMikel Burley.[178] Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,[179] and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",[180] which started well before 1800.[181] Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers.[177]
Sikhism originated in 15th-centuryPunjab, Delhi Sultanate (present-dayIndia andPakistan) with the teachings ofNanak and nine successivegurus. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith inVāhigurū— represented by the sacred symbol ofēk ōaṅkār [meaning one god]. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of thePunjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known asSikhs (students ordisciples) and number over 25 million across the world.[182]
According toGavin Flood, the modern period in India begins with the first contacts with western nations around 1500.[141][142] The period of Mughal rule in India[183] saw the rise of new forms of religiosity.[184]
In the 19th century, under influence of the colonial forces, a synthetic vision of Hinduism was formulated byRaja Ram Mohan Roy,Swami Vivekananda,Sri Aurobindo,Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan andMahatma Gandhi.[187] These thinkers have tended to take an inclusive view of India's religious history, emphasising the similarities between the various Indian religions.[187]
The modern era has given rise to dozens of Hindu saints with international influence.[188] For example,Brahma Baba established the Brahma Kumaris, one of the largest new Hindu religious movements which teaches the discipline ofRaja Yoga to millions.[citation needed] Representing traditionalGaudiya Vaishnavism,Prabhupada founded theHare Krishna movement, another organisation with a global reach. In late 18th-century India,Swaminarayan founded theSwaminarayan Sampraday.Anandamurti, founder of theAnanda Marga, has also influenced many worldwide. Through the international influence of all of these new Hindu denominations, many Hindu practices such as yoga, meditation, mantra, divination, and vegetarianism have been adopted by new converts.[citation needed]
Jainism continues to be an influential religion and Jain communities live in Indian statesGujarat,Rajasthan,Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra,Karnataka, andTamil Nadu. Jains authored several classical books in different Indian languages for a considerable period of time.[citation needed]
The Dalit Buddhist movement also referred to asNavayana[189] is a 19th- and 20th-centuryBuddhist revival movement in India. It received its most substantial impetus fromB. R. Ambedkar's call for the conversion ofDalits toBuddhism in 1956 and the opportunity to escape thecaste-based society that considered them to be the lowest in the hierarchy.[190]
According to Tilak, the religions of India can be interpreted "differentially" or "integrally",[191] that is by either highlighting the differences or the similarities.[191] According to Sherma and Sarma, western Indologists have tended to emphasise the differences, while Indian Indologists have tended to emphasise the similarities.[191]
Hinduism,Buddhism,Jainism, andSikhism share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals.[191] Until the 19th century, adherents of those various religions did not tend to label themselves as in opposition to each other, but "perceived themselves as belonging to the same extended cultural family."[192]
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The spectrum of these religions are called Dharmic religions because of their overlap over the core concept ofDharma. It has various meanings depending on the context. For example it could mean duty, righteousness, spiritual teachings, conduct, etc.[citation needed]
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share the concept ofmoksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirth.[193] They differ however on the exact nature of this liberation.[193]
Common traits can also be observed in ritual. The head-anointing ritual ofabhiseka is of importance in three of these distinct traditions, excluding Sikhism (in Buddhism it is found withinVajrayana).[194] Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals.[194] In literature, many classical narratives and puranas have Hindu, Buddhist or Jain versions.[web 9] All four traditions have notions ofkarma,dharma,samsara,moksha and variousforms ofYoga.[194]
Rama is a heroic figure in all of these religions. In Hinduism he is the God-incarnate in the form of a princely king; in Buddhism, he is aBodhisattva-incarnate; in Jainism, he is the perfect human being. Among the BuddhistRamayanas are:Vessantarajataka,[195]Reamker,Ramakien,Phra Lak Phra Lam,Hikayat Seri Rama, etc. There also exists theKhamti Ramayana among the Khamti tribe of Asom wherein Rama is anAvatar of a Bodhisattva who incarnates to punish the demon king Ravana (B.Datta 1993). TheTai Ramayana is another book retelling the divine story in Asom.[citation needed]
Critics point out that there exist vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions.[196][197] All major religions are composed of innumerable sects and subsects.[198]
Indian mythology also reflects the competition between the various Indian religions. A popular story tells howVajrapani killsMahesvara, a manifestation of Shiva depicted as an evil being.[199][200] The story occurs in several scriptures, most notably theSarvatathagatatattvasamgraha and theVajrapany-abhiseka-mahatantra.[201][note 27] According to Kalupahana, the story "echoes" the story of the conversion of Ambattha.[200] It is to be understood in the context of the competition between Buddhist institutions andShaivism.[205]
Āstika andnāstika are variously defined terms sometimes used to categorise Indian religions but we need to keep some caveats in mind.
Satoshi Ogura argues – We have found no Sanskrit doxography completed up to the end of the sixteenth century that distinguishes only Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedānta as orthodox systems that acknowledge the revelation of the Vedas. To put it mildly, such a categorisation was not mainstream in Indian philosophy. In her dissertation dealing with the works by the Mughal prince Dārā Shukūh, Supriya Gandhi has, in contrast, asserted that Roy rather inherited religious discourses in early modern Persian literature in writing his treatises on religions, noting the similarity of Roy's word-usage to that of Dārā. We can say that the case of ṣaḍdarśana shares a common feature with that of Roy's thought, i.e., that a “traditional” Indic concept that has been discussed as a Western or colonial invention had probably sprouted in the late medieval or early modern cosmopolitan culture on the subcontinent before the time of Western impact. We thus should keep in mind the tendency of classification of Indic knowledge in Persianate discourses and its legacies in modern writings in both India and the Western world.[206]
The traditional definition, followed byAdi Shankara, classifies religions and persons asāstika andnāstika according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas, as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition,Nyaya,Vaisheshika,Samkhya,Yoga,Purva Mimamsa andVedanta are classified asāstika schools, whileCharvaka is classified as anāstika school. Buddhism and Jainism are also thus classified asnāstika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.[citation needed]
Another set of definitions—notably distinct from the usage of Hindu philosophy—loosely characteriseāstika as "theist" andnāstika as "atheist". By these definitions,Sāṃkhya can be considered anāstika philosophy, though it is traditionally classed among the Vedicāstika schools. From this point of view, Buddhism and Jainism remainnāstika religions.[citation needed]
Buddhists and Jains have disagreed that they are nastika and have redefined the phrases āstika and nāstika in their own view. Jains assign the term nastika to one who is ignorant of the meaning of the religious texts,[207] or those who deny the existence of the soul.[208]
Frawley and Malhotra use the term "Dharmic traditions" to highlight the similarities between the various Indian religions.[209][210][note 28] According to Frawley, "all religions in India have been called the Dharma",[209] and can be
...put under the greater umbrella of "Dharmic traditions" which we can see as Hinduism or the spiritual traditions of India in the broadest sense.[209]
According to Paul Hacker, as described by Halbfass, the term "dharma"
...assumed a fundamentally new meaning and function in modern Indian thought, beginning withBankim Chandra Chatterjee in the nineteenth century. This process, in whichdharma was presented as an equivalent of, but also a response to, the western notion of "religion", reflects a fundamental change in the Hindu sense of identity and in the attitude toward other religious and cultural traditions. The foreign tools of "religion" and "nation" became tools of self-definition, and a new and precarious sense of the "unity of Hinduism" and of national as well as religious identity took root.[212]
The emphasis on the similarities and integral unity of the Dharmic faiths has been criticised for neglecting the vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions and traditions.[196][197] According toRichard E. King it is typical of the "inclusivist appropriation of other traditions"[187] ofNeo-Vedanta:
The inclusivist appropriation of other traditions, so characteristic of neo-Vedanta ideology, appears on three basic levels. First, it is apparent in the suggestion that the (Advaita) Vedanta philosophy of Sankara (c. eighth century CE) constitutes the central philosophy of Hinduism. Second, in an Indian context, neo-Vedanta philosophy subsumes Buddhist philosophies in terms of its own Vedantic ideology. The Buddha becomes a member of the Vedanta tradition, merely attempting to reform it from within. Finally, at a global level, neo-Vedanta colonizes the religious traditions of the world by arguing for the centrality of a non-dualistic position as thephilosophia perennis underlying all cultural differences.[187]
The "Council of Dharmic Faiths" (UK) regardsZoroastrianism, while not originating in the Indian subcontinent, also as a Dharmic religion.[213]
The inclusion ofBuddhists,Jains, andSikhs within Hinduism is part of the Indian legal system. The 1955 Hindu Marriage Act "[defines] as Hindus all Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and anyone who is not aChristian,Muslim, Parsee (Zoroastrian) orJew."[214] And theIndian Constitution says that "reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh, Jaina or Buddhist religion."[214]
In a judicial reminder, the Indian Supreme Court observed Sikhism and Jainism to be sub-sects orspecial faiths within the larger Hindu fold,[web 10][note 29] and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindu fold.[web 10][note 30] Although the Indian Government counted Jains in India as a major religious community right from the first Census conducted in 1873, after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities.[web 10][note 31] In 2005, theSupreme Court of India declined to issue awrit of mandamus granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court however left it to the respectivestates to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.[215][web 10][note 32]
However, some individual states have over the past few decades differed on whether Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs are religious minorities or not, by either pronouncing judgments or passing legislation. One example is the judgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006, in a case pertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh, which declared Jainism to be indisputably distinct from Hinduism, but mentioned that, "The question as to whether the Jains are part of the Hindu religion is open to debate.[216] However, the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have heldJainism to be a distinct religion.[217]
Another example is theGujarat Freedom of Religion Bill, that is an amendment to a legislation that sought to define Jains and Buddhists as denominations within Hinduism.[web 11] Ultimately on 31 July 2007, finding it not in conformity with the concept of freedom of religion as embodied in Article 25 (1) of the Constitution,GovernorNaval Kishore Sharma returned the Gujarat Freedom of Religion (Amendment) Bill, 2006 citing the widespread protests by the Jains[web 12] as well as extrajudicial observation that Jainism is a "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court."[web 13]
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