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Military rations,operational rations, ormilitary provisions are goods issued to sustain the needs ofmilitarypersonnel.[1] As their name suggests, military rations have historically been, and often still are, subject torationing, with each individual receiving specific amounts from available supplies. Military-issued goods and the rationing of such goods have existed since the beginnings of organizedwarfare.[2]
Though commonly referring tofood anddrink rations, "military ration" may also refer to other types of items that are rationed for military personnel, such asfuel,alcohol, expensive items, or consumer goods.[3] Ration acquisition may be managed usingallowances or aration card, or they may be issued without charge.[3][4][5]
Military rations are a key component ofmilitary nutrition, the field and study ofnutrition in the military. Significant research goes into creating military rations, including the nutrition and energy of rations, food spoilage prevention, what meals should be offered, the amount of food each ration should contain, and the exact specifications of each meal and ingredient.[6]
Afield ration (known under a variety of other names) is a military ration intended to provide nutrition and sustenance in thefield, incombat, at thefront line, or where eating facilities are otherwise unavailable.[7][8]
Field rations can be categorized into two main types:
Agarrison ration is a type of military ration that, depending on its use and context, could refer to rations issued to personnel at acamp,installation, or othergarrison; allowance allotted to personnel to purchase goods or rations sold in a garrison (or the rations purchased with allowance); a type of ration; or a combined system with distinctions and differences depending on situational factors (such as whether the country is at peace or at war).[5][9][10][11]
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Inancient warfare, militaries generally lived off the land, relying on whatever food they could forage, steal, purchase, or requisition. Armies that brought food supplies along with them would have to resort to carrying them inbaggage trains and having soldiers carry their rations themselves.
InMesopotamia, most workers, including soldiers, were given rations ofbarley,oil, andwool.[12] The first standing army in recorded history formed in ancient Mesopotamia under the reign ofSargon of Akkad, and as the army grew with his conquests, a military bureaucracy formed. According to letters from the time ofSargon II, the primary ration for his army was grain. The letters describe what types of grain are to be held for a campaign, in which locations, which grain to give to the soldiers and which to store as fodder for the pack animals, and provide lists of how much grain to give to the soldiers of specific ranks.[13]
Inancient Egypt, soldiers brought whatever they could carry in battle, but were provided with good food and wine while in their camps.[14] Archaeologists have discovered small wooden tokens dating from theMiddle Kingdom period carried by soldiers which were to be handed over in exchange for rations inLower Nubia. The tokens carry inscriptions declaring the amount of bread a soldier is to be issued every ten days. Writing inHistories,Herodotus described warriors serving as the Pharaoh's bodyguards receiving a daily provision of fiveminae of roast grain, two minae of beef, and four cups of wine.[13][15] One mina is equivalent to approximately 1.25 pounds.
Inancient Rome, as with civilians, soldiers subsisted primarily off ofwheat, which would be either made into bread or apottage calledpuls. Less commonly issued grains wereoats, which were seen as fodder and only eaten in times of desperation,millet, which was only grown in small amounts,rye, which was only grown in areas too cold for wheat, andbarley, which was issued to soldiers as punishment for minor offenses. In the second century BC, a soldier's wheat ration was 66 pounds per month. Soldiers were also given smoked bacon, fresh meat such as pork or mutton when available, vegetables, legumes, cheese, vinegar, olive oil, and wine. Each soldier had an allotted amount of food they could have, such as one pound of meat daily; the size of aRoman legion meant dozens, if not hundreds of animals could be killed daily to sustain their needs. The cost of the ration would be deducted from the soldier's pay. Supplies were sent in two ways. Theimpedimenta supplies were carried on a baggage train of carts carried by pack animals accompanying the army whilecommeatus supplies were sent to an army from Rome or another major city in the empire by road or ship. Soldiers also carried some of their provisions and theirmess kits in theirsarcina. They were issued rations several times a week. Archaeologists have found evidence of soldiers having access to foodstuffs such as coriander, oysters, and spices including pepper imported from India, suggesting that soldiers, especially officers, could buy finer ingredients. Archaeological excavations in Germany and Britain show that in addition to the meat supplied by the army, soldiers hunted animals such as beavers, badgers, foxes, and wolves while on campaign. Most grain rations were issued whole, meaning that soldiers had to mill and process the grain by themselves. However, grain rations also includedhardtack biscuits called buccellatum, which were baked twice to remove the moisture, making them harder to spoil. These biscuits may have been ground into flour. Roman soldiers ate twice a day. The first meal, theprandium, likely required no cooking. The main meal was thecena, during which soldiers cooked and ate communally with theircontubernium. Supply of water faced logistical problems. Roman military camps were typically built near water sources and soldiers were expected to collect their water for the days' march in awaterskin that was stored in thesarcina. As fresh water was not always available, water was often transported in barrels. However, this could result in the water becoming tainted, and so it was mixed with wine and vinegar to createposca, a drink which became popular among the urban poor as well as the army.[16][2][17] During theByzantine era, soldiers were trained in sustaining their food supplies for as long as 20 days, with many also carrying small hand mills to grind grain to makepaximathia.[18][13]
Inancient Greece,hoplites were expected to bring foodstuffs and wine with them when going on campaigns. However, as the amount they could carry was limited, armies had to live off the land. To ensure that soldiers and pack animals were properly fed, campaigns were timed for when grain was ripe and pastures were full. While on campaign, hoplites and other Greek soldiers would have foraged for food, hunted, purchased food from markets and traders, and pillaged towns and villages.Spartan soldiers are known to have brought bread, cheese, wine, and meat with them on campaigns. During wartime, Sparta's slave population, orhelots, were promised their freedom if they brought enough supplies to the army, although historians are unsure if these promises would ultimately be honored. Sparta also offered military protection to villages which paid tribute, with villages failing to do so subject to plunder. Spartan soldiers were trained to carry and pilfer food during their childhood in theAgoge. Boys were taught to march long distances while carrying provisions for twenty days. They were also purposely underfed to encourage them to learn to steal food, but harshly punished if they were caught doing it so they would learn to do it stealthily. TheKingdom of Macedon, which conquered large swathes of territory, initially relied on oxen-drawn carts to carry the soldiers' burden, including food. During the reign ofPhilip II of Macedon, reforms were carried out under which soldiers would be expected to carry much of their own food rather than rely on oxen-drawn carts. This continued under the reign of his sonAlexander the Great. During Alexander's conquests, Macedonian soldiers primarily lived off of grain rations. Soldiers were expected to carry their grain rations and cooking utensils in addition to their weaponry, with their backpacks potentially weighing as much as eighty pounds. Without the hindrance of oxen and carts, this enabled Macedonian armies to move faster than their opponents. The grain provided to Macedonian soldiers would be wheat, barley, or millet, which were available throughout Asia and could be stored indefinitely when dried. The soldiers would use grinding mills carried by servants to turn the grain into flour, which could then be made into bread, biscuits, and porridge. They also ate various kinds of dried fruits such as dates and figs, which were readily available throughout much of Asia. Whenever possible, they would eat dried meat, salted fish, and shellfish.[13][19][20][21]
Inancient China, soldiers of theHan dynasty ate primarilymillet and other grains such aswheat,rice,sorghum, etc. Grains could be eaten as a porridge, boiled, made into a bread or flatbread, smashed and fried in a manner similar to modernfried rice andfried noodles, etc.[22] According toZhao Chongguo, a military commander of the Han dynasty who served in the first century BC, a force of 10,281 men required 27,363hu of grain and 308hu of salt each month, requiring a convoy of 1,500 carts for transport. Onehu is equivalent to 19.968 liters, meaning that each soldier would have required 51.9 liters of grain and 0.6 liters of salt per month. Another document atJuyan suggests 3.2hu, or 63.8 liters, of grain.[23]
Inmedieval warfare, military feeding remained essentially the same as it had been in prior centuries. Armies typically had to acquire food supplies from the territory they were passing through. This meant that large-scale looting by soldiers was unavoidable, and was actively encouraged in the 14th century with its emphasis onchevauchée tactics, where mounted troops would burn and pillage enemy territory in order to distract and demoralize the enemy while denying them supplies. Through the medieval period, soldiers were responsible for supplying themselves, either through foraging, looting, or purchases. However, military commanders often provided their troops with food and supplies, but this would be provided instead of the soldiers' wages, or soldiers would be expected to pay for it from their wages, either at cost or even with a profit.[24]
During theCrusades, Crusaders carried foods such as dried meat and grain which could be used to make porridge and bought additional foods such as fruits, vegetables, and cheese locally. They also foraged and plundered for food. During theFirst Crusade, soldiers would have provided their own food, which could have meant mortgaging property or selling possessions to buy. At theSiege of Antioch, the Crusaders' food supplies ran so low that a large force was sent away to forage and plunder food, opening the rest of the force up to a counterattack. At the subsequentSiege of Ma'arra, hunger among the Crusaders was so widespread that some resorted tocannibalism, feeding on the bodies of Muslims. During later Crusades, deals were made with theVenetian fleet and merchants to keep soldiers supplied. However, their food supplies were consistently low, to the point that in several battles crusaders would "stop fighting and start eating" upon discovering food in the camps of Muslim armies. During theThird Crusade, an observer noted several kitchens inSaladin's camp with nine large cauldrons each. The armies of theMongol Empire only had whatever food orlivestock they brought from home, and relied on whatever food they could pillage. Mongol soldiers were supplied by their own households and Mongol armies brought along herds of cows and sheep with them on campaign. When livestock was unavailable, they would subsist on rations such as cured meat, dried milk curd, and mare's milk, both fresh and fermented intokumis, as well as hunt local game. According toMarco Polo, a Mongol cavalryman could go ten days without having to cook, and in such situations would rely on ten pounds of dried milk curd, two liters of kumis, and a quantity of cured meat. In theOttoman Empire,janissaries were some of the most well-fed soldiers of the era, with access to a variety of foods. Their diet largely consisted of freshly baked bread andbiscuits when bread was unavailable, as well as a daily meat ration of about 200 grams of lamb or mutton, coffee, rice, and bulgur. Biscuits were of particular importance. An observer noted around 105 ovens inIstanbul dedicated solely to baking for military purposes.[2][25][26]
Infeudal Japan and theSengoku period, military nutrition habits depended on thedaimyo commanding them:[27]
In general, Japanese soldiers would bringuchigaibukuro, pouches used to store rice and medicine, into battle with them. They would also eatmiso,dried taro stalk, andokayu as part of a soup prepared in a soldier'sjingasa. Soldiers andninja also used "pills", small ball-shaped medicinal rations consumed in emergencies or long missions, of which there were three types:hyorogan ("ration pills"), made with various flours, sugary substances, and spices to provide quick energy;kikatsugan ("hunger pills"), made with starchy ingredients to provide endurance; andsuikitsugan ("thirst pills"), made fromumeboshi,bakumondoto, and sugar to encourage saliva production.[27]
Tang dynasty soldiers ate primarilymilletporridge, but before a deployment, they would have a large and elaborate banquet, with another large meal before a battle.[22]Song dynasty soldiers were issued money for food and bought meat and vegetables locally. They were also given allotments of money to buypickles and salt specifically. Grain supply issues meant they relied less on grain rations than in prior generations. During theMing dynasty,sesame seed cakes, which could last long periods of time, became standard military food and wheat began to take an important position in rations. The imperial government spent significant amounts of money on the military, investing more into supplying the army with food than previous dynasties. A system of military farmlands, comprising 10% of cultivated land, was organized to supply the army. The state assigned 10% to 20% of military households in each region with running military farms and provided them with seeds and tools to grow grain. Other farmers delivered grain to supplement bad growing seasons. In 1392, this system was designed to feed 1.2 million soldiers. Military advice from the era also suggests plundering seized enemy storehouses and granaries to provision an army.[13][22]
TheAztecs timed their war seasons to begin just after the harvest. Armies would be equipped with foodstuffs such as toasted tortillas, beans, chilies, dried meats such asvenison,turkey, andpeccary, and cacao paste. Armies on campaign brought along young cadet soldiers who acted as porters, carrying up to 50 pounds of supplies and equipment each. Soldiers heading off on campaign would receive contributions from their families and communities. While on the move, armies collected food from tributary cities. Messengers were sent ahead of an approaching army to demand stockpiled tribute. Refusal to contribute was seen as an act of rebellion.[28]
TheInca Empire ensured that its armies could frequently be resupplied while on the move. Inca armies moved along an extensive road system dotted with waystations that ensured troops did not have to march more than 20 kilometers without being resupplied. Their supplies were carried byllamas as well as porters. Food and weapons were stockpiled in storehouses calledqullqa that dotted the countryside, which armies could draw upon as they moved. The Incas strictly prohibited their soldiers from looting local communities, punishing such offenses with execution. The food eaten by soldiers was largely the same as that consumed by the civilian population in daily life, although they probably ate dehydrated food more frequently. Therefore, staples would have included corn, potatoes, and quinoa. Beans, lima beans,yucca, yams,arracacia,caigua, pumpkin, and squash were available depending on the region. Wild vegetables eaten includedcochayuyo,watercress, andcattail. Fruits consumed includedlucuma,pacay,guava, and cucumbers. Meat came from either domesticated animals such as llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs, or wild animals such asguanacos,vicuñas, deer,viscacha, partridges, doves, and ducks. Fish was also available. These foods would have been cooked and served in various ways. While on campaign, Incan armies made frequent use of dehydrated foods that could be prepared, preserved, and transported in sufficient quantities. During marches through desert regions, soldiers relied on a combination of dehydrated foods and fresh meat from the llamas accompanying the army as a means of transport.[29][30]
By the era ofearly modern warfare, military food had improved to a relatively significant degree.
DuringFrench and Indian War, a theatre of theSeven Years' War, the British hada detailed ration system, assigning each soldier a set daily provision of bread, fresh meat, butter, peas, and rice or oatmeal. The bread could be substituted for flour, hardtack, or cornmeal when necessary. Additional provisions such as fruits, vegetables, and cheese were issued when available.[31] The daily allowance was sufficient for garrison duty but had to be supplemented in field conditions to give sufficient energy.[32] The main problem was the lack of fresh food, particularly fresh vegetables, which often led to outbreaks ofscurvy. To avoid this, localspruce beer began to be used to supplement the rations (it provided the soldiers with additionalvitamin C).[33] Spruce beer was not consistently used, however, but primarily in reaction to occurrences of scurvy.[34] An army brewery was founded atFort Pitt in 1765.[35] During field conditions, the soldiers often went hungry as the supply chains could not be maintained due to long distances, primitive transportation and difficult terrain. Fresh food was also easily spoiled during hot summers.[31]
TheBritish Empire'sRoyal Navy relied onhardtack,salted meat, and alcoholic drinks (originallybeer but laterrum).[18] TheContinental Army of theRevolutionary War-eraUnited States had, on paper, plentiful rations including salted meat,legumes, grains, bread, milk, and alcohol, withjerky and hardtack if those foods were not available.[36] In 1775, theContinental Congress determined a ration that included either one pound of beef, three-quarters of a pound of pork, or one pound of salted fish per day, as well as one pound of flour or bread per day, one pint of milk per day, one quart ofspruce beer orcider per day, three pounds of peas or beans per week, one pint of rice per week, and a small amount ofmolasses. However, in reality, the Continental Army had difficulties supplying its units. Congress lacked the authority to raise sufficient taxes and transportation and other supply issues compounded the problem. In reality, soldiers might receive some flour and perhaps a small amount of meat or fish. In order to preserve the food, meat was often salted and the flour would often be baked into hard biscuits. As these rations had hardly any nutrients, a weekly ration of vinegar or sauerkraut was eventually added to try to prevent scurvy, but this was insufficient. Sometimes days would pass between rations. Soldiers had to resort to foraging, with soldiers understanding the local vegetation being able to find food in woods around the camps. AtValley Forge,watercress andsorrel were sometimes foraged to provide the troops with some vegetables. Soldiers also at times had to hunt whatever animals they could find and beg civilians for food. They also bought food when possible, but this proved difficult as the Continental Army mostly paid inpromissory notes which were widely distrusted and many soldiers had little goods or money to trade. The situation deteriorated to the point that Congress pressuredGeorge Washington to permit the seizure of food and the use of low-value currency as compensation, but he declined, fearing that this would alienate the colonials. However, soldiers at times resorted to stealing food, and although they stood trial, Washington was lenient on them as he understood their desperation. During the Continental Army's encampment atMorristown, New Jersey, Washington enlisted the aid of the local magistrate to request that food be provided in exchange for promises to pay it back, with the magistrate impressing the amount of food requested if local farmers refused.[2][37]
During theNapoleonic Wars, theGrande Armée had a ration of 24 ounces of bread, a half-pound of meat, one ounce of rice or two ounces of dried beans, peas, or lentils, one quart of wine, onegill of brandy, and a half-gill of vinegar. However, in practice this was only possible when units were well-supplied, and troops in the field "spent most of their time desperately hungry", relying ondoughboys and "out of the ground" crops such aspotatoes andcorn, which required minimal cooking and had recently become common across European farms.[2]
The Napoleonic Wars also spurred the development ofcanned food, which would become a mainstay of military rations. The lack of fruits and vegetables in the diets of French soldiers was detrimental to their health. In 1795, observing the toll that poor nutrition took on his men,Napoleon announced a prize of 12,000 francs to anyone who could improve upon the prevailing food preservation methods of the time. In 1810,Nicholas Appert claimed the prize after devising a method of preserving food in which tightly sealing food inside a bottle and maintaining it at high temperature for certain period of time made the food safe for consumption until opening, using glass jars sealed with corks and boiling water. A trial in which food preserved by this method was sent overseas with French troops succeeded. Appert was given the money on condition that he make his discovery public, and duly publishedThe Art of Preserving Animal and Vegetable Substances. TheFrench Navy began using his methods. The Grande Armée experimented with issuing canned foods to its soldiers. However, the slow process of canning and the even slower development and transport stages prevented large amounts from being shipped across the French Empire, and the wars ended before the process was perfected. A major difficulty that presented itself was the use of glass, which was heavy, fragile, and could explode under internal pressure. Appert's work was improved upon byPhilippe de Girard in 1811, when he pioneered a method of preserving food in metal cans. It was patented in Britain on his behalf byPeter Durand, who took the credit as its inventor. Girard, a Frenchman, preferred the entrepreneurial environment of Britain, but could not have taken out a patent in a country with which his own country was at war with. Durand sold the patent toBryan Donkin, who spent two years perfecting the method. Canned food subsequently began to be issued to theRoyal Navy. The reason for lack of spoilage was unknown at the time, since it would be until the 1860s beforeLouis Pasteur demonstrated the role of microbes in food spoilage and developedpasteurization.[38][39][40][18][41]
TheCrimean War saw issues with supplying soldiers in battle. In theBritish Army, rations were regularly halved, and many soldiers developed scurvy, to the point that the hospital inScutari received more soldiers for scurvy than battle wounds.[42] During theAmerican Civil War, thefood and rations of theUnion Army and theConfederate States Army were meant to be mostly the same—meat, cornmeal, vegetables, vinegar, molasses, and hardtack—but supply issues plagued the Confederates as the war continued, forcing them to live off the land. The standard Union Army ration was roughly three-quarters of a pound of meat, one pound of flour or cornmeal, vegetables, vinegar, and molasses. However, to ensure that food lasted longer, rations often came in the form ofhardtack biscuits, salted meat, and dehydrated vegetables. During campaigns, particularly as Union troops entered the south, seasonal fruits and vegetables were pillaged from farms and orchards. Both the Union and Confederate armies relied on lakes and streams for their water.[2][43]
The era ofmodern warfare saw significant improvements in the shelf life, variety, and quality of military rations and nutrition.
InWorld War I, bothAllied andCentral Powers soldiers had relatively sufficient food supplies due to the static nature oftrench warfare. British,French,Canadian, andANZAC soldiers were regularly issued "dull" foods such asbully beef, biscuits,pudding, andMaconochie (tinned meat, potato, and vegetablestew), the latter of which was vilified for its poor quality, especially if not sufficiently heated.[44]British Indian Army soldiers reportedly ate very well compared to their European comrades, with regular access to fresh food such asgoat meat androtis; British logistics also accommodated for vegetarian Indians by providing them withdal,gur, and milk instead of meat. This treatment was supposedly to prevent amutiny similar to theIndian Rebellion of 1857, which was partially caused by indifference to Indian religious needs.[45] TheAmerican Expeditionary Forces had a variety of different rations issued to them, organized based on freshness and purpose, and were generally considered well-fed compared to their British and European contemporaries.[46][47]Imperial German Army soldiers had mostly the same foodstuffs with more reliance on potatoes over grains, but as the war progressed and food supplies lowered due to restrictions, the German military was forced to gradually reduce their meat rations, instituting meat-free days once per week and making meat a rarity among German soldiers.[48][49]
ByWorld War II, rations had taken modern organized forms for both theAllies and theAxis. TheU.S. military revised their World War I-era ration organization system into an alphabetized system:A-rations of fresh food,B-rations of packaged unprepared food,C-rations of prepared canned food,D-rations of chocolate, andK-rations of three-course meals.[50] British soldiers were issued 24-hour rations intended to sustain troops until composite rations and fresh food could be supplied by field kitchens.[42] On the home front in Britain,mobile canteens were operated to provideHome Guard and civil defence authorities with hot food and fresh tea.[51]Red Army soldiers receivedrye bread, potatoes, vegetables, pasta, meat, and fish (in order of quantity).[52][53] The ChineseSecond United Front had ample food supplies, but food was strained after 1940, when food panics and requirements for peasants to feed Chinese soldiers led to agricultural failures and severe inflation.[54] The GermanWehrmacht received basic rations of hard bread and canned meat (usually pork, roast beef, turkey, or chicken, though cans labeledFleischkonserve—literally translated as "can of meat"—wentunidentified), though cannedtomato soup,condensed milk, andErbswurst (a compactpeasemealsausage that can be dissolved to makepea soup) were also common. Elite units such as theFallschirmjäger received more unique high-energy food, including tins of cheese and sausage. TheSchutzstaffel received four-day rations consisting ofGraubrot, canned meat, vegetables, spreads, coffee, andcigarettes (despite the SS's strong anti-smoking stance). Regions invaded and occupied by Nazi forces were stripped of their food to feed Germans and starve local populations.[55] TheImperial Japanese Army andNavy receivedrather basic rations, usually consisting ofrice withbarley, meat or fish, pickled or fresh vegetables,umeboshi,soy sauce,miso or bean paste, andgreen tea. The rations were intended to be eaten with other foraged food.[56][54] TheRoyal Italian Army ate mainly pasta, bread, oatmeal, meat, fish, broth, and salad from their field kitchens, with alcohol also regularly issued. However, on deployment, Italian soldiers mostly received low-quality canned food and biscuits, with regular supplies of food strained by logistical issues during theNorth African campaign.[57]
Most modern and currently-issued rations were developed during and after theCold War. TheSoviet Armed Forces issued their personnel a very basic ration oftushonka, bread or crackers, and condensed milk, with little variety.[58] Both theWest GermanBundeswehr and theEast GermanNational People's Army issued 24-hour rations containing four meals each, though their contents and types varied.[59] The U.S. military, initially issuing the cannedMeal, Combat, Individual (similar to the C-ration) from the late 1950s through theVietnam War, developed theMeal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE) in 1983, designed to provide easy-to-prepare individual meals inretort pouches that could last for very long periods of time.[60] The British 24-hour ration gradually advanced from tinned rations to freeze-dried and vacuum-sealed rations.[42]
TheRussian invasion of Ukraine challenged the ability of Russia to provision its soldiers. In the early days of the conflict in spring 2022, theRussian Ground Forces had to contend with low supplies of rations, which led them to forage for provisions in a manner reminiscent of the practices of ancient armies.[61]
Combat rations (sometimes known as field rations) were nutritional meals created specifically for troops in the battlefield. They were compact, lightweight, pocket-sized foods that were canned, pre-packaged bars, or freeze-dried and provided the right amount of nutrition and sustenance.
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