Indian cuisine consists of a variety of regional and traditional cuisines native to theIndian subcontinent. Given the diversity in soil, climate, culture, ethnic groups, and occupations, these cuisines vary substantially and use locally available ingredients.
Indian food is also heavily influenced by religion, cultural choices and traditions.[1][2] Historical events such as invasions, trade relations, andcolonialism have played a role in introducing certain foods to India. TheColumbian discovery of theNew World brought a number of new vegetables and fruits. A number of these such aspotatoes,tomatoes,chillies,peanuts, andguava have become staples in many regions of India.[3]
Indian cuisine reflects an8,000-year history of various groups and cultures interacting with theIndian subcontinent, leading to diversity of flavours and regional cuisines found in modern-day India. Later, trade withBritish andPortuguese influence added to the already diverse Indian cuisine.[8][9]
After 9000 BCE, a first period of indirect contacts betweenFertile Crescent andIndus Valley civilisations seems to have occurred as a consequence of theNeolithic Revolution and the diffusion of agriculture. Wheat and barley were first grown around 7000 BCE, when agriculture spread from the Fertile Crescent to the Indus Valley.Sesame andhumped cattle were domesticated in the local farming communities. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding inSouth Asia.By 3000 BCE,turmeric,cardamom,black pepper andmustard were harvested in India.
From around 2350 BCE evidence for imports from the Indus toUr inMesopotamia has been found, as well asClove heads thought to originate from theMoluccas inMaritime Southeast Asia, which were found in a 2nd millennium BC site inTerqa.Akkadian Empire records mention timber, carnelian and ivory as being imported fromMeluhha by Meluhhan ships, Meluhha being generally considered as the Mesopotamian name for the Indus Valley Civilisation.
The ancientHindu textMahabharata mentions rice and vegetable cooked together, and the word "pulao" or "pallao" is used to refer to the dish in ancientSanskrit works, such asYājñavalkya Smṛti.Ayurveda, ancient Indian system of wellness, deals with holistic approach to the wellness, and it includes food,dhyana (meditation) andyoga.
Antiquity
Early diet in India mainly consisted oflegumes,vegetables,fruits,grains,dairy products, andhoney.[10] Staple foods eaten today include a variety of lentils (dal),whole-wheat flour (aṭṭa), rice, andpearl millet (bājra), which has been cultivated in the Indian subcontinent since 6200 BCE.[9] The Sangam literature, which is specific to South India, mentions that fish, crab, forest cattle, pork, monitor lizard, and poultry were consumed in the region together with a variety of millets, sago, sugarcane, dairy products, honey, and rice.[11]
Over time, segments of the population embracedvegetarianism during theŚramaṇa movement[12][13] while an equitable climate permitted a variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains to be grown throughout the year.
A food classification system that categorised any item assaatvic,raajsic, ortaamsic developed inYoga tradition.[14][15] TheBhagavad Gita proscribes certain dietary practices (chapter 17, verses 8–10).[16]
Consumption ofbeef istaboo, due to cows being considered sacred in Hinduism.[17] Beef is generally not eaten by Hindus in India except forKerala, parts of southernTamil Nadu and the north-east.[18]
Ingredients mentioned in ancient Indian scripture
Pomegranate
While many ancient Indian recipes have been lost in history, one can look at ancient texts to see what was eaten in ancient and pre-historic India.
Barley[19]—(known asYava in bothVedic andClassical Sanskrit) is mentioned many times inRigveda and other Indian scriptures as one of the principal grains in ancient India
Betel leaf[20]—primary use is as a wrapper for the chewing ofareca nut ortobacco, where it is mainly used to add flavour; may also be used in cooking, usually raw, for its peppery taste
Curd—a traditional yogurt or fermented milk product, originating from the Indian subcontinent, usually prepared from cow's milk, and sometimes buffalo milk, or goat milk[citation needed]*Figs[19]—cultivated fromAfghanistan toPortugal, also grown inPithoragarh in theKumaon hills ofIndia; from the 15th century onwards, also grown in areas including NorthernEurope and theNew World
Ghee—a class of clarified butter that originated in ancient India, commonly used in the Indian subcontinent, Middle-Eastern cuisine, traditional medicine, and religious rituals[citation needed]*Grape wine[24]—first-known mention ofgrape-based wines in India is from the late 4th-century BC writings ofChanakya
Pomegranate—in some Hindu traditions, the pomegranate (Hindi:anār) symbolises prosperity and fertility, and is associated with bothBhoomidevi (the earth goddess) and LordGanesha (the one fond of the many-seeded fruit)
Rice—cultivated in the Indian subcontinent from as early as 5,000 BC
Saffron[27]—almost all saffron grows in a belt from Spain in the west toKashmir in the east
Salt[27]—considered to be a very auspicious substance inHinduism and is used in particular religious ceremonies like house-warmings and weddings; inJainism, devotees lay an offering of raw rice with a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion, and salt is sprinkled on a person's cremated remains before the ashes are buried
Sugar—produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times, its cultivation spread from there into modern-day Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass
Sugarcane[23]—the earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India; the earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts
Turmeric[24]—used widely as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking
Middle Ages to the 16th century
During theMiddle Ages, several Indian dynasties were predominant, including theGupta dynasty. Travel to India during this time introduced new cooking methods and products to the region, includingtea.[citation needed]
ThePortuguese andBritish during their rule introduced cooking techniques such as baking, and foods from theNew World and Europe. Thenew-world vegetables popular in cuisine from the Indian subcontinent includemaize,tomato,potato,sweet potatoes,peanuts,squash, andchilli. Most New World vegetables such as sweet potatoes, potatoes,Amaranth, peanuts andcassava basedSago are allowed on Hindu fasting days.Cauliflower was introduced by the British in 1822.[29] In the late 18th/early 19th century, an autobiography of a ScottishRobert Lindsay mentions aSylheti man called Saeed Ullah cooking a curry for Lindsay's family. This is possibly the oldest record of Indian cuisine in theUnited Kingdom.[30][31]
Bhang eaters in India c. 1790.Bhang is anedible preparation ofcannabis native to the Indian subcontinent. It was used by Hindus in food and drink as early as 1000 BCE.[32]
Many types of meat are used for Indian cooking, but chicken andmutton tend to be the most commonly consumed meats. Fish and beef consumption are prevalent in some parts of India, but they are not widely consumed except for coastal areas, as well as the north east.[citation needed]
Lentils are a staple ingredient in Indian cuisine.
One popularspice mix isgaram masala, a powder that typically includes seven dried spices in a particular ratio, includingblack cardamom,cinnamon (dalchini),clove (laung), cumin (jeera), black peppercorns, coriander seeds andanise star.[39][self-published source?]. Each culinary region has a distinctivegaram masala blend—individualchefs may also have their own.
The spices chosen for a dish are freshly ground and then fried in hot oil or ghee to create a paste. The process is calledbhuna, the name also being used for a type ofcurry.[40]
There are other spice blends which are popular in various regions.Panch phoron is a spice blend which is popular in eastern India.Goda masala is a sweet spice mix which is popular inMaharashtra. Some leaves commonly used for flavouring includebay leaves (tejpat),coriander leaves,fenugreek (methi) leaves, andmint leaves. The use ofcurry leaves and roots for flavouring is typical ofGujarati[41] andSouth Indian cuisine.[42] Sweet dishes are often seasoned with cardamom,saffron,nutmeg, androse petal essences.
Cuisine differs acrossIndia's diverse regions as a result of variation in local culture, geographical location (proximity to sea, desert, or mountains), and economics. It also varies seasonally, depending on which fruits and vegetables are ripe.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Seafood plays a major role in the cuisine of theAndaman and Nicobar Islands.[43] Staples of the diet of the IndigenousAndamanese traditionally include roots, honey, fruits, meat, and fish, obtained by hunting and gathering. Some insects were also eaten as delicacies.[44] Immigration from mainland of India, however, has resulted in variations in the cuisine.
A vegetarianAndhra meal served on important occasions
The cuisine ofAndhra Pradesh belongs to the two Telugu-speaking regions ofRayalaseema and Coastal Andhra and is part ofTelugu cuisine. The food of Andhra Pradesh is known for its heavy use of spices, and the use oftamarind.
Seafood is common in the coastal region of the state. Rice is the staple food (as is with all South Indian states) eaten with lentil preparations such aspappu (lentils) andpulusu(stew) and spicy vegetables or curries.
In Andhra, leafy greens or vegetables such as bottle-gourd and eggplant are usually added todal. Pickles are an essential part of the local cuisine; popular among those are mango-based pickles such asavakaya andmaagaya,gongura (a pickle made fromsorrel leaves),[45]usirikaya (gooseberry oramla), nimmakaya(lime), and tomato pickle.
Perugu (yogurt) is a common addition to meals, as a way of tempering spiciness. Breakfast items includedosa, pesarattu (mung beandosa),vada, andidli.
Arunachal Pradesh is located in the northeast of India, bordered by Bhutan, Myanmar, and a disputed border withTibet.
The staple food is rice, along with fish, meat, andleaf vegetables.[46] Native tribes of Arunachal are meat eaters and use fish, eggs, beef, chicken, pork, and mutton to make their dishes.
Many varieties of rice are used. Boiled rice cakes wrapped in leaves are a popular snack.Thukpa is a kind of noodle soup common among theMonpa tribe of the region.[47]
Lettuce is the most common vegetable, usually prepared byboiling with ginger, coriander, and green chillies.[48]
Apong orrice beer made from fermented rice or millet is a popular beverage in Arunachal Pradesh and is consumed as a refreshing drink.[49]
Assam is located in the northeast of India, bordered by Bhutan. Its cuisine is a mixture of different indigenous styles, with considerable regional variation and some external influences. Although it is known for its limited use of spices,[50] Assamese cuisine has strong flavours from its use of endemic herbs, fruits, and vegetables served fresh, dried, orfermented.
Rice is the staple food item and a huge variety of endemic rice varieties, including several varieties of sticky rice are a part of the cuisine in Assam. Fish, generally freshwater varieties, are widely eaten. Other non-vegetarian items include chicken, duck, squab, snails, silkworms, insects, goat, pork, venison, turtle, monitor lizard, etc.
The region's cuisine involves simple cooking processes, mostly barbecuing, steaming, or boiling. Spices are not fried before use in the cuisine of Assam.
A traditional meal in Assam begins with akhar, a class of dishes named after the main ingredient and ends with atenga, a sour dish. Homebrewed rice beer orrice wine is served before a meal. The food is usually served inbell metal utensils.[51]Paan, the practice of chewingbetel nut, generally concludes a meal.[52]
Mughal cuisine is a universal influencer in the Bengali palate, and has introduced Persian and Islamic foods to the region, as well as a number of more elaborate methods of preparing food, like marination using ghee. Fish, meat (chicken, goat meat), egg, rice, milk, and sugar all play crucial parts in Bengali cuisine.[53]
Bengali cuisine can be subdivided into four different types of dishes,charbya (চারব্য), or food that is chewed, such as rice or fish;choṣya, or food that is sucked, such asambal andtak;lehya (লেহ্য), or foods that are meant to be licked, likechuttney; andpeya (পেয়ে), which includes drinks, mainly milk.[54]
During the 19th century, manyOdia-speaking cooks were employed inBengal,[55] which led to the transfer of several food items between the two regions. Bengali cuisine is the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from the Indian subcontinent that is analogous in structure to the modernservice à la russe style of French cuisine, with food served course-wise rather than all at once.[56]
Bengali cuisine differs according to regional tastes, such as the emphasis on the use ofchilli pepper in theChittagong district of Bangladesh[57] However, across all its varieties, there is predominant use of mustard oil along with large amounts of spices.
The cuisine is known for subtle flavours with an emphasis onfish, meat, vegetables, lentils, and rice.[58] Bread is also a common dish in Bengali cuisine, particularly a deep-fried version calledluchi is popular. Fresh aquatic fish is one of its most distinctive features; Bengalis prepare fish in many ways, such assteaming,braising, orstewing in vegetables and sauces based oncoconut milk ormustard.
East Bengali food, which has a high presence inWest Bengal and Bangladesh, is much spicier than the West Bengali cuisine, and tends to use high amounts of chilli, and is one of the spiciest cuisines in India and the World.
Shondesh andRashogolla are popular dishes made of sweetened, finely ground fresh cheese. For the latter, West Bengal and neighbouringOdisha both claim to be the origin of dessert. Each state also has ageographical indication for their regional variety ofrasgulla.[59][60]
The cuisine is also found in the state ofTripura and theBarak Valley of Assam.
Bihari cuisine may includelitti chokha,[61] a baked salted wheat-flour cake filled withsattu (baked chickpea flour) and some special spices, which is served withbaigan ke chokha,[62] made of roasted eggplant (brinjal) and tomatoes.[63][64]
Among meat dishes, meatsaalan[65] is a popular dish made of mutton or goat curry with cubed potatoes ingaram masala.
Dalpuri is another popular dish in Bihar. It is salted wheat-flour bread, filled with boiled, crushed, and fried gram pulses.[66]
Malpua is a popular sweet dish of Bihar, prepared by a mixture ofmaida, milk, bananas, cashew nuts, peanuts, raisins, sugar, water, and green cardamom. Another notable sweet dish of Bihar isbalushahi, which is prepared by a specially treated combination ofmaida and sugar along withghee, and the other worldwide famous sweet,khaja is made from flour, vegetable fat, and sugar, which is mainly used in weddings and other occasions.Silao nearNalanda is famous for its production.
During the festival ofChhath,thekua, a sweet dish made ofghee,jaggery, and whole-meal flour, flavoured withaniseed, is made.[63]
Other food items that are quite prominent in Bihar are, Pittha, Aaloo Bhujiya, ReshmiKebab, Palwal ki mithai, and Puri Sabzi.[67]
Chandigarh, the capital ofPunjab andHaryana is a city of 20th-century origin with a cosmopolitan food culture mainly involving North Indian cuisine. People enjoy home-made recipes such asparatha, especially at breakfast, and otherPunjabi foods likeroti which is made fromwheat,sweetcorn, or otherglutenousflour with cooked vegetables or beans.Sarson da saag anddal makhani are well-known dishes among others.[68] Popular snacks includegol gappa (known aspanipuri in other places). It consists of a round, hollowpuri, fried crisp and filled with a mixture of flavoured water, boiled and cubed potatoes,bengal gram beans, etc.
Chhattisgarh cuisine is unique in nature and not found in the rest of India, although the staple food is rice, like in much of the country. Many Chhattisgarhi people drinkliquor brewed from themahuwa flower palm wine (tadi in rural areas).[69] Chhattisgarhi cuisines varies as per special occasions and festivals like Thethari and Khurmi, fara, gulgule bhajiya, chausela, chila, aaersa are prepared in regional festivals.[70] The tribal people of theBastar region of Chhattisgarh eat ancestral dishes such asmushrooms, bamboo pickle, bamboo vegetables, etc.[71][72]
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
The local cuisine resembles the cuisine of Gujarat.Ubadiyu[73] is a local delicacy made of vegetables and beans with herbs. The common foods include rice,roti, vegetables, river fish, and crab. People also enjoy buttermilk andchutney made of different fruits and herbs.[74]
Daman and Diu
Daman and Diu is a union territory of India which, likeGoa, was a former colonial possession of Portugal. Consequently, both nativeGujarati food and traditionalPortuguese food are common. Being a coastal region, the communities are mainly dependent on seafood. Normally,rotli and tea are taken for breakfast,rotla andsaak for lunch, andchokha along withsaak and curry are taken for dinner. Some of the dishes prepared on festive occasions includepuri,lapsee,potaya,dudh-plag, anddhakanu.[75] Whilealcohol is prohibited in the neighbouring state ofGujarat, drinking is common in Daman and Diu. Better known as the "pub" of Gujarat. All popular brands of alcohol are readily available.
Delhi has people from different parts of India, thus the city has different types of food traditions; its cuisine is influenced by the various cultures. Punjabi cuisine is common, due to the dominance of Punjabi communities.[76]
Delhi cuisine is actually an amalgam of different Indian cuisines modified in unique ways. This is apparent in the different types of street food available.Kababs,kachauri,chaat, Indian sweets, Indian ice cream (commonly calledkulfi), and even Western food items like sandwiches and patties, are prepared in a style unique to Delhi and are quite popular.[77]
Gujarati cuisine is primarily vegetarian. The typical Gujaratithali consists ofroti (rotlii inGujarati),daal orkadhi, rice,sabzi/shaak,papad andchaas (buttermilk).
Sabzi is a dish of different combinations of vegetables and spices which may bestir fried, spicy or sweet.[80] Gujarati cuisine can vary widely in flavour and heat based on personal and regional tastes.North Gujarat,Kathiawad,Kachchh, andSouth Gujarat are the four major regions of Gujarati cuisine.[81]
Many Gujarati dishes are simultaneously sweet, salty (likehandvo), and spicy. Inmango season,keri no ras (fresh mango pulp) is often an integral part of the meal. Spices also vary seasonally. For example,garam masala is used much less in summer.
In the past, its staple diet includedbajra khichdi,[93]rabdi, onion chutney,[94] andbajra ki roti.[95] In non-vegetarian cuisine it includeskukad kadhai[96] andchickentikka masala.
Lassi,sharbat,nimbu pani andlabsi (a mixture ofbajra flour andlassi) are three popular non-alcoholic beverages in Haryana. However, liquor stores are common there, which cater to a large number of truck drivers.[97]
The daily diet ofHimachal people is similar to that of the rest of North India, including lentils, broth, rice, vegetables, and bread, although non-vegetarian cuisine is preferred. Some of the specialities of Himachal includesidu,[98]patande,[99]chukh,rajmah, andtil chutney.[100]
The cuisine of Jammu and Kashmir is from two regions of the state: Jammu division and Kashmir Valley.Kashmiri cuisine has evolved over hundreds of years. Its first major influence was the food of theKashmiri Hindus and Buddhists.
The cuisine was later influenced by the cultures which arrived with the invasion of Kashmir byTimur from the area of modernUzbekistan. Subsequent influences have included the cuisines ofCentral Asia and the North Indian plains.
The most notable ingredient in Kashmiri cuisine ismutton, of which over 30 varieties are known.[101]Wazwan is a multicourse meal in the Kashmiri tradition, the preparation of which is considered an art.[102]
Shufta
Kashmiri pandit food is elaborate, and an important part of the Pandits' ethnic identity. Kashmiri pandit cuisine usually usesdahi (yogurt), oil, and spices such as turmeric, red chilli, cumin, ginger, andfennel, though they do not use onion and garlic.[103]Birayanis are quite popular, and are the speciality of Kashmir.
Staple vegetarian meal of Karnataka isjolada rotti, palya, andanna-saaru.
A number of dishes, such asidli,rava idli, Mysoremasala dosa, etc., were invented here and have become popular beyond the state ofKarnataka[citation needed]. Equally, varieties in the cuisine of Karnataka have similarities with its three neighbouring South Indian states, as well as the states ofMaharashtra and Goa to its north. It is very common for the food to be served on a banana leaf, especially during festivals and functions.
TheKodagu district is known for spicy pork curries,[117] while coastal Karnataka specialises in seafood. Although the ingredients differ regionally, a typicalKannadiga oota (Kannadiga meal) is served on abanana leaf. The coastal districts ofDakshina Kannada andUdupi have slightly varying cuisines, which make extensive use of coconut in curries and frequently include seafood.[118][119]
Contemporary Kerala food includes vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Fish and seafood play a major role in Kerala cuisine, as Kerala is a coastal state. An everyday Kerala meal in most households consists of rice with fish curry made of sardines, mackerel,seer fish, king fish, pomfret, prawns, shrimp, sole, anchovy, or parrotfish, (mussels, oysters, crabs, squid, scallops are not rare), and vegetable curry and stir-fried vegetables with or without coconut traditionally known asthoran ormizhukkupiratti. As Kerala has large number of inland water bodies, freshwater fish are also abundant, and part of regular meals. It is common in Kerala to have a breakfast with non-vegetarian dishes in restaurants, in contrast to other states in India. Chicken or mutton stews, lamb, chicken, beef, pork, egg curry, and fish curry with tapioca for breakfast are also widely enjoyed.
Kerala cuisine reflects its rich trading heritage. Over time, various cuisines have blended with indigenous dishes, while foreign ones have been adapted to local tastes.[120] Significant Arab, Syrian, Portuguese, Dutch, Jewish, and Middle Eastern influences exist in this region's cuisine.
Kerala style prawns roast–Kerala being a coastal state has different varieties of sea food preparations
Coconuts grow in abundance in Kerala, so grated coconut and coconut milk are commonly used for thickening and flavouring.[121] Kerala's long coastline and numerous rivers have led to a strong fishing industry in the state, making seafood a common part of the meal. Starchy food like Rice andtapioca forms the major part of Kerala's staple food.[122] Having been a major region ofspice cultivation and trade for thousands of years, the spices like black pepper, cardamom, clove, ginger, cumin and cinnamon finds extensive use in Kerala cuisine. Keralasadhya, an elaborate vegetarian banquet prepared for festivals and ceremonies. A full-coursesadhya, which consists of rice with about 20 different accompaniments and desserts is the ceremonial meal, eaten usually on celebrations such as marriages,Onam,Vishu, etc. and is served on aplantain leaf.
Most of Kerala's Hindus, except itsBrahmin community, eats fish, chicken, beef, pork, eggs, and mutton.[123] The Brahmin are famed for their vegan cuisine, especially varieties ofsambar andrasam. A thick vegetable stew popular in South and Central India calledavial is believed to have originated in southern Kerala. The avial, eaten widely in the state, is an important vegetarian dish inKerala sadya. In most Kerala households, a typical meal consists of rice served along with vegetables and fish or meat dishes. Kerala also has a variety of breakfast dishes likeidli,dosa,appam,idiyappam,puttu,parotta andpathiri served with sambar, coconut chutney, mutta curry (egg curry), kadala (chickpea) curry, green peas, chicken curry, beef curry and mutton curry.[124]
TheMuslim community of Kerala blend Arabian, North Indian, and indigenousMalabari cuisines, using chicken, eggs, beef, and mutton.[125]Thalassery biryani is the onlybiryani variant, which is of Kerala origin having originated inTalassery, inMalabar region. The dish is significantly different from otherbiryani variants.[126] Snacks likePazham nirachathu,Unnakkai,Bread pola— made of bread, eggs, milk and a simple masala, Iftar preparations likeThari kanji,Kozhi pichuporichathu (shredded chicken),Pidi— a preparation of rice dumplings dunked in gravy,Irachi pathiri, Chatti pathiri, Meen pathiri, Neriya pathiri and Kannu vecha pathiri – roti varieties usually made of powdered rice, dishes like Kaai curry etc., are also contributions of Muslim community to the broad Kerala cuisine.[127]ThePathanamthitta region is known forraalan and fish curries.Appam along withwine and curries of duck, pork and cured beef are popular amongSyrian Christians in Central Kerala.
Popular desserts arepayasam (pudding) andhalwa. Payasam, especiallyAmbalappuzha Paalpayasam also known as Gopala Kashayam (Krishnan's potion) prepared at the 17th centuryAmbalappuzha Sri Krishna swami temple, is a delicacy known for its unique and flavourful taste. Interestingly, on each day the paalpayasam is prepared only after (ritualistically) seeking due permission from the presiding deity –Shri Krishna.[128] Kerala has a number of paayasam varieties including but not limited toPaalpayasam, Vermicelli Payasam, Pradhaman, Ada Pradhaman, Chakka (Jackfruit) Pradhaman, Parippu Paayasam and more. Paayasam like Vermicelli Payasam (Semiya payasam) also finds a place inIftar feast of Muslim communities in Kerala.
Halva is one of the most commonly found or easily recognised sweets in bakeries throughout Kerala, and originated from the Gujarathi community in Calicut.[129] Europeans used to call the dish "sweetmeat" due to its texture, and a street in Kozhikode where became namedSweet Meat Street duringcolonial rule. This is mostly made frommaida (highly refined wheat), and comes in various flavours, such as banana,ghee or coconut. However,karutha haluva (blackhaluva) made from rice is also very popular.
Ladakhi cuisine is from the two districts ofLeh andKargil in the union territory ofLadakh. Ladakhi food has much in common withTibetan food, the most prominent foods beingthukpa (noodle soup) andtsampa, known in Ladakhi asngampe (roasted barley flour). Edible without cooking,tsampa makes useful trekking food.
Strictly Ladakhi dishes includeskyu andchutagi, both heavy and rich soup pasta dishes,skyu being made with root vegetables and meat, andchutagi with leafy greens and vegetables.[130] As Ladakh moves toward a cash-based economy, foods from the plains of India are becoming more common.[131]
As in other parts of Central Asia, tea in Ladakh is traditionally made with strong green tea, butter, and salt. It is mixed in a large churn and known asgurgur cha, after the sound it makes when mixed. Sweet tea (cha ngarmo) is common now, made in the Indian style with milk and sugar. Most of the surplus barley that is produced is fermented intochang, an alcoholic beverage drunk especially on festive occasions.[132]
Lakshadweep
The cuisine ofLakshadweep prominently features seafood and coconut. Local food consists of spicy non-vegetarian and vegetarian dishes.
The culinary influence of Kerala is quite evident in the cuisines of Lakshadweep, since the island lies in close proximity to Kerala. Coconut and sea fish serve as the foundation of most meals.
The people of Lakshadweep drink large amounts ofcoconut water, which is the most abundant aerated drink on the island. Coconut milk is the base for most of the curries. All the sweet or savoury dishes have a touch of famousMalabar spices. Local people also prefer to havedosa,idlis, and various rice dishes.[133]
The cuisine inMadhya Pradesh varies regionally. Wheat and meat are common in the north and west of the state, while the wetter south and east are dominated by rice and fish. Milk is a common ingredient inGwalior andIndore.
Thestreet food of Indore is well known, with shops that have been active for generations.[134]Bhopal is known for meat and fish dishes such asrogan josh,korma,qeema,biryani,pilaf, andkebabs. On a street named Chatori Gali in old Bhopal, one can find traditional Muslim nonvegetarian fare such aspayasoup,bun kabab, andnalli-nihari as some of the specialties.[135]
Dal bafla is a common meal in the region and can be easily found in Indore and other nearby regions, consisting of a steamed and grilled wheat cake dunked in rich ghee, which is eaten withdaal andladoos.
The culinary specialty of theMalwa and Indore regions of central Madhya Pradesh ispoha (flattened rice); usually eaten at breakfast withjalebi.[136]
Beverages in the region includelassi,beer,rum andsugarcane juice. A local liquor is distilled from the flowers of themahua tree.Date palmtoddy is also popular. In tribal regions, a popular drink is the sap of thesulfi tree, which may be alcoholic if it hasfermented.
Maharashtrian cuisine is an extensive balance of many different tastes. It includes a range of dishes from mild to very spicy tastes.Bajri, wheat, rice,jowar, vegetables, lentils, and fruit form important components of the Maharashtrian diet.
Popular spicy meat dishes include those that originated in the Kolhapur region. These are the KolhapuriSukka mutton,[141]pandhra rassa,[142] andtabmda rassa.[143]Shrikhand, a sweet dish made fromstrained yogurt, is a main dessert of Maharashtrian cuisine.[144]
The cuisine of Vidarbha usesgroundnuts, poppy seeds,jaggery, wheat,jowar, andbajra extensively. A typical meal consists of rice,roti,poli, orbhakar, along withvaran andaamtee[145]—lentils and spiced vegetables. Cooking is common with different types of oil.
Savji food from Vidarbha is well known all over Maharashtra. Savji dishes are very spicy and oily. Savji mutton curries are very famous.
Like other coastal states, an enormous variety of vegetables, fish, and coconuts exists, where they are common ingredients. Peanuts andcashews are often served with vegetables. Grated coconuts are used to flavour many types of dishes, but coconut oil is not widely used; peanut oil is preferred.[146]
Kokum, most commonly served chilled, in an appetiser-digestive calledsol kadhi, is prevalent. During summer, Maharashtrians consumepanha, a drink made from raw mango.[147][148]
Malwani cuisine is a specialty of the tropical area which spans from the shore ofDeogad Malwan to the southern Maharashtrian border withGoa. The unique taste and flavour of Malwani cuisine comes from Malwanimasala and use of coconut andkokam.
The staple foods are rice and fish. Various kinds of red and green fish, prawns, crab, and shellfish curries (also calledmashacha sar in the Malwani language) are well known, along withkombadi (chicken)wade and mutton prepared Malwani style.Mohari mutton is also one of the distinct delicacies of Malwani cuisine.
All these fish are available in dried form, including prawns, which are known assode. Local curries andchatanis are also prepared with dried fish.
Different types of rice breads and pancakes add to the variety of Malwani cuisine and includetandlachi bhakari,[149]ghawane,amboli,[150]patole,appe,tandalachi andshavai (rice noodles). These rice breads can be eaten specially flavoured with coconut milk, fish curries, and chicken or mutton curries.
Sole kadi made fromkokam and coconut milk is a signature appetiser drink. For vegetarians, Malwani delicacies includealloochi bhaji,alloochi gathaya,kalaya watanyacha, andsambara (black gram stew).
The sweets and desserts includeukadiche modak,[151]Malawani khaje,khadakahde kundiche ladu,shegdanyache ladu,tandalchi kheer, andtandalachi shavai ani ras (specially flavoured with coconut milk).
Eromba, here vegetarian, is a popular Manipuri dish.
Manipuri cuisine is represented by the cuisine of theMeitei people who form the majority population in the central plain. Meitei food are simple, tasty, organic and healthy. Rice with local seasonal vegetables and fish form the main diet.
Most of the dishes are cooked like vegetable stew, flavoured with eitherfermented fish calledngari, or dried and smoked fish.
The most popular Manipuri dish iseromba, a preparation of boiled and mashed vegetables, often including carrots,potatoes orbeans, mixed withchilli and roasted fermentedfish.
Another popular dish is the savoury cake calledpaknam, made of a lentil flour stuffed with various ingredients such as banana inflorescence,mushrooms, fish, vegetables etc., and baked covered inturmeric leaves.
Along with spicy dishes, a mild side dish of steamed or boiled sweet vegetables are often served in the daily meals. The Manipuri salad dish calledsingju, made of finely juliennedcabbage, greenpapaya, and other vegetables, and garnished with local herbs, toastedsesame powder and lentil flour is extremely popular locally, and often found sold in small street side vendors.
Singju is often served withbora, which are fritters of various kinds, and alsokanghou, or oil-fried spicy veggies.[152] Cooked and fermentedsoybean is a popular condiment in all Manipuri kitchens.
The staple diet of Manipur consists of rice, fish, large varieties of leafy vegetables (of both aquatic and terrestrial).Manipuris typically raise vegetables in akitchen garden and rear fishes in small ponds around their house. Since the vegetables are either grown at home or obtained from local market, the cuisines are very seasonal, each season having its own special vegetables and preparations.
The taste is very different from mainland Indian cuisines because of the use of various aromaticherbs androots that are peculiar to the region. They are however very similar to the cuisines ofSoutheast,East, andCentral Asia,Siberia,Micronesia andPolynesia.
The cuisine ofMizoram differs from that of most of India, though it shares characteristics to other regions ofNortheast India and North India.
Rice is the staple food of Mizoram, while Mizos love to add non-vegetarian ingredients in every dish. Fish, chicken, pork and beef are popular meats among Mizos. Dishes are served on freshbanana leaves. Most of the dishes are cooked inmustard oil.
Meals tend to be less spicy than in most of India. Mizos love eating boiled vegetables along with rice. A popular dish isbai, made from boiling vegetables (spinach, eggplant, beans, and other leafy vegetables) withbekang (fermented soya beans) orsa-um, fermented pork fat served with rice.Sawhchiar is another common dish, made of rice and cooked with pork or chicken.[156][157]
Naga style smoked Pork ribs with bamboo shoots and rice
The cuisine ofNagaland reflects that of theNaga people. It is known for exotic pork meats cooked with simple and flavourful ingredients,[158] like the extremely hotbhut jolokia (ghost chilli) pepper, fermented bamboo shoots, andakhuni (fermentedsoya beans). Another unique and strong ingredient used by the Naga people, is the fermented fish known asngari.
Fresh herbs and other local greens also feature prominently in the Naga cuisine. The Naga use oil sparingly, preferring to ferment, dry, and smoke their meats and fish.
Traditional homes in Nagaland have external kitchens that serve assmokehouses.[159]
A typical meal consists of rice, meat, a chutney, a couple of stewed or steamed vegetable dishes, flavoured withngari orakhuni. Desserts usually consist of fresh fruits.
The cuisine ofOdisha relies heavily on local ingredients. Flavours are usually subtle and delicately spiced. Fish and other seafood, such as crab and shrimp, are very popular, and chicken and mutton are also consumed.
Pakhala Platter
Pakhala, a dish made of rice, water, anddahi (yogurt), that is fermented overnight, is very popular in summer in rural areas.[160]Odias are very fond of sweets, sodessert follows most meals.
Panch phutana, a mix of cumin, mustard, fennel, fenugreek andkalonji (nigella), is widely used for flavouring vegetables anddals,[161] whilegaram masala and turmeric are commonly used for meat-based curries.
Popular Odia dishes includearna,kanika,dalma,khata (tamato andoou),dali (different types of lentils, i.e.harada [red gram],muga [green gram],kolatha [horsegram], etc.), spinach and other green leaves, andalu-bharta (mashed potato)[162] along withpakhala.
The union territory ofPuducherry was aFrench colony for around 200 years, makingFrench cuisine a strong influence on the area.Tamil cuisine is eaten by the territory'sTamil majority. The influence of the neighbouring areas, such asAndhra Pradesh and Kerala, is also visible on the territory's cuisine.
The cuisine ofPunjab is known for its diverse range of dishes. It is closely related to the cuisine of the neighbouring Punjab province of Pakistan.
The state, being an agriculture centre, is abundant with whole grains, vegetables, and fruits. Home-cooked and restaurant Punjabi cuisine can vary significantly.
Restaurant-style Punjabi cooking puts emphasis on creamy textured foods by usingghee, butter and cream, while home-cooked meals centre around whole wheat, rice, and other ingredients flavoured with various kinds ofmasalas.[165]
Common dishes cooked at home areroti withdaal anddahi (yogurt) with a sidechutney andsalad that includes raw onion, tomato, cucumber, etc.
The meals are also abundant of local and seasonal vegetables usually sautéed with spices such as cumin, dried coriander, red chilli powder, turmeric, black cloves, etc.Masala chai is a favourite drink and is consumed in everyday life and at special occasions.
Many regional differences exist in the Punjabi cuisine based on traditional variations in cooking similar dishes, food combinations, preference of spice combination, etc. It is clear that "the food is simple, robust, and closely linked to the land."[166]
Common meat dishes in this region are Bhakra curry (goat) and fish dishes.[168] Dairy products are regularly enjoyed and usually accompany main meals in the form ofdahi, milk, and milk-derived products such aslassi,paneer, and more.
Punjab has a large number of people following theSikh religion who traditionally follow a vegetarian diet (which includes plant-derived foods, milk, and milk by-products. Seediet in Sikhism) in accordance to their beliefs.
No description of Punjabi cuisine is complete without the myriad of famous desserts, such askheer,gajar ka halwa,sooji (cream of wheat)halwa,rasmalai,gulab jamun andjalebi. Most desserts areghee or dairy-based, use nuts such as almonds, walnuts, pistachios, cashews, and, raisins.
Punjabi food is well liked in the world for its flavours, spices, and, versatile use of produce, and so it is one of the most popular cuisines from the sub-continent. Last but not least are thechhole bhature andchhole kulche[170] which are famous all over the North India.
Cooking inRajasthan, an arid region, has been strongly shaped by the availability of ingredients. Food is generally cooked in milk orghee, making it quite rich.Gram flour is a mainstay ofMarwari food mainly due to the scarcity of vegetables in the area.[171]
Daal-baati is the most popular dish prepared in the state. It is usually supplemented withchoorma, a mixture of finely ground bakedrotis, sugar andghee.[172]
Rajasthan is also influenced by theRajput community who have liking for meat dishes. Their diet consisted ofgame meat and gave birth to dishes likelaal maans,safed maas,[173]khad khargosh[174] andjungli maas.[175]
Rice is the staple food of the area, and meat and dairy products are also widely consumed. For centuries, traditional fermented foods and beverages have constituted about 20 percent of the local diet.
Depending on altitudinal variation, finger millet, wheat, buckwheat, barley, vegetables, potatoes, and soybeans are grown.Dhindo,daal bhat,gundruk,momo,gya thuk,ningro,phagshapa, andsel roti are some of the local dishes.
Alcoholic drinks are consumed by both men and women. Beef is eaten byBhutias.[176]
Sindhi cuisine refers to the native cuisine of theSindhi people from theSindh region, now inPakistan. While Sindh is not geographically a part of modern India, its culinary traditions persist,[177] due to the sizeable number of Hindu Sindhis who migrated to India following theindependence ofPakistan in 1947, especially in Sindhi enclaves such asUlhasnagar andGandhidam.
A typical meal in many Sindhi households includes wheat-based flatbread (phulka) and rice accompanied by two dishes, one with gravy and one dry.Lotus stem (known askamal kakri) is also used in Sindhi dishes. Cooking vegetables by deep frying is common.
Some regular Sindhi dishes aresindhi kadhi,[178]sai bhaji,koki[179] andbesan bhaji. Ingredients frequently used are mango powder, tamarind,kokum flowers, and dried pomegranate seeds.[180]
Vegetarian meals in Tamil Nadu are traditionally served on a plantain leaf.Murukku
Tamil Nadu is noted for its deep belief that serving food to others is a service to humanity, as is common in many regions of India. The region has a rich cuisine involving both traditional non-vegetarian and vegetarian dishes.
The traditional way of eating involves being seated on the floor, having the food served on a plantain leaf, and using the right hand to eat. After the meal the plantain leaf is discarded but becomes food for free-ranging cattle and goats.
A meal (calledsaapadu) consists of rice with other typical Tamil dishes on a plantain leaf. A typical Tamilian would eat on a plantain leaf as it is believed to give a different flavour and taste to food. Also growing in popularity are stainless-steel trays, plates with a selection of different dishes in small bowls.
Tamil food is characterised bytiffin, which is a light food taken for breakfast or dinner, and meals which are usually taken during lunch. The word "curry" is derived from theTamilkari, meaning something similar to "sauce".[181][182]
Southern regions such asTirunelveli,Madurai,Paramakudi,Karaikudi,Chettinad andKongu Nadu are noted for their spicy non-vegetarian dishes.[183][184]Dosa,idli,pongal andbiryani are some of the popular dishes that are eaten withchutney andsambar. Fish and other seafoods are also very popular, because the state is located on the coast. Chicken and goat meat are the predominantly consumed meats in Tamil Nadu.
A typical Tamil vegetarian meal is heavily dependent on rice, vegetables and lentil preparations such asrasam andsambar, but there are variations. They have influenced Kerala as well in theirkootu,arachi vitta sambhar[185] andmolagootals (mulligatawny soup).
As mentioned above, the Chettinad variety of food uses many strong spices, such as pepper, garlic, fennel seeds and onions. Tamil food tends to be spicy compared to other parts of India so there is a tradition of finishing the meal withdahi (yogurt) is considered a soothing end to the meal.
Notably,Tamil Brahmin cuisine, the food of theIyers andIyengar community, is characterised by slightly different meal times and meal structures compared to other communities within the state.
Historically vegetarian, the cuisine is known for its milder flavour and avoidance of onion and garlic (although this practice appears to be disappearing with time).
After a light morning meal offilter coffee and different varieties of porridges (oatmeal andjanata kanji are immensely popular), the main meal of the day, lunch/brunch is usually at 11 am and typically follows a two-three course meal structure. Steamed rice is the main dish, and is always accompanied by a seasonally steamed/sauteed vegetable (poriyal), and two or three types of tamarind stews, the most popular beingsambhar andrasam. The meal typically ends withthair sadham (rice with yogurt), usually served with pickled mangoes or lemons.
Tiffin is the second meal of the day and features several breakfast favourites such asidli,rava idli,upma,dosa varieties, andvada, and is usually accompanied bychai.
Dinner is the simplest meal of the day, typically involving leftovers from either lunch ortiffin. Fresh seasonal fruit consumed in the state include bananas, papaya, honeydew and cantaloupe melons, jackfruit, mangos, apples,kasturi oranges, pomegranates, andnongu (hearts of palm).
Hyderabadi food is based heavily on non-vegetarian ingredients, whileTelugu food is a mix of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian ingredients. Telugu food is rich in spices and chillies are abundantly used. The food also generally tends to be more on the tangy side with tamarind and lime juice both used liberally as souring agents.
Rice is the staple food of Telugu people. Starch is consumed with a variety of curries and lentilsoups orbroths.[188][189] Vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods are both popular.
Hyderabadi cuisine includes popular delicacies such asbiryani,haleem,Baghara baingan andkheema, while Hyderabadi day-to-day dishes see some similarities to Telanganite Telugu food, with its use of tamarind, rice, and lentils, along with meat.[188]Dahi (yogurt) is a common addition to meals, as a way of temperingspiciness.[190]
The major ingredients of Tripuri cuisine include vegetables, herbs, pork, chicken, mutton, fishes, turtle, shrimps, crabs, freshwater mussels, periwinkles, edible freshwater snails and frogs.
Awadhi cuisine (Hindi:अवधी खाना) is from the city ofLucknow, which is the capital of the state ofUttar Pradesh inCentral-South Asia andNorth India, and the cooking patterns of the city are similar to those of Central Asia, the Middle East, and other parts of North India. The cuisine consists of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes.
The richness of Awadh cuisine lies not only in the variety of cuisine but also in the ingredients used likemutton,paneer, and rich spices, includingcardamom andsaffron.
The tastes of Mughlai cuisine vary from extremely mild to spicy, and is often associated with a distinctivearoma and the taste of ground and whole spices.
Saag, a popular Kumauni dish from Uttarakhand, made from green vegetables such asspinach andfenugreek
Food fromUttrakhand is known to be healthy and wholesome to suit the high-energy necessities of the cold, mountainous region. It is a high-protein diet that makes heavy use ofpulses and vegetables. Traditionally, it is cooked over wood or charcoal fire mostly using iron utensils.
While making use of condiments such asjeera,haldi andrai common in other Indian cuisines, Uttarakhand cuisine also use exotic ingredients such asjambu,timmer,ghandhraini andbhangira.
Although the people in Uttarakhand also make dishes common in other parts of northern India, several preparations are unique to Uttarakhand such asrus,chudkani,[200]dubuk,chadanji,[201]jholi,kapa, and more.
Among dressed salads and sauces,kheere ka raita,[202]nimbu mooli ka raita,[203]daarim ki khatai andaam ka fajitha[204] are also popular.
The cuisine mainly consists of food from two different sub-regions,Garhwal andKumaon, though their basic ingredients are the same.[205] Both Kumaoni and Garhwali styles make liberal use ofghee, lentils or pulses, vegetables andbhaat (rice). They also usebadi (sun-driedurad dal balls) andmungodi (sun-driedmoong dal balls) as substitutes for vegetables at times.
During festivals and other celebrations, the people of Uttarakhand prepare special refreshments which include both salty preparations such asbada and sweet preparations such aspua andsingal. Uttarakhand also has several sweets (mithai) such assingodi,bal-mithai, andmalai laddu,[206] native to its traditions.
The interaction of variousIndian diaspora communities with the native cultures in their new homes has resulted in the creation of manyfusion cuisines, which blend aspects of Indian and other international cuisines. These cuisines tend to interpolate Indian seasoning and cooking techniques into their own national dishes.
Indian Chinese cuisine, also known as Indo-Chinese cuisine originated in the 19th century among theChinese community of Calcutta, during the immigration ofHakka Chinese fromCanton (present-day Guangzhou) seeking to escape theFirst andSecond Opium Wars and political instability in the region.[214] Upon exposure to local Indian cuisine, they incorporated many spices and cooking techniques into theirown cuisine, thus creating a unique fusion of Indian and Chinese cuisine.[214]
After 1947, manyCantonese immigrants opened restaurants inCalcutta, serving dishes that combined aspects of Indian cuisine withCantonese cuisine.[215] In other parts of India, Indian Chinese cuisine is derived fromCalcutta-Chinese cuisine, but bears little resemblance to their Chinese counterparts[215] as the dishes tend to be flavoured withcumin,coriander seeds, andturmeric, which with a few regional exceptions, are not traditionally associated with Chinese cuisine.[216]Chilli,ginger,garlic anddahi (yogurt) are also frequently used in dishes.[216]
Thai cuisine wasinfluenced by Indian cuisine, like as recorded by the Thai monkBuddhadasa Bhikku in his writing 'India's Benevolence to Thailand'. He wrote that Thai people learned how to usespices in their food in various ways from Indians. Thais also obtained the methods of makingherbal medicines (Ayurveda) from the Indians. Some plants like sarabhi of familyGuttiferae, kanika orharsinghar, phikun orMimusops elengi and bunnak or therose chestnut etc. were brought from India.
Malaysian Indian cuisine, or the cooking of the ethnic Indian communities in Malaysia consists of adaptations of authentic dishes from India, as well as original creations inspired by the diverse food culture of Malaysia.
A typical Malaysian Indian dish is likely to be redolent with curry leaves, whole and powdered spice, and contains fresh coconut in various forms.
Ghee is still widely used for cooking, although vegetable oils and refined palm oils are now commonplace in home kitchens.
Indian Singaporean cuisine refers to foods and beverages produced andconsumed inSingapore that are derived, wholly or in part, from South Asian culinary traditions.
The great variety of Singaporean food includes Indian food, which tends to be Tamil cuisine, especially local Tamil Muslim cuisine, although North Indian food[217] has become more visible recently.
Indian dishes have become modified to different degrees, after years of contact with other Singaporean cultures, and in response to locally available ingredients, as well as changing local tastes.
Indian-Indonesian cuisine refers to food and beverages in Indonesian cuisine that have influenced Indian cuisine—especially fromTamil,Punjabi, andGujarati cuisine. These dishes are well integrated, such asappam,biryani,murtabak andcurry.
Thekare-kare, more popular in Luzon, on the other hand could trace its origins from theSeven Years' War when theBritish occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 with a force that included Indiansepoys, who had to improvise Indian dishes given the lack of spices in the Philippines to makecurry. This is said to explain the name and its supposed thick, yellow-to-orangeannatto and peanut-based sauce, which alludes to a type of curry.
Many Indian desserts, ormithai, are fried foods made with sugar, milk orcondensed milk. Ingredients and preferred types of dessert vary by region. In the eastern part of India, for example, most are based on milk products.
Many are flavoured with almonds and pistachios, spiced with cardamon, nutmeg, cloves and black pepper, and decorated with nuts, or with gold or silver leaf. Popular Indian desserts includerasogolla,gulab jamun,jalebi,laddu, andpeda.[222]
Tea is a staple beverage throughout India, since the country is one of the largest producers of tea in the world. The most popular varieties of tea grown in India includeAssam tea,Darjeeling tea andNilgiri tea. It is prepared by boiling the tea leaves in a mix of water, milk, and spices such as cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, and ginger. In India, tea is often enjoyed with snacks likebiscuits andpakoda.[citation needed]
Lassi is a traditionaldahi (yogurt)-based drink in India.[223] It is made by blending yogurt with water or milk and spices. Saltedlassi is more common in villages of Punjab and inPorbandar, Gujarat.[citation needed] Traditionallassi is sometimes flavoured with ground roasted cumin.Lassi can also be flavoured with ingredients such as sugar, rose water,mango,lemon,strawberry, and saffron.[224]
Sharbat is a sweet cold beverage prepared from fruits or flower petals.[225] It can be served in concentrate form and eaten with a spoon, or diluted with water to create a drink. Popularsharbats are made from plants such asrose,sandalwood,bel,gurhal (hibiscus), lemon,orange,pineapple,sarasaparilla andkokum,falsa (Grewia asiatica). InAyurveda,sharbats are believed to hold medicinal value.[226]
Other beverages includenimbu pani (lemonade),chaas,badam doodh (milk with nuts – mostly almonds – and cardamom),Aam panna,kokum sharbat, and coconut water.
Modern carbonated cold drinks unique to southern India include beverages, such aspanner soda orgoli soda, a mixture ofcarbonated water, rose water, rose milk, and sugar,naranga soda, a mixture ofcarbonated water, salt and lemon juice, andnannari sarbath, a mixture withsarasaparilla.
Sharbats with carbonated water are the most popular non-alcoholic beverages in Kerala andTamil Nadu. Street shops in Central Kerala and Madurai region of Tamil Nadu are well known for these drinks which are also calledkulukki sarbaths in Kerala.
Mostbeers in India are either lagers (4.8percent alcohol) or strong lagers (8.9 percent). The Indian beer industry has witnessed steady growth of 10–17 percent per year over the last ten years.[when?] Production exceeded 170 million cases during the 2008–2009 financial year.[227] With the average age of the population decreasing and income levels on the rise, the popularity of beer in the country continues to increase.
Others
Nepalesechhaang brewed from rice
Other popular alcoholic drinks in India includefenny, a Goan liquor made from either coconut or the juice of thecashew apple. The state of Goa has registered for ageographical indicator to allow itsfenny distilleries to claim exclusive rights to production of liquor under the name "fenny."[228]
Hadia is a rice beer, created by mixing herbs with boiled rice and leaving the mixture to ferment for around a week. It is served cold and is less alcoholic than other Indian liquors.Chuak is a similar drink fromTripura.
Chhaang is consumed by the people ofSikkim and theDarjeeling Himalayan hill region of West Bengal. It is drunk cold or at room temperature in summer, and often hot during cold weather.Chhaang is similar to traditional beer, brewed from barley, millet, or rice.[230]
Kallu (Chetthu Kallu) is a popular natural alcohol extracted from coconut and pine trees in Kerala. It is sold in localKallu shops and is consumed with fried fish and chicken. Its alcoholic content is increased by addition of distilled alcohol.
Indians consider a healthy breakfast important. They generally prefer to drink tea or coffee with breakfast, though food preferences vary regionally. North Indian people preferroti,parathas, and a vegetable dish accompanied byachar (a pickle) and some curd.[231] Various types of packaged pickles are available in the market. One of the oldest pickle-making companies in India is Harnarains,[232] which started in the 1860s inOld Delhi.
People of Gujarat preferdhokla and milk, while south Indians preferidli anddosa, generally accompanied bysambhar orsagu and variouschutneys.[233]
Traditional lunch in India usually consists of a main dish of rice in the south and the east, and whole-wheatrotis in the north. It typically includes two or three kinds of vegetables, and sometimes items such askulcha,naan, orparathas.Paan (stuffed, spiced and foldedbetel leaves) which aids digestion is often eaten after lunch and dinner in many parts of India.[38]
Indian families often gather for "evening snack time", similar totea time to talk and have tea and snacks.
Dinner is considered the main meal of the day.[234] Also, many households, especially in north and central India, prefer having sweets after the dinner (similar to the Western concept of dessert after meals).
Dietary practices
In India people often follow dietary practices based on their religious beliefs,
ManyHindu communities consider beef taboo since they believed that Hindu scriptures condemn cow slaughter. Cow slaughter has been banned in many states of India,[235] with the exceptions of the North-Eastern states, West Bengal and Kerala. However, buffalo meat is available in some of these states to be consumed by other religious communities.
The taboo on beef is defied by the marginalised Hindu castes in theDalit fold,[236] substantially covered in theirliterature and often displayed at their food festivals.[237] As Dalit communities were restricted to living outside the village in mostly barren lands, with reduced resources to cultivate their food, discarded cows were essential traditional food that nourished them. Dalit cuisine included dishes made with coagulated beef blood, preserved meat, and intestines.[238] During the independence era, and after, the imposition of beef restrictions on Dalit communities was part of efforts to bring them under a unified nationalist identity.[239]
Vaishnavism followers generally are strict lacto-vegetarians due to an emphasis onAhimsa. They also do not consume garlic and onions.[citation needed]
Jains follow a strict form of lacto-vegetarianism, known asJain vegetarianism, which in addition to being completely lacto-vegetarian, also excludes all root vegetables such as carrots and potatoes because when the root is pulled up, organisms that live around the root also die.[240]
Muslims do not eat pork or pork products. They consume buffalo and beef products.
In certainNorth-Eastern regions, canines are part of culinary heritage. While only some communities eat dog meat, it is presently neither universal nor widely consumed. Nevertheless, it has been a constant source of stereotype and racial discrimination against people from the region.[241][242]
In India dietary practices are also closely related to caste discrimination practices as they are rooted in notions of pollution and filth. Dalit and tribal accounts on cooking and eating narrate casteist-racist treatment accorded to Dalit and tribal culinary practices. This sometimes attract policing on the grounds of creating public nuisance by raising civic concerns. Brahmanical food practices dictate which food is clean and unclean based on their sensorial experiences.[243]
Traditionally, meals in India are eaten while seated either on the floor, or on very low stools or mattress. Food is most often eaten with the hands rather than cutlery.
Oftenroti is used to scoopcurry without allowing it to touch the hand. In the wheat-producing north, a piece ofroti is gripped with the thumb and middle finger and ripped off while holding theroti down with the index finger.
A somewhat different method is used in the south fordosai,adai, anduththappam, where the middle finger is pressed down to hold the bread and the forefinger and thumb used to grip and separate a small part. Traditional serving styles vary regionally throughout India.
Contact with other cultures has affected Indian dining etiquette. For example, the Anglo-Indian middle class commonly uses spoons and forks, as is traditional in Western culture.[244]
In South India, cleanedbanana leaves, which can be disposed of after meals, are used for serving food. When hot food is served on banana leaves, the leaves add distinctive aromas and taste to the food.[245] Leaf plates are less common today, except on special occasions.
Outside India
Chicken tikka
Indian migration has spread the culinary traditions of the subcontinent throughout the world. These cuisines have been adapted to local tastes, and have also affected local cuisines. The international appeal ofcurry has been compared to that ofpizza.[246] Indiantandoor dishes such aschicken tikka also enjoy widespread popularity.[247]
Australia
ARoy Morgan Research survey taken between 2013 and 2018 found that Indian cuisine was the top-rated international food among 51% of Australians, behind Chinese, Italian, and Thai.[248]
Indian food is gaining popularity inChina, where there are many Indian restaurants inBeijing,Shanghai, andShenzhen.Hong Kong alone has more than 50 Indian restaurants, some of which date back to the 1980s. Most of the Indian restaurants in Hong Kong are inTsim Sha Tsui.[251]
The Indian culinary scene in theMiddle East has been influenced greatly by the largeIndian diaspora in these countries. Centuries of trade relations and cultural exchange resulted in a significant influence on each region's cuisines. The use of thetandoor, which originated in northwestern India,[252] is an example.
The large influx of Indian expatriates into Middle Eastern countries during the 1970s and 1980s led to a boom in Indian restaurants to cater to this population and was also widely influenced by the local and international cuisines.
Nepal
Indian cuisine is available in the streets of Nepalese cities, includingKathmandu andJanakpur.
Other cuisines which borrow inspiration from Indian cooking styles includeCambodian,Lao,Filipino,Vietnamese,Indonesian,Thai, andBurmese cuisines. The spread of vegetarianism in other parts of Asia is often credited to Hindu and Buddhist practices.[253]
Indian cuisine is very popular inSoutheast Asia, due to the strong Hindu and Buddhist cultural influence in the region. Indian cuisine has had considerable influence on Malaysian cooking styles[5] and also enjoys popularity inSingapore.[254][255] There are numerous North and South Indian restaurants in Singapore, mostly inLittle India.
Singapore is also known forfusion cuisine combining traditionalSingaporean cuisine with Indian influences. Fish head curry, for example, is a local creation. Indian influence onMalay cuisine dates to the 19th century.[256]
United Kingdom
Chicken tikka masala, a modified version of Indianchicken tikka, has been called "a true Britishnational dish."[257]
The UK's first Indian restaurant, theHindoostanee Coffee House, opened in 1810.[258][259] By 2003, there were as many as 10,000 restaurants serving Indian cuisine inEngland andWales alone. According toBritain'sFood Standards Agency, the Indian food industry in the United Kingdom is worth 3.2 billionpounds, accounts for two-thirds of all eating out in the country, and serves about 2.5 million customers every week.[259]
One of the best known examples of British Indian restaurant cuisine ischicken tikka masala, which has also been called "a true British national dish."[260]
Ireland
Ireland's first Indian restaurant, the Indian Restaurant and Tea Rooms, opened in 1908 on Sackville Street, nowO'Connell Street, in Dublin.[261] Today, Indian restaurants are commonplace in most Irish cities and towns. Non-Chinese Asians are the fastest growing ethnic group in Ireland.[262]
United States
A survey byThe Washington Post in 2007 stated that more than 1,200 Indian food products had been introduced into theUnited States since 2000.[263] There are numerous Indian restaurants across the US, which vary based on regional culture and climate.North Indian andSouth Indian cuisines are especially well represented. Most Indian restaurants in the United States serveAmericanised versions of North Indian food, which is generally less spicy than its Indian equivalents.
At sit-down restaurants withNorth Indian cuisine (the most common), complimentarypapadum is served with three dipping sauces—typicallyhari chutney (mint and cilantro),imli chutney (taramind), and a spicy red chilli or onionchutney—in place of European-style bread before the meal.
^Swarup, Vishnu, and S. S. Chatterjee. "Origin and Genetic Improvement of Indian Cauliflower". Economic Botany, vol. 26, no. 4, 1972, pp. 381–93. JSTOR,http://www.jstor.org/stable/4253382. Accessed 14 February 2024.
^Edgar Thorpe and Showick Thorpe, ed. (2010).The Pearson Concise General Knowledge Manual (New ed.). Pearson Education India. p. 34.ISBN978-81-317-2766-9.
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![Bhang eaters in India c. 1790. Bhang is an edible preparation of cannabis native to the Indian subcontinent. It was used by Hindus in food and drink as early as 1000 BCE.[32]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBhang_eaters_before_two_huts_(6124556163).jpg)
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