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Indian literature refers to the literature produced on theIndian subcontinent until 1947 and in theRepublic of India thereafter. TheEighth Schedule to the Constitution of India has22 officially recognised languages.Sahitya Akademi, India's highest literary body, also has24 recognised literary languages.
The earliest works of Indian literature wereorally transmitted.Sanskrit literature begins with theoral literature of theRig Veda, a collection of literature dating to the period 1500–1200 BCE. The Sanskrit epicsRamayana andMahabharata were subsequently codified and appeared towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE.Classical Sanskrit literature developed rapidly during the first few centuries of the first millennium BCE,[1] as did thePāli Canon andTamilSangam literature.[citation needed]Ancient Meitei appeared in the 1st century CE with sacred musical compositions like theOugri,[2] and heroic narratives like theNumit Kappa.[3] In the medieval period, literature inKannada andTelugu appeared in the 9th and 10th centuries, respectively.[4] Later, literature inMarathi,Gujarati,Bengali,Assamese,Odia, andMaithili appeared. Thereafter literature in various dialects ofHindi,Persian andUrdu began to appear as well. In 1913,Bengali poetRabindranath Tagore becameIndia's first Nobel laureate in literature.[5][verification needed]
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Examples of early works written inVedic Sanskrit include, the coreVedas andUpanishads. Other examples include theSulba Sutras, which are some of the earliest texts ongeometry.[citation needed][verification needed]
Ved Vyasa'sMahabharata andValmiki'sRamayana, written in Epic Sanskrit, are regarded as the greatest Sanskrit epics.[citation needed][verification needed]
The famous poet and playwrightKālidāsa wrote one epic:Raghuvamsha (Dynasty of Raghu); it was written in Classical Sanskrit rather than Epic Sanskrit. Other examples of works written in Classical Sanskrit include thePāṇini'sAshtadhyayi, which standardised the grammar and phonetics of Classical Sanskrit. TheLaws of Manu (मनुस्मृति) is a famous text in Hinduism.Kālidāsa is often considered to be the greatest playwright in Sanskrit literature and one of the greatest poets in Sanskrit literature; hisRecognition of Shakuntala (अभिज्ञानशाकुन्तलम्) andMeghaduuta are Kalidasa's most famous play and poem respectively. Other famous plays includeMricchakatika byShudraka,Svapna Vasavadattam byBhasa, andRatnavali by Sri Harsha. Later poetic works includeGita Govinda byJayadeva. Some other famous works areChanakya'sArthashastra andVatsyayana'sKamasutra.[citation needed][verification needed]
"The beginning of thisold Manipuri literature (as in the case ofNewari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now."[6]
Some of the ancient literature ofMeitei language (also known asManipuri language) include theOugri (c. 1st century CE musical composition),[2] theNumit Kappa (c. 1st century CE narrative work),[3] thePoireiton Khunthok (c. 3rd century CE narrative work),[7] theKhencho (pre-7th century CE musical composition),[8] 6th-7th century CE copper plate inscriptions of king Khongtekcha,[9] thePanthoibi Khonggul (c. 8th century CE narrative work),[10] theLoiyumpa Silyel (c. Written Constitution drafted in 429 CE, and finalised in 11th-12th century CE), etc.[11]
Many ofAśvaghoṣa's plays were written in Shauraseni as were a sizable number of Jain works andRajasekhara'sKarpuramanjari. Canto 13 of theBhaṭṭikāvya[12] is written in what is called "like the vernacular" (bhāṣāsama), that is, it can be read in two languages simultaneously: Prakrit andSanskrit.[13]
The canonical Pali literature includesBuddhistdiscourses (suttas),Abhidharma works, poetry, works on monastic discipline (vinaya), and theJataka tales.[citation needed][verification needed]
TheSangam literature (Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம்,Sanga ilakkiyam) is the ancientTamil literature of the period in thehistory of south India (known as theThamizhagam or theTamilagam) spanning fromc. 300 BCE to 300 CE (Akananuru (1, 15, 31, 55, 61, 65, 91, 97, 101, 115, 127, 187, 197, 201, 211, 233, 251, 265, 281, 311, 325, 331, 347, 349, 359, 393, 281, 295),Kurunthogai (11),Natrinai (14, 75) are dated before 300 BCE).[14][15][16][17][18] This collection contains 2381 poems inTamil composed by 473 poets, some 102 of whom remain anonymous.[19]
Most of the available Sangam literature is from theThird Sangam,[20] this period is known as theSangam period, which refers to the prevalent Sangam legends claiming literary academies lasting thousands of years, giving the name to the corpus of literature.[21][22][23] The Only religious poems among the shorter poems occur inparipaatal. The rest of the corpus of Sangam literature deals with human relationship and emotions.[24]
Sangam literature deals with emotional and material topics such as love, war, governance, trade and bereavement.[25] Some of the greatest Tamil scholars, likeThiruvalluvar, who wrote on ethics, and on the various issues of life like virtue, wealth and love, or the Tamil poetMamulanar, who explored historical incidents that happened in India, lived during the Sangam period.[26][27]
TheBhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medievalHinduism[28]: 1 that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method ofdevotion to achieve salvation.[29] Originating inTamilakam during 6th century CE,[30][31][32][33] it gained prominence through the poems and teachings of the VaishnavaAlvars and ShaivaNayanars before spreading northwards.[28]: 1 It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.[28]: 1–2 From the 14th to the 18th centuries, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the spread of theBhakti movement in the northern parts of India, resulting in the emergence of devotional poets likeKabīr,Tulsīdās, andGuru Nānak. This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.[34]
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The BuddhistCharyapadas are often cited as the earliest example of Assamese literature. The Charyapadas areVajrayana Buddhist songs composed in the 8th to 12th centuries.[35][36] These writings bear similarities to Oriya and Bengali languages as well. The phonological and morphological traits of these songs, some of which are extant, bear very strong resemblance to Assamese.[citation needed][verification needed]
A comprehensive introductory bookAssamese Language-Literature & Sahityarathi Lakshminath Bezbaroa originally authored by leading Assamese littérateur ofAwahon-Ramdhenu Era and pioneer Assam economistBhabananda Deka together with his three deputies, Parikshit Hazarika, Upendra Nath Goswami and Prabhat Chandra Sarma, was published in 1968. This book was officially released in New Delhi on 24 Nov 1968 by then President of IndiaZakir Husain in commemoration of the birth centenary celebration of doyen of Assamese literatureLakshminath Bezbaroa. After almost half a century, this historic book has been recovered and re-edited by Assamese award-winning short-story writer & novelist Arnab Jan Deka, which was published by Assam Foundation-India in 2014.[37]
The first evidence of Bengali literature is known as Charyapada or Charyageeti, which were Buddhist hymns from the 8th century. Charyapada is in the oldest known written form of Bengali. The famous Bengali linguistHara Prasad Shastri discovered the palm leaf Charyapada manuscript in the Nepal Royal Court Library in 1907.The most internationally famousBengali writer is Nobel laureateRabindranath Tagore, who received theNobel Prize for Literature in 1913 for his work "Gitanjali". He wrote the national anthem of India and Bangladesh namely, "Jana Gana Mana" and "Amar Sonar Bangla", respectively. He was the first Asian who won the Nobel Prize.Rabindranath has written an enormous number of poems, songs, essays, novels, plays and short stories. His songs remain popular and are still widely sung in Bengal.[citation needed][verification needed]
Hindi literature started as religious and philosophical poetry in medieval periods in dialects likeAvadhi andBrij. The most famous figures from this period areKabir andTulsidas. In modern times, theDehlavi dialect of theHindi Belt became more prominent thanSanskrit.[citation needed][verification needed]
Gujarati literature's history may be traced to 1000 CE.[citation needed][verification needed]
The oldest existing record of Kannada prose is theHalmidi inscription of 450 CE, and poetry intripadi metre is theKappe Arabhatta record of 700 CE. The folk form of literature began earlier than any other literature in Kannada.Gajashtaka (800 CE) by King Shivamara II,Chudamani (650 CE) by Thumbalacharya are examples of early literature now considered extinct.Kavirajamarga by King NripatungaAmoghavarsha I (850 CE) is the earliest existing literary work in Kannada. It is a writing on literary criticism and poetics meant to standardise various written Kannada dialects used in literature in previous centuries. The book makes reference to Kannada works by early writers such as KingDurvinita of the 6th century and Ravikirti, the author of the Aihole record of 636 CE. An earlyextant prose work, theVaddaradhane by Shivakotiacharya of 900 CE provides an elaborate description of the life of Bhadrabahu ofShravanabelagola. Since the earliest available Kannada work is one on grammar and a guide of sorts to unify existing variants of Kannada grammar and literary styles, it can be safely assumed that literature in Kannada must have started several centuries earlier.[38]Pampa who popularisedChampu style in Karnataka wrote the epic "Vikramarjuna Vijaya". He also wrote "Adipurana". Other famous poets like Ponna wrote "shantinatapurana", "Bhuvanaikaramabhyudaya", "Jinaksharamale", and "gatapratyagata". Ranna wrote "Shantipurana" and "Ghadayudha". The Jain poetNagavarma II wrote "Kavyavalokana", "Karnatabhashabhushana" and "Vardhamanapurana" . Janna was the author of "Yashodhara Charitha". Rudhrabhatta and Durgashima wrote "Jagannatha Vijaya" and "Panchatantra" respectively. The works of the medieval period are based onJain andHindu principles. TheVachana Sahitya tradition of the 12th century is purely native and unique in world literature.[39]
Konkani is a language with a complex and much-contested history. It is one of the few Indian languages to be written in five scripts—Roman, Nagari, Kannada, Persian-Arabic and Malayalam-and also has an extensive oral literature.[citation needed][verification needed]
Even up to 500 years since the start of theMalayalam calendar which commenced in 825 CE, Malayalam literature remained in preliminary stage. During this time, Malayalam literature consisted mainly of various genres of songs.[citation needed][verification needed]
Maithili literature is the entire collection of poetry, novels, short stories, documents and other writings in theMaithili language.
The Maithili script, Mithilakshara or Tirhuta as it is popularly known, is of a great antiquity. TheLalitavistara mentions the Vaidehi script. Early in the latter half of the 7th century CE, a marked change occurred in the northeastern alphabet, and the inscriptions of Adityasena exhibit this change for the first time. The eastern variety develops and becomes the Maithili script, which comes into use in Assam, Bengal, and Nepal. The earliest recorded epigraphic evidence of the script is found in the Mandar Hill Stone inscriptions of Adityasena in the 7th century CE, now fixed in the Baidyanath temple ofDeoghar.[40]
The language of the Buddhistdohas is described as belonging to the mixed Maithili—Kamrupi language.[41]
Modern Meitei literature, the descendant ofAncient Meitei literature, is written inmodern Meitei language (also known asManipuri language), composed by writers from Manipur, Assam, Tripura, Myanmar and Bangladesh. The history of Meitei literature can be traced back to thousands of years with the flourish ofMeitei civilization.Khamba Thoibi Sheireng (Meitei for 'Epic ofKhamba Thoibi'), thethird longest Indian epic poem, next to theMahabharata and theRamayana, is a Meiteiepic poem, based on the classic tale ofKhamba and Thoibi,[42] having 39,000 lines, is regarded as thenational epic of theManipuris.[43]
Marathi literature began with saint-poets likeDnyaneshwar,Tukaram,Ramdas, andEknath. Modern Marathi literature was marked by a theme of social reform.[citation needed][verification needed]
Odia is another ancient and rich language among the various language groups in the Indian subcontinent. Ashokan Inscriptions of 3rd cenctury BC at Dhauli and Jaugarh is the ancient unchanged evidence of Odia language. Odia language literary history started with the Kharavel'sHatigumpha inscription (40 B.C.) was the real evidence of past Odia cultural, political, ritual and social status and it is the first poetic stake inscription.[44][45] ThoughAshoka created manyrock edicts and inscriptions beforeKharavela, his instructions for administration were written in a rude and chocked language. On the other hand, the Hatigumpha inscriptions show the flexibility of a language in a sweet flow.[46][47][48][49]The buddhist charyapadas written in the 7th century CE on the period ofBhauma-Kara dynasty . Odia has a rich literary heritage, the medieval period dating back to the 13th century.Sarala Das who lived in the 14th century is known as theVyasa of Odisha. He translated theMahabharata into Odia.[citation needed][verification needed]
[citation needed][verification needed]The first work considered to be Punjabi literature isthe 16th century biography of Guru Nanak, Janam-sakhi, written by his companion Bhai Bala. However, some say that Punjabi literature may have evolved much earlier, perhaps in the 9th or 10th centuries, based on the high level of Punjabi poetry written by Baba Farid, Guru Nanak, and Bhai Gurdas. Baba Farid (1173–1266) is often considered the first major Punjabi poet, and his Sufi poetry was compiled after his death in the Adi Granth.
Wikipedia
Tamil literature has a rich and long literary tradition spanning more than 2500 years (Sangam period: 5th century BCE-3rd century CE.)Tolkaappiyam (3rd century BCE) has been credited as the oldest work in Tamil available today.[citation needed][verification needed]
Telugu, the Indian language with the third largest number of speakers (after Hindi & Bengali), is rich in literary traditions. Literature has existed from 300 BCE in the form of inscriptions. The earliest written literature dates back to the 7th century CE.[citation needed][verification needed]
Among other traditions, Urdu poetry is a fine example of linguistic and cultural synthesis.Arab andPersian vocabulary based on the Hindi language resulted in a vast and popular class of ghazal literature, usually written by Muslims in contexts ranging from romance and society to philosophy and Tassawuf (Sufism).[citation needed][verification needed]
In the 20th century, several Indian writers have distinguished themselves not only in traditionalIndian languages but also in English, a language inherited fromthe British. As a result of British colonisation, India has developed its own unique dialect of English known asIndian English.[citation needed][verification needed]
Literature in Chhattisgarh reflects the regional consciousness and the evolution of an identity distinct from others in Central India.[citation needed][verification needed]
When Kodava was written, it was usually with Kannada script, sometimes with minor modifications.[citation needed][verification needed]
Mizo literature is theliterature written inMizo ṭtawng, the principal language of theMizo peoples, which has bothwritten andoral traditions. It has undergone a considerable change in the 20th century. The language developed mainly from theLushai language, with significant influence fromPawi language,Paite language andHmar language, especially at the literary level.[50]
Nagpuri literature refers to literature in theNagpuri language, the language ofJharkhand,Chhattisgarh andOdisha. The earliest literature started in the nagpuri language when theNagvanshi king and king ofRamgarh Raj started writing poetry in the 17th century. Since then, various literature has been written.[51] Although in the present century, Nagpuri was never considered worthy of literary development, a small but dedicated writers have engaged in writing short stories, plays and poetry.[52]
Tripuri(Kokborok/Tiprakok) is the native language of Tripuri people in present Tripura state in North East of India.[citation needed][verification needed]
The written literature of Tulu is not as large as the literature of other literary Dravidian languages such as Tamil.[citation needed][verification needed]
During the early Muslim period, Persian became the official language of the northern part of Indian subcontinent, used by most of the educated and the government. The language had, from its earliest days in the 11th century CE, been imported to the subcontinent by various culturally PersianisedCentral AsianTurkic andAfghan dynasties.[53]
Literature from North East India includedAssamese literature,Meitei or Manipuri literature, Naga literature, among others. Ancient India has many intensive examples, like that of the incredible verses translated from theRamayana, namedSaptakanda Ramayana. Choral songs known asOja-Pali,[54] and theater performances, known asPanchali, were also an extensive part ofAssamese literature.[55]
In contemporary Indian literature, there are two major literary awards; these are theSahitya Akademi Fellowship and theJnanpith Award. Eight Jnanpith Awards each have been awarded in Hindi andKannada, followed by five inBengali andMalayalam, four inOdia,Gujarati,Marathi,Telugu andUrdu,[56][57] two each inAssamese,Konkani andTamil, and one each inSanskrit and Kashmiri۔[citation needed][verification needed]
Again from amongst the songs mentioned above, 'Ougri' and 'Khencho', in view of their more archaic diction and much advanced historical allusions, may be considered earlier than the rest. ... 'Ougri' is referred to as sung at the coronation of Nongdā Lāiren Pākhangbā, which took place in 33 A.D. ...
... Numit Kappa, a Meitei text from the 1st century CE, is particularly relevant and insightful in examining this peculiar relationship between power and violence. The text is recited as incantations during chupsaba, a cleansing ritual for 'violent' death...
... Numit Kappa gives one such version. Considered one of the earliest known literary compositions in Meitei script, it is dated to the first century AD...
The beginning of this old Manipuri literature (as in the case of Newari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now.
The beginning of this old Manipuri literature (as in the case of Newari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now...
The Poireiton Khunthokpa, is the most conspicuous one of all pre-Garibniwaz manuscripts. From a linguistic point of view, it seems to be much earlier than any of the books yet come under our view. Circumstantial and other incidental evidences would confirm that the book might have been of the time of the third century A. D. It describes the colonization of the valley by a band of people from the land of Death under Poireiton. They first established their colony near the Langol Hill; probably the vast area between the Koubru Hill and the Langol Hill was their kingdom. --Report on the Archaeological studies in Manipur Bulletin No. 1-by W. Yumjao Singh, pp 18-19.
... The beginnings of this Old Manipuri literature may go back to 1,500 years or even 2,000 years from now. ... Poireiton Khunthok, a prose work describing the settlement of some Meithei tribes, is the oldest work in Manipuri going back to the third century A.D. ...
... 'Khencho' is quite obscure and entirely unintelligible to the present generation though it forms an inseparable element of the daily proceedings of the festival. ...
... the text Panthoibi Khongul generally believed to have been written by Akoijam Tomboy during the reign of King Khongtekcha Yoiremba (763 A.D.) ...
Panthoibi khongul ( ? C; Manipuri ) : prose narrative, the original of which was believed to have been composed in ancient Meitei language in first half of 8th century AD ...
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)Manipur, known as 'Meetei Leipak' or 'Kangleipak' in the two millennia old Meetei manuscripts had experienced some form of constitutional government under a proto-Constitution in 429 A.D. which was reduced to a final format in 1110 A.D. Constitution entitled 'Loiyamba Shinyen' during the regime of King Loyumba.
The constitutionalism had developed with the adoption of a prototype of a constitution in 429 A.D. which was finally moulded into the written constitution in 1110 A.D., called 'Loyumba Shinyen' till it was substituted by Manipur State Constitution Act, 1947 which operated till Manipur's merger with India on 15 October 1949.
The six Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions of the 2nd century B.C. on the brow of five caverns on the Kazhugumalai hill near Mankulam, 38 km from Madurai, are the most ancient ones in Tamil Nadu and establish the historical facts that the Pandyan king Nedunchezhiyan ruled in the 2nd century B.C. and that Sangam literature dates back to the same period.
... The folklore of Emoinu Celebration from the story "Washak Ngakpa" meaning Keeping the Promise, written by Late Shri Ningombam Angouton Meetei and the classical love story "Khamba -Thoibi" are classical examples of successful reconciliation process of the old Meitei factions...
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)H. Anganghal Singh's Khamba Thoibi Sheireng (Poem on Khamba Thoibi, 1940) is a national epic of the Manipuris based on the story of Khamba and Thoibi of Moirang. The poet composes the whole epic in the Pena Saisak style of folk ballads sung by minstrels or bards popular in Manipur.
His epic Singel Indu was published in 1938 which was followed by his magnum opus Khamba Thoibi Sheireng (1940), a poem of 39000 lines, considered to be the 'national' epic of the Manipuris, written in the Pena Saisak style of folk ballads.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
