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The history of human habitation inMorocco spans since the Lower Paleolithic, with the earliest known beingJebel Irhoud. Much later Morocco was part ofIberomaurusian culture, includingTaforalt. It dates from the establishment ofMauretania and other ancientBerber kingdoms, to the establishment of the Moroccan state by theIdrisid dynasty[1] followed by other Islamic dynasties, through to the colonial and independence periods.
Archaeological evidence has shown that the area was inhabited byhominids at least 400,000 years ago.[2] The recorded history ofMorocco begins with thePhoenician colonization of the Moroccan coast between the 8th and 6th centuriesBCE,[3] although the area was inhabited byindigenous Berbers for some two thousand years before that. In the 5th century BCE, thecity-state of Carthage extended its hegemony over the coastal areas.[4] They remained there until the late 3rd century BCE,[5] while the hinterland was ruled by indigenous monarchs.[4] Indigenous Berber monarchs ruled theterritory from the 3rd century BCE until 40 CE, when it wasannexed to theRoman Empire. In the mid-5th century CE, it was overrun byVandals, before being recovered by theByzantine Empire in the 6th century.
The region wasconquered by the Muslims in the early 8th century CE, but broke away from theUmayyad Caliphate after theBerber Revolt of 740. Half a century later, the Moroccan state was established by theIdrisid dynasty.[6][1] TheSaadi dynasty ruled the country from 1549 to 1659, followed by theAlawis from 1667 onwards, who have since been the ruling dynasty of Morocco.[7][8][9]
Archaeological excavations have demonstrated the presence of people in Morocco that were ancestral toHomo sapiens, as well as the presence of early human species. The fossilized bones of a 400,000-year-old early human ancestor were discovered inSalé in 1971.[2] The bones of several very earlyHomo sapiens were excavated atJebel Irhoud in 1991, these were dated using modern techniques in 2017 and found to be at least 300,000 years old, making them the oldest examples ofHomo sapiens discovered anywhere in the world.[10] In 2007, small perforated seashell beads were discovered in Taforalt that are 82,000 years old, making them the earliest known evidence of personal adornment found anywhere in the world.[11]
InMesolithic times, between 20,000 and 5000 years ago, the geography of Morocco resembled asavanna more than the present arid landscape.[12] While little is known of settlements in Morocco during that period,[needs update] excavations elsewhere in theMaghreb region have suggested an abundance of game and forests that would have been hospitable to Mesolithic hunters and gatherers, such as those of theCapsian culture.[13]
During theNeolithic period, which followed the Mesolithic, the savanna was occupied by hunters and herders. The culture of these Neolithic hunters and herders flourished until the region began to desiccate after 5000 BCE as a result of climatic changes. The coastal regions of present-day Morocco in the early Neolithic shared in theCardium pottery culture that was common to the entireMediterranean region. Archaeological excavations have suggested that thedomestication of cattle and the cultivation of crops both occurred in the region during that period.[14] In theChalcolithic period, or the copper age, theBeaker culture reached the north coast of Morocco.[15][16]
The arrival ofPhoenicians on the Moroccan coast heralded many centuries of rule by foreign powers in the north of Morocco.[17] Phoenician traders penetrated the western Mediterranean before the 8th century BCE, and soon after[when?] set up depots for salt and ore along the coast and up the rivers of the territory of present-day Morocco.[3] Major early settlements of the Phoenicians included those atChellah,Lixus andMogador.[18] Mogador is known to have been a Phoenician colony by the early 6th century BCE.[19]
By the 5th century BCE,the state of Carthage had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa.Carthage developed commercial relations with the Berber tribes of the interior, and paid them an annual tribute to ensure their cooperation in the exploitation of raw materials.[20]
Mauretania was an independent tribalBerber kingdom on theMediterranean coast of north Africa, corresponding to northern modern-dayMorocco from about the 3rd century BCE.[21] The earliest known king of Mauretania wasBaga who lived around 225 BC and possibly belonged to an older dynasty.[22] Some of its earliest recorded history relates toPhoenician andCarthaginian settlements such as Lixus and Chellah.[21] The Berber kings ruled inland territories overshadowing the coastal outposts of Carthage and Rome, often as satellites, allowing Roman rule to exist.[23] It became a client of the Roman empire in 33 BCE, then a full province after Emperor Caligula had the last king,Ptolemy of Mauretania, executed (39 CE or 40).[24]
Rome controlled the vast, ill-defined territory through alliances with the tribes rather than through military occupation, expanding its authority only to those areas that were economically useful or that could be defended without additional manpower. Hence, Roman administration never extended outside the restricted area of the northern coastal plain and valleys. This strategic region formed part of theRoman Empire, governed asMauretania Tingitana, with the city ofVolubilis as its capital.[25]
During the time of the Roman emperorAugustus, Mauretania was a vassal state, and its rulers, such asJuba II, controlled all the areas south of Volubilis. But the effective control of Roman legionaries reached as far as the area of Sala Colonia (the castra "Exploratio Ad Mercurios" south of Sala is the southernmost discovered up to now). Some historians believe the Roman frontier reached present-dayCasablanca, known then asAnfa, which had been settled by the Romans as a port.[26]
During the reign ofJuba II, Augustus founded threecolonies of Roman citizens in Mauretania close to the Atlantic coast:Iulia Constantia Zilil,Iulia Valentia Banasa, andIulia Campestris Babba. Augustus would eventually found twelve colonies in the region.[27] During that period, the area controlled by Rome experienced significant economic development, aided by the construction ofRoman roads. The area was initially not completely under the control of Rome, and only in the mid-2nd century was alimes built south of Sala extending to Volubilis.[28] Around 278 CE the Romans moved their regional capital toTangier and Volubilis started to lose importance.[citation needed]
Christianity was introduced to the region in the 2nd century CE, and gained converts in the towns and among slaves as well as among Berber farmers. By the end of the 4th century, the Romanized areas had been Christianized,[clarification needed] and inroads had been made among the Berber tribes, who sometimes converted en masse.Schismatic andheretical movements also developed, usually as forms of political protest. The area had a substantial Jewish population as well.[29]
TheMuslim conquest of the Maghreb, that started in the middle of the 7th century CE, wasachieved in the early 8th century. It brought both the Arabic language andIslam to the area. Although part of the largerIslamic Empire, Morocco was initially organized as a subsidiary province ofIfriqiya, with the local governors appointed by the Muslim governor inKairouan.[31]
The indigenous Berber tribes adopted Islam, but retained theircustomary laws. They also paid taxes and tribute to the new Muslim administration.[32]
In 740 CE, spurred on by puritanicalKharijite agitators, the native Berber populationrevolted against the rulingUmayyad Caliphate. The rebellion began among the Berber tribes of western Morocco, and spread quickly across the region. Although the insurrection petered out in 742 CE before it reached the gates ofKairouan, neither the Umayyad rulers in Damascus nor theirAbbasid successors managed to re-impose their rule on the areas west ofIfriqiya. Morocco passed out of Umayyad and Abbasid control, and fragmented into a collection of small, independent Berber states such asBerghwata,Sijilmassa andNekor, in addition toTlemcen andTahert in what is now westernAlgeria.[30] The Berbers went on to shape their own version of Islam. Some, like theBanu Ifran, retained their connection with radical puritan Islamic sects, while others, like theBerghwata, constructed a newsyncretic faith.[33][34]
TheBarghawatas were a confederation of Berber groups inhabiting the Atlantic coast of Morocco, who belonged to theMasmuda Berber tribal division.[30] After allying with theSufriKharijite rebellion inMorocco against theUmayyads, they established an independent state (CE 744 – 1058) in the area of Tamesna on the Atlantic coast betweenSafi andSalé under the leadership ofTarif al-Matghari.
TheMidrarid dynasty or Banu Midrar were a Berber dynasty that ruled the Tafilalt region and founded the city ofSijilmasa in 757.[35]
Sijilmasa was a medieval Moroccan city and tradeentrepôt at the northern edge of the Sahara desert. The ruins of the town lie for 8 kilometres (5 mi) along theRiver Ziz in theTafilalt oasis near the town ofRissani. The town's history was marked by several successive invasions byBerber dynasties. Up until the 14th century, as the northern terminus for the westerntrans-Sahara trade route, it was one of the most important trade centres in theMaghreb during the Middle Ages.[36]
TheKingdom of Nekor was anemirate centered in theRif area of Morocco. Its capital was initially located atTemsaman, and then moved toNekor. The polity was founded in 710 CE bySalih I ibn Mansur through aCaliphate grant. Under his guidance, the localBerber tribes adoptedIslam, but later deposed him in favor of one az-Zaydi from the Nafza tribe. They subsequently changed their mind and reappointed Ibn Mansur. His dynasty, the Banū Sālih, thereafter ruled the region until 1019.
In 859, the kingdom became subject to a 62 ship-strong group ofVikings, who defeated a Moorish force in Nekor that had attempted to interfere with their plunderings in the area. After staying for eight days in Morocco, the Vikings went back to Spain and continued up the east coast.[37]
TheIdrisid dynasty was a Muslim polity centered in Morocco,[38] which ruled from 788 to 974. Named after the founderIdriss I, the great-grandchild ofHasan ibn Ali, the Idrisids are considered by historians to be the founders of the first Moroccan state.[1]
By the second half of the 8th century the westernmost regions of theMaghreb, including present-day Morocco, had been effectively independent of theUmayyad Caliphate since theKhariji-ledBerber revolts that started in 739–740.[39][40] TheAbbasid Caliphate after 750 had no more success in re-establishing control over Morocco.[39]: 41 The overthrow of eastern authority meant that Morocco was controlled by various local Berber tribes and principalities which emerged around this time, such as theBarghwata Confederacy on the Atlantic coast and theMidrarid Emirate inSijilmasa.[39][41]
The founder of the Idrisid dynasty wasIdris ibn Abdallah (788–791),[42] who traced his ancestry back toAli ibn Abi Talib (died 661)[42] and his wifeFatimah, daughter of the Islamic prophet,Muhammad. He was the great-grandchild ofHasan ibn Ali.[43][41]: 81 After theBattle of Fakhkh, nearMecca, between theAbbasids and supporters of the descendants of theprophet Muhammad, Idris ibn Abdallah fled to the Maghreb. He first arrived inTangier, the most important city of Morocco at the time, and by 788 he had settled inVolubilis (known as Walili in Arabic).[39]: 51
The powerfulAwraba Berbers of Volubilis took in Idris and made him their 'imam' (religious leader).[39]: 51 [41]: 81 The Awraba tribe had supportedKusayla in his struggle against theUmmayad armies in the 670s and 680s. By the second half of the 8th century they had settled in northern Morocco, where their leader Ishak had his base in the Roman town of Volubilis. By this time the Awraba were already Muslim, but lived in an area where most tribes were either Christian, Jewish,Khariji or pagan. The Awraba seem to have welcomed a Sharifi imam as a way to strengthen their political position. Idris I, who was very active in the political organization of the Awraba, began by asserting his authority and working toward the subjugation of the Christian and Jewish tribes. In 789 he founded a settlement south east of Volubilis, calledMedinat Fas. In 791 Idris I was poisoned and killed by an Abbasid agent. Even though he left no male heir, shortly after his death, his wife Lalla Kanza bint Uqba al-Awrabi, bore him his only son and successor, Idris II. Idris' loyal Arab ex-slave and companion Rashid brought up the boy and took on himself the regency of the state, on behalf of the Awraba. In 801 Rashid was killed by theAbbasids. In the following year, at the age of 11 years, Idris II was proclaimed imam by the Awraba.[39]: 51
Even though he had spread his authority across much of northern Morocco, as far west asTlemcen, Idris I had been completely dependent on the Awraba leadership. Idris II began his rule with the weakening of Awraba power by welcoming Arab settlers in Walili and by appointing two Arabs as hisvizier andqadi. Thus he transformed himself from a protégé of the Awraba into their sovereign. The Awraba leader Ishak responded by plotting against his life with theAghlabids of Tunisia. Idris reacted by having his former protector Ishak killed, and in 809 moved his seat of government from the Awraba dominated Walili to Fes, where he founded a new settlement named Al-'Aliya.Idris II (791–828) developed the city ofFez, established earlier by his father as a Berber market town. Here he welcomed two waves of Arab immigration: one in 818 from Cordoba and another in 824 fromAghlabid Tunisia, giving Fes a more Arab character than other Maghrebi cities. When Idris II died in 828, the Idrisid state spanned from western Algeria to theSous in southern Morocco and had become the leading state of Morocco, ahead of the principalities ofSijilmasa,Barghawata andNekor which remained outside their control.[39]: 51–52 [41]: 86
The dynasty's power would slowly decline following Idris II's death. Under his son and successorMuhammad (828–836) the kingdom was divided amongst seven of his brothers, whereby eight Idrisid statelets formed in Morocco and western Algeria.[45] Muhammad himself came to rule Fes, with only nominal power over his brothers. His brother Isa, who was given control of the coastalTamesna regions near theBou Regreg from his base atChellah, quickly revolted against him. Muhammad entrusted his brother Umar, who had received the territories around the Rif, to punish Isa. Umar successfully drove Isa from power, who was forced to take refuge in Chellah, and then turned north to punish his other brother al-Qasim at Tangier because he had earlier refused to join him and Muhammad against Isa. Al-Qasim fled toAsilah and settled nearby, while Muhammad gave Umar governorship of Tangier as a reward. Upon Umar's death in September or October 835 his sonAli ibn Umar was granted all of his father's domains in turn. Muhammad himself died seven months later in the March or April 836. His sonAli ibn Muhammad inherited his position and ruled for 13 years (836–849) in a competent manner, ensuring the stability of the state. After his death in 849 he was succeeded by his brotherYahya ibn Muhammad (or Yahya I), who also enjoyed a peaceful reign.[46]
During this timeIslamic andArabic culture gained a stronghold in the towns and Morocco profited from thetrans-Saharan trade, which came to be dominated by Muslim (mostly Berber) traders. The city of Fes also flourished and became an important religious center.[39]: 52 During Yahya's reign more Arab immigrants arrived and the famous mosques ofal-Qarawiyyin andal-Andalusiyyin were founded.[46] Even so, the Islamic and Arabic culture only made its influence felt in the towns, with the vast majority of Morocco's population still using theBerber languages and often adhering to Islamic heterodox and heretical doctrines. The Idrisids were principally rulers of the towns and had little power over the majority of the country's population.[39]: 52
After the death of Yahya I in 863 he was succeeded by his less competent son, Yahya II, who divided up the Idrisid realm yet again among the extended families. Yahya II died in uncertain circumstances in 866 after fleeing his palace. After an episode of disorder in Fes his cousin Ali ibn Umar took over power.[46] In 868, under the leadership of the Abd al-Razzaq the BerberKharijiSufri tribes of Madyuna, Ghayata andMiknasa of the Fes region formed a common front against the Idrisids. From their base inSefrou they were able to defeat Ali ibn Umar and occupy Fes. Fes refused to submit, however, and anotherYahya, the son of al-Qasim, was able to retake the city and establish himself as the new ruler, Yahya III. Thus the ruling line had passed from the sons of Muhammad to the son of Umar and now the sons of al-Qasim.[39]: 52 [46]
Yahya III ruled over the entire Idrisid realm and continued to attack the Sufris. In 905 however he died in battle against another family member,Yahya ibn Idris ibn Umar (a grandson of Umar), who then took power as Yahya IV.[46] At this point, however, theFatimids in the east began to intervene in Morocco, hoping to expand their influence. In 917 theMiknasa and its leader Masala ibn Habus, acting on behalf of their Fatimid allies, attacked Fes and forced Yahya IV to recognize Fatimid suzerainty, before deposing him in 919[46][47] or 921.[39]: 63 He was succeeded by his cousin Musa ibn Abul 'Afiya, who had already been given charge over the rest of the country. The IdrisidHassan I al-Hajam, a grandson of al-Qasim, managed to wrest control of Fez from 925 but in 927 Musa returned, captured Hassan and killed him, marking the last time the Idrisids held power in Fes.[46]
From Fes, the Miknasa began pursuing the Idrisid family across Morocco. The family took refuge at the fortress ofHajar an-Nasr in northern Morocco, where the Miknasa besieged them.[46] Soon after, however, civil war broke out among the Miknasa when Musa switched allegiance to theUmayyads of Cordoba in 931 in an attempt to gain more independence. The Fatimids sent Humayd ibn Yasal (or Hamid[39]), the nephew of Masala ibn Habus, to confront Musa, defeating him in 933 and forcing him to fall back into line.[46][39]: 63 The Idrisids took advantage of the situation to break the siege of their fortress and defeat the Mikanasa Zenata troops. Once the Fatimids were gone, however, Musa once again threw off their authority and recognized the Umayyad caliph. The Fatimids sent their general Maysur to confront him again, and this time he fled. He was pursued and killed by the Idrisids.[46]
After this Idrisids settled among theJbala tribes in the Rif region of north-west Morocco where they partially rebuilt their power base from Hajar an-Nasr, alternately acknowledging either theUmayyads of Cordoba (underAbd ar-Rahman III) or the Fatimids as overlords.[46]Al-Qasim al-Gannoun ibn Muhammad ruled here from 938 until 948 in the name of the Fatimids.[46][47] His son and successor, Ahmad, known asAbul-'Aysh, recognized the Umayyads instead but ran afoul of them when he refused to let them occupy Tangier. He was besieged there and forced to retreat, retaining only the areas aroundal-Basra and Asilah while the Umayyads occupied the rest of northern Morocco.[46] He eventually left for Al-Andalus, leaving his brotherHasan ibn al-Qasim al-Gannoun as the new leader in 954.[46][47] In 958 the Fatimids sent a new general,Jawhar, to invade Morocco. His success forced the Idrisids to again accept Fatimid overlordship.[46][39]: 75 Soon afterwards, however, when Jawhar and the Fatimids were busy taking control of Egypt, the Umayyads made a comeback. In 973 their general, Ghalib, invaded Morocco.[39] The Idrisids were expelled from their territories and al-Hasan, along with many other Idrisids or their sons, were taken as hostages to Cordoba in 974.[46] The remaining Idrisids in Morocco acknowledged Umayyad rule.[39] Al-Hasan was later expelled from Cordoba and fled to Egypt, which was now under Fatimid rule. In 979Buluggin ibn Ziri, the Fatimid governor of Ifriqiya (after the Fatimid Caliphs moved their capital toCairo), returned to defeat the Umayyads and impose Fatimid overlordship in the western Maghreb again. In 985[47] he returned to Morocco with Fatimid support, but that same year he was defeated by another Umayyad general sent byal-Mansur and then assassinated on the way to Cordoba.[46] This brought a final end to the Idrisid dynasty. The Umayyads kept control over northern Morocco until their caliphate's collapse in the early 11th century. Following this, Morocco was dominated by various Zenata Berber tribes.[41]: 91 [39]: 82 Until the rise of theSanhajaAlmoravids later in the century, theMaghrawa controlledFes,Sijilmasa andAghmat while theBanu Ifran ruled over Tlemcen,Salé (Chellah), and theTadla region.[41]: 91
Despite having fallen from power, the Idrisids nonetheless spawned many sharifian families which continued to be present for centuries to come. Some Moroccans today still claim descent from them.[46] In the 11th century an Idrisid family descended from Umar (son of Idris II), theHammudids were able to gain power in several cities of northernMorocco and southernSpain.[46][48] In Fes and in the town ofMoulay Idriss (near Volubilis), the tombs of Idris II and Idris I, respectively, eventually developed into important religious complexes and pilgrimage sites (e.g. theZawiya of Moulay Idris II).[49][50] Several prominent sharifian families in Fez traced their lineages to Idris I,[51]: 488 and some of these played a role in maintaining or rebuilding the Zawiya of Idris II in the city.[52]
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TheAlmoravid dynasty (c.1060–1147) originated among theLamtuna nomadicBerber tribe belonging to theSanhaja. They succeeded in unifying Morocco after it had been divided among several Zenata principalities in the late 10th century, and annexed the Emirate of Sijilmasa and the Barghawata (Tamesna) into their realm.
UnderYusuf ibn Tashfin, the Almoravids were invited by the Muslimtaifa princes ofAl-Andalus to defend their territories from the Christian kingdoms. Their involvement was crucial in preventing the fall ofAl-Andalus. After having succeeded in repelling Christian forces in 1086, Yusuf returned to Iberia in 1090 and annexed most of the majortaifas.[53]
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Almoravid power began to decline in the first half of the 12th century, as the dynasty was weakened after its defeat at thebattle of Ourique and because of the agitation of theAlmohads. The conquest of the city ofMarrakech by the Almohads in 1147 marked the fall of the dynasty. However, fragments of the Almoravids (theBanu Ghaniya) continued to struggle in the Balearic Islands and inTunisia.
The Berbers of theTamazgha in the early Middle Ages could be roughly classified into three major groups: theZenata across the north, theMasmuda concentrated in central Morocco, and the Sanhaja, clustered in two areas: the western part of theSahara and the hills of the eastern Maghreb.[55][56] The eastern Sanhaja included theKutama Berbers, who had been the base of theFatimid rise in the early 10th century, and theZirid dynasty, who ruledIfriqiya as vassals of the Fatimids after the latter moved to Egypt in 972. The westernSanhaja were divided into several tribes: the Gazzula and theLamta in theDraa valley and the foothills of theAnti-Atlas range; further south, encamped in the westernSahara, were the Massufa, theLamtuna and the Banu Warith; and most southerly of all, the Gudala, in littoralMauritania down to the borderlands of theSenegal River.
The western Sanhaja had been converted toIslam some time in the 9th century. They were subsequently united in the 10th century and, with the zeal of new converts, launched several campaigns against the "Sudanese" (pagan peoples ofsub-Saharan Africa).[57] Under their king Tinbarutan ibn Usfayshar, the Sanhaja Lamtuna erected (or captured) the citadel ofAwdaghust, a critical stop on thetrans-Saharan trade route. After the collapse of the Sanhaja union, Awdagust passed over to theGhana empire; and the trans-Saharan routes were taken over by the ZenataMaghrawa ofSijilmassa. The Maghrawa also exploited this disunion to dislodge the Sanhaja Gazzula and Lamta out of their pasturelands in the Sous and Draa valleys. Around 1035, the Lamtuna chieftain Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Tifat (alias Tarsina), tried to reunite the Sanhaja desert tribes, but his reign lasted less than three years.
Around 1040,Yahya ibn Ibrahim, a chieftain of the Gudala (and brother-in-law of the late Tarsina), went onpilgrimage toMecca. On his return, he stopped byKairouan inIfriqiya, where he metAbu Imran al-Fasi, a native ofFes and a jurist and scholar of theSunniMaliki school. At this time, Ifriqiya was in ferment. TheZirid ruleral-Muizz ibn Badis, was openly contemplating breaking with hisShi'iteFatimid overlords in Cairo, and the jurists of Kairouan were agitating for him to do so. Within this heady atmosphere, Yahya and Abu Imran fell into conversation on the state of the faith in their western homelands, and Yahya expressed his disappointment at the lack of religious education and negligence ofIslamic law among his southern Sanhaja people. With Abu Imran's recommendation, Yahya ibn Ibrahim made his way to theribat of Waggag ibn Zelu in theSous valley of southern Morocco, to seek out a Maliki teacher for his people. Waggag assigned him one of his residents,Abdallah ibn Yasin.
Abdallah ibn Yasin was a Gazzula Berber, and probably a convert rather than a born Muslim. His name can be read as "son ofYa Sin" (the title of the 36thSura of theQur'an), suggesting he had obliterated his family past and was "re-born" of the Holy Book.[58] Ibn Yasin certainly had the ardor of a puritan zealot; his creed was mainly characterized by a rigid formalism and a strict adherence to the dictates of theQur'an, and theOrthodox tradition.[59] (Chroniclers such as al-Bakri allege Ibn Yasin's learning was superficial.) Ibn Yasin's initial meetings with the Gudala people went poorly. As he had more ardor than depth, Ibn Yasin's arguments were disputed by his audience. He responded to questioning with charges of apostasy and handed out harsh punishments for the slightest deviations. The Gudala soon had enough and expelled him almost immediately after the death of his protector, Yahya ibn Ibrahim, sometime in the 1040s.
Ibn Yasin, however, found a more favorable reception among the neighboring Lamtuna people.[59] Probably sensing the useful organizing power of Ibn Yasin's pious fervor, the Lamtuna chieftainYahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni invited the man to preach to his people. The Lamtuna leaders, however, kept Ibn Yasin on a careful leash, forging a more productive partnership between them. Invoking stories of the early life of Muhammad, Ibn Yasin preached that conquest was a necessary addendum to Islamicization, that it was not enough to merely adhere to God's law, but necessary to also destroy opposition to it. In Ibn Yasin's ideology, anything and everything outside of Islamic law could be characterized as "opposition". He identified tribalism, in particular, as an obstacle. He believed it was not enough to urge his audiences to put aside their blood loyalties and ethnic differences, and embrace the equality of all Muslims under the Sacred Law, it was necessary to make them do so. For the Lamtuna leadership, this new ideology dovetailed with their long desire to refound the Sanhaja union and recover their lost dominions. In the early 1050s, the Lamtuna, under the joint leadership of Yahya ibn Umar and Abdallah ibn Yasin—soon calling themselves theal-Murabitin (Almoravids)—set out on a campaign to bring their neighbors over to their cause.
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The Almohad Caliphate (IPA:/ˈælməhæd/;Arabic:خِلَافَةُ ٱلْمُوَحِّدِينَ orدَوْلَةُ ٱلْمُوَحِّدِينَ orٱلدَّوْلَةُ ٱلْمُوَحِّدِيَّةُ fromArabic:ٱلْمُوَحِّدُونَ,romanized: al-Muwaḥḥidūn,lit. 'those who profess theunity of God'[60][61][62]: 246 ) was aNorth AfricanBerberMuslim empire founded in present day Morocco at the 12th century. At its height, it controlled much of theIberian Peninsula (Al Andalus) andNorth Africa (theMaghreb).[63][64][65] TheAlmohad doctrine was founded byIbn Tumart among the BerberMasmuda tribes, aBerber tribal confederation of theAtlas Mountains of southern Morocco.[66][67] At the time,Morocco, westernAlgeria and Spain (al-Andalus), were under the rule of theAlmoravids, aSanhaja Berber dynasty.[68] Around 1120, Ibn Tumart first established a Berber state inTinmel in theAtlas Mountains.[63]
Early in his life, Ibn Tumart went to Spain to pursue his studies, and thereafter toBaghdad to deepen them. In Baghdad, Ibn Tumart attached himself to the theological school ofal-Ash'ari, and came under the influence of the teacheral-Ghazali.[69][70] He soon developed his own system, combining the doctrines of various masters. Ibn Tumart's main principle was a strict unitarianism (tawhid), which denied the independent existence of theattributes of God as being incompatible with His unity, and therefore a polytheistic idea. Ibn Tumart represented a revolt against what he perceived asanthropomorphism in Muslim orthodoxy. His followers would become known as theal-Muwaḥḥidūn ("Almohads"), meaning those who affirm the unity of God.
Around 1124, Ibn Tumart erected theribat ofTinmel, in the valley of the Nfis in the High Atlas, an impregnable fortified complex, which would serve both as the spiritual center and military headquarters of the Almohad movement. For the first eight years, the Almohad rebellion was limited to a guerilla war along the peaks and ravines of the High Atlas. In early 1130, the Almohads finally descended from the mountains for their first sizeable attack in the lowlands. It was a disaster. The Almohads swept aside an Almoravid column that had come out to meet them beforeAghmat, and then chased their remnant all the way toMarrakesh. They laid siege to Marrakesh for forty days until, in April (or May) 1130, the Almoravids sallied from the city and crushed the Almohads in the bloodyBattle of al-Buhayra (named after a large garden east of the city). The Almohads were thoroughly routed, with huge losses. Half their leadership was killed in action, and the survivors only just managed to scramble back to the mountains.[71]
Ibn Tumart died shortly after, in August 1130. That the Almohad movement did not immediately collapse after such a devastating defeat and the death of their charismatic Mahdi, is likely due to the skills of his successor, Abd al-Mu'min.[74]: 70 Ibn Tumart's death was kept a secret for three years, a period which Almohad chroniclers described as aghayba or "occultation". This period likely gave Abd al-Mu'min time to secure his position as successor to the political leadership of the movement.[74]: 70 Although aZenata Berber from Tagra (Algeria),[75] and thus an alien among the Masmuda of southern Morocco, Abd al-Mu'min nonetheless saw off his principal rivals and hammered wavering tribes back to the fold. Three years after Ibn Tumart's death he was officially proclaimed "Caliph".[76]
Abd al-Mu'min then came forward as the lieutenant of the Mahdi Ibn Tumart. Between 1130 and his death in 1163, Abd al-Mu'min not only rooted out the Murabits (Almoravids), but extended his power over all northern Africa as far asEgypt, becoming amir ofMarrakesh in 1149.
Al-Andalus followed the fate of Africa. Between 1146 and 1173, the Almohads gradually wrested control from the Murabits over the Moorish principalities in Iberia. The Almohads transferred the capital of Muslim Iberia fromCórdoba toSeville. They founded a great mosque there; its tower, theGiralda, was erected in 1184 to mark the accession of Ya'qub I. The Almohads also built a palace there called Al-Muwarak on the site of the modern dayAlcázar of Seville.
The Almohad princes had a longer and more distinguished career than the Murabits. The successors of Abd al-Mumin,Abu Yaqub Yusuf (Yusuf I, ruled 1163–1184) andAbu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur (Yaʻqūb I, ruled 1184–1199), were both able men. Initially their government drove many Jewish and Christian subjects to take refuge in the growing Christian states of Portugal, Castile, andAragon. Ultimately they became less fanatical than the Murabits, and Ya'qub al-Mansur was a highly accomplished man who wrote a goodArabic style and protected the philosopherAverroes. His title of "al-Manṣūr" ("the Victorious") was earned by his victory overAlfonso VIII of Castile in theBattle of Alarcos (1195).
From the time ofYusuf II, however, the Almohads governed their co-religionists in Iberia and central North Africa through lieutenants, their dominions outsideMorocco being treated as provinces. When Almohad emirs crossed the Straits it was to lead ajihad against the Christians and then return to Morocco.[77]
In 1212, the Almohad CaliphMuhammad 'al-Nasir' (1199–1214), the successor of al-Mansur, after an initially successful advance north, was defeated by an alliance of the four Christian kings ofCastile,Aragón,Navarre, and Portugal, at theBattle of Las Navas de Tolosa in theSierra Morena. The battle broke the Almohad advance, but the Christian powers remained too disorganized to profit from it immediately.
Before his death in 1213, al-Nasir appointed his young ten-year-old son as the nextcaliphYusuf II "al-Mustansir". The Almohads passed through a period of effectiveregency for the young caliph, with power exercised by an oligarchy of elder family members, palace bureaucrats and leading nobles. The Almohad ministers were careful to negotiate a series of truces with the Christian kingdoms, which remained more-or-less in place for next fifteen years (theloss of Alcácer do Sal to theKingdom of Portugal in 1217 was an exception).
In early 1224, the youthful caliph died in an accident, without any heirs. The palace bureaucrats inMarrakesh, led by thewazir Uthman ibn Jam'i, quickly engineered the election of his elderly grand-uncle,Abd al-Wahid I 'al-Makhlu', as the new Almohad caliph. But the rapid appointment upset other branches of the family, notably the brothers of the late al-Nasir, who governed inal-Andalus. The challenge was immediately raised by one of them, then governor inMurcia, who declared himself CaliphAbdallah al-Adil. With the help of his brothers, he quickly seized control of al-Andalus. His chief advisor, the shadowy Abu Zayd ibn Yujjan, tapped into his contacts in Marrakesh, and secured thedeposition and assassination of Abd al-Wahid I, and the expulsion of the al-Jami'iclan.
Thiscoup has been characterized as the pebble that finally broke al-Andalus. It was the first internal coup among the Almohads. The Almohad clan, despite occasional disagreements, had always remained tightly knit and loyally behind dynastic precedence. Caliph al-Adil's murderous breach of dynastic and constitutional propriety marred his acceptability to other Almohadsheikhs. One of the recusants was his cousin, Abd Allah al-Bayyasi ("theBaezan"), the Almohad governor ofJaén, who took a handful of followers and decamped for the hills around Baeza. He set up a rebel camp and forged an alliance with the hitherto quietFerdinand III of Castile. Sensing his greater priority was Marrakesh, where recusant Almohadsheikhs had rallied behind Yahya, another son of al-Nasir, al-Adil paid little attention to this little band of misfits.
In 1225, Abd Allah al-Bayyasi's band of rebels, accompanied by a large Castilian army, descended from the hills, besieging cities such asJaén andAndújar. Theyraided throughout the regions ofJaén,Cordova andVega de Granada and, before the end of the year, al-Bayyasi had established himself in the city ofCordova. Sensing a power vacuum, bothAlfonso IX of León andSancho II of Portugal opportunistically ordered raids into Andalusian territory that same year. With Almohad arms, men and cash dispatched to Morocco to help Caliph al-Adil impose himself in Marrakesh, there was little means to stop the sudden onslaught. In late 1225, with surprising ease, the Portuguese raiders reached the environs ofSeville. Knowing they were outnumbered, the Almohad governors of the city refused to confront the Portuguese raiders, prompting the disgusted population of Seville to take matters into their own hands, raise a militia, and go out in the field by themselves. The result was a veritable massacre – the Portuguese men-at-arms easily mowed down the throng of poorly armed townsfolk. Thousands, perhaps as much as 20,000, were said to have been slain before the walls of Seville. A similar disaster befell a similar popular levy byMurcians atAspe that same year. But Christian raiders had been stopped atCáceres andRequena. Trust in the Almohad leadership was severely shaken by these events – the disasters were promptly blamed on the distractions of Caliph al-Adil and the incompetence and cowardice of his lieutenants, the successes credited to non-Almohad local leaders who rallied defenses.
But al-Adil's fortunes were briefly buoyed. In payment for Castilian assistance, al-Bayyasi had given Ferdinand III three strategic frontier fortresses:Baños de la Encina, Salvatierra (the oldOrder of Calatrava fortress nearCiudad Real) andCapilla. But Capilla refused to hand them over, forcing the Castilians to lay a long and difficult siege. The brave defiance of little Capilla, and the spectacle of al-Bayyasi's shipping provisions to the Castilian besiegers, shocked Andalusians and shifted sentiment back towards the Almohad caliph. A popular uprising broke out in Cordova – al-Bayyasi was killed and his head dispatched as a trophy to Marrakesh. But Caliph al-Adil did not rejoice in this victory for long – he was assassinated in Marrakesh in October 1227, by the partisans of Yahya, who was promptly acclaimed as the new Almohad caliphYahya "al-Mu'tasim".
The Andalusian branch of the Almohads refused to accept this turn of events. Al-Adil's brother, then in Seville, proclaimed himself the new Almohad caliphAbd al-Ala Idris I 'al-Ma'mun'. He promptly purchased atruce from Ferdinand III in return for 300,000maravedis, allowing him to organize and dispatch the greater part of the Almohad army in Spain across thestraits in 1228 to confront Yahya.
That same year, Portuguese andLeonese renewed their raids deep into Muslim territory, basically unchecked. Feeling the Almohads had failed to protect them, popular uprisings took place throughout al-Andalus. City after city deposed their hapless Almohad governors and installed local strongmen in their place. A Murcian strongman,Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Hud al-Judhami, who claimed descendance from theBanu Hud dynasty that had once ruled the oldtaifa of Saragossa, emerged as the central figure of these rebellions, systematically dislodging Almohad garrisons through central Spain. In October 1228, with Spain practically all lost, al-Ma'mun abandoned Seville, taking what little remained of the Almohad army with him to Morocco. Ibn Hud immediately dispatched emissaries to distantBaghdad to offer recognition to theAbbasidCaliph, albeit taking up for himself a quasi-caliphal title, 'al-Mutawwakil'.
The departure of al-Ma'mun in 1228 marked the end of the Almohad era in Spain. Ibn Hud and the other local Andalusian strongmen were unable to stem the rising flood of Christian attacks, launched almost yearly bySancho II of Portugal,Alfonso IX of León,Ferdinand III of Castile andJames I of Aragon. The next twenty years saw a massive advance in the Christianreconquista – the old great Andalusiancitadels fell in a grand sweep:Mérida andBadajoz in 1230 (to Leon),Mallorca in 1230 (to Aragon),Beja in 1234 (to Portugal),Córdoba in 1236 (to Castile),Valencia in 1238 (to Aragon),Niebla-Huelva in 1238 (to Leon),Silves in 1242 (to Portugal),Murcia in 1243 (to Castile),Jaénin 1246 (to Castile),Alicante in 1248 (to Castile), culminating in the fall of the greatest of Andalusian cities, the ex-Almohad capital ofSeville, into Christian hands in 1248. Ferdinand III of Castile entered Seville as a conqueror on 22 December 1248.
The Andalusians were helpless before this onslaught. Ibn Hudd had attempted to check the Leonese advance early on, but most of his Andalusian army was destroyed at thebattle of Alange in 1230. Ibn Hud scrambled to move remaining arms and men to save threatened or besieged Andalusian citadels, but with so many attacks at once, it was a hopeless endeavor. After Ibn Hud's death in 1238, some of the Andalusian cities, in a last-ditch effort to save themselves, offered themselves once again to the Almohads, but to no avail. The Almohads would not return.
With the departure of the Almohads, theNasrid dynasty ("Banū Naṣr",Arabic:بنو نصر) rose to power inGranada. After the great Christian advance of 1228–1248, theEmirate of Granada was practically all that remained of oldal-Andalus. Some of the captured citadels (e.g. Murcia, Jaen, Niebla) were reorganized as tributary vassals for a few more years, but most were annexed by the 1260s. Granada alone would remain independent for an additional 250 years, flourishing as the new center of al-Andalus.
In their African holdings, the Almohads encouraged the establishment of Christians even inFez, and after theBattle of Las Navas de Tolosa they occasionally entered into alliances with the kings ofCastile. They were successful in expelling the garrisons placed in some of the coast towns by theNorman kings ofSicily. The history of their decline differs from that of theAlmoravids, whom they had displaced. They were not assailed by a great religious movement, but lost territories, piecemeal, by the revolt of tribes and districts. Their most effective enemies were the Banu Marin (Marinids) who founded the next dynasty. The last representative of the line,Idris II, 'al-Wathiq', was reduced to the possession ofMarrakesh, where he was murdered by a slave in 1269.
Although the Marinids claimedArab ancestry[78] through a North Arabian tribe,[79] they were of Berber origin. Following the arrival of the Arab Bedouins in North Africa in the middle of the eleventh century, the Marinids were obliged to leave their lands in the region ofBiskra, in present-dayAlgeria.[80][81] They first frequented the area betweenSijilmasa andFiguig, present-dayMorocco,[82][83] at times reaching as far as theZab [fr], present-dayAlgeria.[84] They would move seasonally from the Figuig oasis to theMoulouya River basin.[85] Following the arrival ofArab tribes in the area in the 11th-12th centuries, the Marinids moved to the north-west of present-dayAlgeria,[82] before enteringen-masse into Morocco by the beginning of the 13th century.[86]
The Marinids took their name from their ancestor, Marin ibn Wartajan al-Zenati.[87]
After arriving in present-day Morocco, they initially submitted to theAlmohad dynasty, which was at the time the ruling house. After successfully contributing to theBattle of Alarcos, in central Spain, the tribe started to assert itself as a political power.[41] Starting in 1213, they began to tax farming communities of today's north-eastern Morocco (the area betweenNador andBerkane). The relationship between them and the Almohads became strained and starting in 1215, there were regular outbreaks of fighting between the two parties. In 1217, they tried to occupy the eastern part of present-day Morocco, but they were expelled, pulling back and settling in the eastern Rif mountains where they remained for nearly 30 years. During their stay in theRif, the Almohad state suffered huge blows, losing large territories to the Christians in Spain, while theHafsids of Ifriqia broke away in 1229, followed by theZayyanid dynasty ofTlemcen in 1235.
Between 1244 and 1248 the Marinids were able to takeTaza,Rabat,Salé,Meknes andFez from the weakened Almohads.[88] The Marinid leadership installed in Fes declared war on the Almohads, fighting with the aid of Christianmercenaries.Abu Yusuf Yaqub (1259–1286) capturedMarrakech in 1269.[89]
After theNasridsof Granada ceded the town ofAlgeciras to the Marinids, Abu Yusuf went toAl-Andalus to support the ongoing struggle against theKingdom of Castile. The Marinid dynasty then tried to extend its control to include the commercial traffic of theStrait of Gibraltar.
It was in this period that the Spanish Christians were first able to take the fighting to mainland present-day Morocco: in 1260 and 1267 they attempted an invasion, but both attempts were defeated. After gaining a foothold in Spain, the Marinids became active in the conflict between Muslims and Christians in Iberia. To gain absolute control of the trade in the Strait of Gibraltar, from their base at Algeciras they started the conquest of several Spanish towns: by the year 1294 they had occupiedRota,Tarifa andGibraltar.
In 1276 they foundedFes Jdid, which they made their administrative and military centre. While Fes had been a prosperous city throughout the Almohad period, even becoming the largest city in the world during that time,[90] it was in the Marinid period that Fes reached its golden age, a period which marked the beginning of an official, historical narrative for the city.[91][92] It is from the Marinid period that Fes' reputation as an important intellectual centre largely dates, they established the firstmadrasas in the city and country.[93][94][95] The principal monuments in the medina, the residences and public buildings, date from the Marinid period.[96]
Despite internal infighting, Abu Said Uthman II (r. 1310–1331) initiated huge construction projects across the land. Several madrasas were built, theAl-Attarine Madrasa being the most famous. The building of these madrasas were necessary to create a dependent bureaucratic class, in order to undermine the marabouts and Sharifian elements.
The Marinids also strongly influenced the policy of theEmirate of Granada, from which they enlarged their army in 1275. In the 13th century, the Kingdom of Castile made several incursions into their territory. In 1260,Castilian forces raidedSalé and, in 1267, initiated a full-scale invasion, but the Marinids repelled them.
At the height of their power, during the rule ofAbu al-Hasan Ali (r. 1331–1348), the Marinid army was large and disciplined. It consisted of 40,000 Zenata cavalry, while Arab nomads contributed to the cavalry and Andalusians were included as archers. The personal bodyguard of the sultan consisted of 7,000 men, and included Christian, Kurdish and Black African elements.[97] UnderAbu al-Hasan another attempt was made to reunite theMaghreb. In 1337 theAbdalwadidkingdom of Tlemcen was conquered, followed in 1347 by the defeat of theHafsid empire inIfriqiya, which made him master of a huge territory, which spanned from southern present-day Morocco toTripoli. However, within the next year, a revolt of Arab tribes in southern Tunisia made them lose their eastern territories. The Marinids had already suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of a Portuguese-Castilian coalition in theBattle of Río Salado in 1340, and finally had to withdraw from Andalusia, onlyholding on to Algeciras until 1344.
In 1348 Abu al-Hasan was deposed by his sonAbu Inan Faris, who tried to reconquer Algeria and Tunisia. Despite several successes, he was strangled by his own vizir in 1358, after which the dynasty began to decline.
After the death of Abu Inan Faris in 1358, the real power lay with the viziers, while the Marinid sultans were paraded and forced to succeed each other in quick succession. The county was divided and political anarchy set in, with different viziers and foreign powers supporting different factions. In 1359Hintata tribesmen from the High Atlas came down and occupiedMarrakesh, capital of their Almohad ancestors, which they would govern independently until 1526. To the south of Marrakesh, Sufi mystics claimed autonomy, and in the 1370sAzemmour broke off under a coalition of merchants and Arab clan leaders of the Banu Sabih. To the east, the Zianid and Hafsid families reemerged and to the north, the Europeans were taking advantage of this instability by attacking the coast. Meanwhile, unruly wandering ArabBedouin tribes increasingly spread anarchy, which accelerated the decline of the empire.
In the 15th century, it was hit by a financial crisis, after which the state had to stop financing the different marabouts and Sharifian families, which had previously been useful instruments in controlling different tribes. The political support of these marabouts and Sharifians halted, and it splintered into different entities. In 1399 Tetouan was taken and its population was massacred and in 1415 thePortuguese captured Ceuta. After the sultan Abdalhaqq II (1421–1465) tried to break the power of the Wattasids, he was executed.
Marinid rulers after 1420 came under the control of theWattasids, who exercised a regency asAbd al-Haqq II became Sultan one year after his birth. The Wattasids however refused to give up the Regency after Abd al-Haqq came to age.[98]
In 1459, Abd al-Haqq II managed a massacre of the Wattasid family, breaking their power. His reign, however, brutally ended as he was murdered during the1465 revolt.[99] This event saw the end of the Marinid dynasty asMuhammad ibn Ali Amrani-Joutey, leader of theSharifs, was proclaimed Sultan inFes. He was in turn overthrown in 1471 byAbu Abd Allah al-Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya, one of the two the survivingWattasids from the 1459 massacre, who instigated theWattasid dynasty.
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Morocco was in decline when the Berber Wattasids assumed power. The Wattasid family had been the autonomous governors of the easternRif since the late 13th century, ruling from their base in Tazouta (near present-dayNador). They had close ties to the Marinid sultans and provided many of the bureaucratic elite. While theMarinid dynasty tried to repel the Portuguese and Spanish invasions and help the kingdom ofGranada to outlive theReconquista, the Wattasids accumulated absolute power through political maneuvering. When the Marinids became aware of the extent of the conspiracy, they slaughtered the Wattasids, leaving onlyAbu Abd Allah al-Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya alive. He went on to found theKingdom of Fez and establish thedynasty to be succeeded by his son, Mohammed al-Burtuqali, in 1504.
The Wattasid rulers failed in their promise to protect Morocco from foreign incursions and the Portuguese increased their presence on Morocco's coast. Mohammad al-Chaykh's son attempted to captureAsilah andTangier in 1508, 1511 and 1515, but without success.
In the south, a new dynasty arose, the Saadian dynasty, which seizedMarrakesh in 1524 and made it their capital. By 1537 the Saadis were in the ascendent when theydefeated thePortuguese Empire atAgadir. Their military successes contrasts with the Wattasid policy of conciliation towards theCatholic kings to the north.
As a result, the people of Morocco tended to regard the Saadians as heroes, making it easier for them to retake the Portuguese strongholds on the coast, including Tangiers,Ceuta andMaziɣen. The Saadians also attacked the Wattasids who were forced to yield to the new power. In 1554, as Wattasid towns surrendered, the Wattasid sultan,Ali Abu Hassun, brieflyretook Fez. The Saadis quickly settled the matter by killing him and, as the last Wattasids fled Morocco by ship, they too were murdered by pirates. The Wattasid did little to improve general conditions in Morocco following theReconquista. While the Saadians managed to reestablish and curbed the expansionist ambitions of the kingdoms of the Iberian peninsula.
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Beginning in 1549, the region was ruled by successive Arab dynasties known as the Sharifian dynasties, who claimed descent from the prophetMuhammad. The first of these polities was theSaadi dynasty, which ruled Morocco from 1549 to 1659. From 1509 to 1549, the Saadi rulers had control of only the southern areas. While still recognizing the Wattasids as Sultans until 1528, Saadians' growing power led the Wattasids to attack them and, after an indecisive battle, to recognize their rule over southern Morocco through theTreaty of Tadla.[101]
In 1590,SultanAhmad al-Mansur sent an expedition to theSonghai Empire, which resulted in avictory and collapse of the empire,[102][103][104]Pashalik of Timbuktu was established to take control over the territory centered onTimbuktu.[105]
In 1659,Mohammed al-Hajj ibn Abu Bakr al-Dila'i, the head of thezaouia of Dila,[106] was proclaimed sultan of Morocco after the fall of the Saadi dynasty.[107]
The republic traces its origins back to the beginning of the 17th century, with the arrival of approximately 3,000 wealthyMoriscos fromHornachos in western Spain, who anticipated the 1609expulsion edicts ordered byPhilip III of Spain.[108] After 1609, approximately 10,000 down-and-out expelled Moriscos arrived fromSpain.[109] Cultural and language differences between the native Saletin people and the Morisco refugees led the newcomers to settle in the oldmedina of Rabat, on the opposite bank of theBou Regreg.[110][111]
Pirates based on the western bank thrived and expanded their operations throughout the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean.[112] In 1624, the DutchmanJan Janszoon (also known as Murad Reis) became the "Grand Admiral" and President of the Corsair Republic of Salé.[113]
After Janszoon left Salé in 1627, the Moriscos ceased to recognize the authority of the SultanZidan al-Nasir, and refused to pay histithe on their incomes.[114] They proclaimed a Republic, ruled by a council orDiwan, a sort of government cabinet formed by 12 to 14 notable people whose members annually elected a Governor and aCaptain General of the Fortalesa during the month of May. In the early years of the republic (between 1627 and 1630), theDiwan was controlled only by Hornacheros, whose grip on power was resented by the growing population of non-Hornachero Moriscos, called Andalusians.[115] After bloody clashes in 1630, an agreement was reached: the election of aQaid by Andalusians and a newDiwan of 16 members of whom 8 were Andalusians and 8 Hornacheros.[116]
In 1641 theZaouia of Dila, which controlled much of Morocco, imposed a religious hegemony over Salé and its parent republic.[117] By the early 1660s the republic was embroiled in civil war with the zawiya, and eventually SultanAl-Rashid of Morocco of theAlawi dynasty, which still rules Morocco into the 21st century, seized Rabat and Salé, ending its independence. It ended up under the control of the Sultan of Morocco after 1668, whenMoulay al Rashid finally vanquished the Dilaites.[118]
TheAlawi dynasty is the current Moroccan royal family. The name "Alawi" comes from the‘Alī of‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib, whose descendantSharif ibn Ali became Prince ofTafilalt in 1631. His sonMulay Al-Rashid (1664–1672) was able to unite and pacify the country. The Alawi family claim descent fromMuhammad through his daughterFāṭimah az-Zahrah and her husband ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib.
TheAlawi kingdom was consolidated byIsmail Ibn Sharif (1672–1727), who began to create a unified state in the face of opposition from local tribes. Since the Alawis, in contrast to previous dynasties, did not have the support of a single Berber orBedouin tribe, Isma'īl controlled Morocco through an army of slaves. With these soldiers he reoccupiedTangiers in 1684 after theEnglish abandoned it and drove the Spanish fromLarache in 1689. The kingdom he established did not survive his death — in the ensuing power struggles the tribes became a political and military force once again, and it was only withMuhammad III (1757–1790) that the kingdom was unified again. The idea of centralization was abandoned and the tribes allowed to preserve their autonomy.[citation needed] On 20 December 1777,[119] Morocco became one of the first states to recognize the sovereignty of a newly independent United States.[120][121][122]
During the reigns ofMuhammad IV (1859–1873) andHassan I (1873–1894), the Alawis tried to foster trade links, especially with European countries and the United States. The army and administration were also modernized to consolidate control over the Berber and Bedouin tribes.In 1859, Morocco went to war with Spain. The independence of Morocco was guaranteed at the Conference of Madrid in 1880,[123] with France also gaining significant influence over Morocco. Germany attempted to counter the growing French influence, leading to theFirst Moroccan Crisis of 1905–1906, and theSecond Moroccan Crisis of 1911. Morocco became a Frenchprotectorate through theTreaty of Fez in 1912.
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The successful Portuguese efforts to control theAtlantic coast in the 15th century did not affect the interior of Morocco. After theNapoleonic Wars, North Africa became increasingly ungovernable fromIstanbul by theOttoman Empire. As a result, it became the resort of pirates under localbeys. The Maghreb also had far greater known wealth than the rest of Africa, and its location near the entrance to theMediterranean gave it strategic importance. France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830.[124] The Alawi dynasty succeeded in maintaining the independence of Morocco in the 18th and 19th centuries, in the face ofOttoman and European encroachment.[125]
In 1844, after the Frenchconquered Algeria, theFranco-Moroccan War took place, with thebombardment of Tangiers, theBattle of Isly, and thebombardment of Mogador.
In 1856, SultanAbd al-Rahman's Makhzen signed theAnglo-Moroccan treaty, which was negotiated with the British diplomatJohn Hay Drummond Hay. The treaty granted several rights to British subjects in Morocco, and lowered Moroccan customs tariffs to 10%.[126] The treaty prolonged Moroccan independence while opening up the country to foreign trade, along with reducing theMakhzen's control over theMoroccan economy.[127]
TheHispano-Moroccan War took place from 1859 to 1860, and the subsequentTreaty of Wad Ras led the Moroccan government to take a massiveBritish loan larger than its national reserves to pay off itswar debt to Spain.[127]
In the mid 19th century,Moroccan Jews started migrating from the interior to coastal cities such asEssaouira,Mazagan,Asfi, and laterCasablanca for economic opportunity, participating in trade with Europeans and the development of those cities.[128] TheAlliance Israélite Universelle opened its first school inTetuan in 1862.[129]
In the latter part of the 19th century Morocco's instability resulted in European countries intervening to protect investments and to demand economic concessions. SultanHassan I called for theMadrid Conference of 1880 in response to France and Spain's abuse of theprotégé system, but the result was an increased European presence in Morocco—in the form of advisors, doctors, businessmen, adventurers, and even missionaries.[127]
More than half of the Makhzen's expenditures went abroad to paywar indemnities and buy weapons, military equipment, and manufactured goods.[127] From 1902 to 1909, Morocco'strade deficit increased 14 million francs annually, and theMoroccan rialdepreciated 25% from 1896 to 1906.[127] In June 1904, after a failed attempt to impose a flat tax, France bailed out the already indebted Makhzen with 62.5 million francs, guaranteed by a portion ofcustoms revenue.[127]
In the 1890s, the French administration and military inAlgiers called for the annexation of theTouat, theGourara and theTidikelt,[130] a complex that had been part of the Moroccan Empire for many centuries prior to the arrival of the French in Algeria.[131][132] The first years of the 20th century saw major diplomatic efforts by European powers, especially France, to further its interests in the region.[133]
Morocco nominally was ruled by its sultan, the youngAbd al-Aziz, through his regent,Ba Ahmed. By 1900, Morocco was the scene of multiple local wars started by pretenders to the sultanate, by bankruptcy of the treasury, and by multiple tribal revolts. The French Foreign MinisterThéophile Delcassé saw the opportunity to stabilize the situation and expand the French overseas empire.
GeneralHubert Lyautey wanted a more aggressive military policy using his French army based in Algeria. France decided to use both diplomacy and military force. The French colonial authorities would establish control over the Sultan, ruling in his name and extending French influence. The British acceded to any French designs in Morocco in theEntente Cordiale of 1904. TheGermans, however, who had no established presence in the region, strongly protested against the French plan. The Kaiser'sdramatic intervention in Morocco in March 1905 in support of Moroccan independence became a turning point on the road to the First World War. The internationalAlgeciras Conference of 1906 formalized France's "special position" and entrusted policing of Morocco jointly to France and Spain. Germany was outmaneuvered diplomatically, and France took full control of Morocco.[134][135]
Morocco experienced a famine from 1903 to 1907, as well as insurrections led byEl-Rogui (Bou Hmara) andMulai Ahmed er Raisuni.[127]
In 1907, the French took the murder ofÉmile Mauchamp in Marrakesh as a pretext to invadeOujda in the east, as they took an uprising against their appropriation of customs revenue inCasablanca as an opportunity tobombard and invade that city in the west.[136] Months later, there was a brief fratricidal civil war referred to as theHafidiya, in whichAbd al-Hafid, at first supported by southern aristocrats based in Marrakesh such as theGlawa [fr] and laterconditionally supported by theulama of Fes, wrested the throne from his brotherAbd al-Aziz, who was supported by the French.[137][138]
TheAgadir Crisis increased tensions among the powerful European countries,[139] and resulted in theTreaty of Fez (signed on 30 March 1912), which made Morocco aprotectorate of France.[140][141] In asecond treaty signed by the French and Spanish heads of state, Spain was granted a Zone of influence in northern and southern Morocco on 27 November 1912. The northern part became theSpanish protectorate in Morocco, while thesouthern part was ruled from El Aaiun as a buffer zone between theSpanish Colony of Saguia El Hamra and Morocco.[142] The treaty of Fez triggered the1912 Fez riots. By theTangier Protocol signed in December 1923, Tangier received special status and became aninternational zone,[143] although, during World War II, it wasoccupied from 1940 to 1945 byFrancoist Spain.
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![Destruction after the Intifada of Fes was quelled by French artillery fire.[144]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTritel.jpg)
The treaties nominally assured Morocco of its legal status as a sovereign state, with the sultan as its figurehead.[127][145] In practice, the sultan had no real power and the country was ruled by the colonial administration. French civil servants allied themselves with the French settlers and with their supporters in France to prevent any moves in the direction of Moroccan autonomy. As "pacification" proceeded, with theZaian War and theRif War, the French government focused on the exploitation of Morocco's mineral wealth, and particularly itsphosphates; the creation of a modern transportation system withtrains andbuses; and the development of a modern agricultural sector geared to the French market. Tens of thousands ofcolons, or colonists, entered Morocco and acquired large tracts of the rich agricultural land.[146]
Morocco was home to half a million Europeans,[147] most of whom settled inCasablanca, where they formed almost half the population.[148] Since the kingdom's independence in 1956, and particularly after Hassan II's 1973Moroccanization policies, the European element has largely departed.[47]
TheSpanish coup of July 1936, which gave way to theSpanish Civil War, began with theEjército de África inSpanish occupied Morocco.[149]
Morocco has been a key transnational hub in the struggle against colonialism in the Middle-east region. The end of World War II that had weakened European colonial powers, the start of the US-URSS search for influence and the establishment of the United Nations in 1945 praising universal equality, represented an impetus for anti-colonial and nationalist movements in Morocco.[7]
Through its special international status and the French and US presence in Tangier, the city became a hub for anti-colonial activism. Fromout Tanger, a link was established between the inside resistance and activists from other countries. By creating a transnational network of supporters and public advocates (i.e. cultural elites, politicians, public figures, academics, medias), the nationalist movement aimed to bring the Moroccan cause to the forefront of the international community debate.[10]
In order to gain influence at a global level, Moroccan nationalist movements globalised their cause by seeking to unite with the pan-arabism movement and the Arab League, extending their activism networks to Cairo.[13] Another example is Paris, that became an important European city from where cultural elites advocated for the independence cause and brought the protectorate question to the forefront of the public debate.[15] The independence movement eventually managed to bring their national claim for independence to the UN for the first time in 1951, gaining a vote of 20 states in favour and 23 against.[15]
Led byAbd el-Krim, the independentRepublic of the Rif existed from 1921 to 1926, based in the central part of theRif (in the Spanish Protectorate), while also extending, for some months, to some parts of the tribal lands of theGhomara, the Eastern Rif, Jbala, theOuergha valley and the north ofTaza.[150] After proclaiming independence on 18 September 1921, the polity developed state and governing institutions such as tax collection, law enforcement and the organisation of an army.[151] However, since 1925 the Spanish and French troops managed to quell the resistance and Abd el-Krim surrendered in May 1926.[151]
In December 1934, a small group of nationalists, members of the newly formedComité d'Action Marocaine, orMoroccan Action Committee (CAM), proposed aPlan of Reforms that called for a return to indirect rule as envisaged by the Treaty of Fez, admission of Moroccans to government positions, and establishment of representative councils. CAM used petitions, newspaper editorials, and personal appeals to French officials to further its cause, but these proved inadequate, and the tensions created in the CAM by the failure of the plan caused it to split. The CAM was reconstituted as a nationalist political party to gain mass support for more radical demands, but the French suppressed the party in 1937.[152]
Nationalist political parties, which subsequently arose under the French protectorate, based their arguments for Moroccan independence on declarations such as theAtlantic Charter, a joint United States-British statement that set forth, among other things, the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live.[153] The French regime also faced the opposition of the tribes — when the Berber were required to come under the jurisdiction of French courts in 1930, it increased support for the independence movement.[154]
ManyMoroccan Goumiers, or indigenous soldiers in the French army, assisted the Allies in bothWorld War I andWorld War II.[155] During World War II, the badly divided nationalist movement became more cohesive. However, the nationalists belief that an Allied victory would pave the way for independence was disappointed.[citation needed] In January 1944, theIstiqlal (Independence) Party, which subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement, released amanifesto demanding full independence, national reunification, and a democratic constitution.[156] The SultanMuhammad V (1927–1961) had approved the manifesto before its submission to the French resident general, who answered that no basic change in the protectorate status was being considered.[citation needed] The general sympathy of the sultan for the nationalists became evident by the end of the war, although he still hoped to see complete independence achieved gradually. On 10 April 1947, in spite of amassacre instigated by French forces in Casablanca,[157] Sultan Muhammad V delivered a momentousspeech in Tangier appealing for independence and territorial unity of Morocco, having travelled fromFrench Morocco and throughSpanish Morocco to reach theTangier International Zone.[158][159] Therésidence, supported by French economic interests and vigorously backed by most of thecolons, adamantly refused to consider even reforms short of independence.[160]
AlthoughZionism in Morocco dates back to the early 20th century, the significantemigration ofMoroccan Jews only began after theestablishment of the State of Israel in the1948 Palestine war.[161] This emigration was organized and facilitated by Zionist groups from outside of Morocco;[162] about 60,000 migrated throughCadima (1949–1956)[163] and about 90,000 inOperation Yachin (1961–1964).[164]
In December 1952, a riot broke out in Casablanca over the assassination of the Tunisian labour leaderFarhat Hached; this event marked a watershed in relations between Moroccan political parties and French authorities. In the aftermath of the rioting, the residency outlawed the newMoroccan Communist Party and theIstiqlal Party.[165]
France's exile of the highly respectedSultan Mohammed V toMadagascar onEid al-Adha of 1953,[166] and his replacement by the unpopularMohammed Ben Aarafa, sparked active opposition to the French protectorate both from nationalists and those who saw the sultan as a religious leader.[167] In retribution,Muhammad Zarqtuni bombed Casablanca'sMarché Central in the Europeanville nouvelle on Christmas of that year.[168][169] A month after his replacement, Allal ben Abdallah, a Moroccan nationalist attempted to assassinate the sultan on his way to the friday prayers atGreat Mosque of Fes el-Jdid.[170][171] Two years later, faced with a united Moroccan demand for the sultan's return and rising violence in Morocco, as well as a deteriorating situation in Algeria, the French government brought Mohammed V back to Morocco, and the following year began the negotiations that led to Moroccan independence.[172][173] So, with the triumphant return of Sultan Mohammed ben Youssef, the beginning of the end of the colonial era was marked.[174]
In late 1955, in the middle of what came to be known as theRevolution of the King and the People,[175] Sultan Mohammed V successfully negotiated the gradual restoration of Moroccan independence within a framework of French-Moroccan interdependence. The sultan agreed to institute reforms that would transform Morocco into a constitutional monarchy with a democratic form of government. As the French Foreign Minister Antoine Pinay had expressed, there was a willingness to grant Morocco its independence to "turn Morocco into a modern, democratic and sovereign state".[174] In February 1956, Morocco acquired limited home rule. Further negotiations for full independence culminated in the French-Moroccan Agreement signed in Paris on 22 March 1956.[174]
On 7 April 1956, France officially relinquished its protectorate in Morocco. The internationalized city ofTangier was reintegrated with the signing of theTangier Protocol on 29 October 1956.[176] The abolition of the Spanish protectorate and the recognition of Moroccan independence by Spain were negotiated separately and made final in the Joint Declaration of April 1956.[165] Through this agreement with Spain in 1956 and another in 1958, Moroccan control over certain Spanish-ruled areas was restored. Attemptsto claim other Spanish possessions through military action were less successful.[177]
In the months that followed independence, Mohammed V proceeded to build a modern governmental structure under aconstitutional monarchy in which the sultan would exercise an active political role. He acted cautiously, intent on preventing the Istiqlal from consolidating its control and establishing aone-party state. He assumed the monarchy on 11 August 1957, and from that date, the country officially became known as 'The Kingdom of Morocco'.[178][179]
Mohammed V's sonHassan II became King of Morocco on 3 March 1961. His rule saw significant political unrest, and the ruthless government response earned the period the name "theyears of lead". Hassan took personal control of the government as prime minister and named a new cabinet. Aided by an advisory council, he drew up a new constitution, which was approved overwhelmingly in a December 1962 referendum. Under its provisions, the king remained the central figure in the executive branch of the government, but legislative power was vested in a bicameral parliament, and an independent judiciary was guaranteed.[180]
In May 1963, legislative elections took place for the first time, and the royalist coalition secured a small plurality of seats. However, following a period of political upheaval in June 1965, Hassan II assumed full legislative and executive powers under a "state of exception," which remained in effect until 1970. Subsequently, a reform constitution was approved, restoring limited parliamentary government, and new elections were held. However, dissent remained, revolving around complaints of widespread corruption and malfeasance in government.In July 1971 andagain in August 1972, the regime was challenged by two attempted military coups.[citation needed]
After neighbouringAlgeria's 1962 independence from France, border skirmishes in theTindouf area of southwestern Algeria escalated in 1963 into what is known as theSand War. The conflict ended afterOrganisation of African Unity mediation, with no territorial changes.[181]
On 3 March 1973, Hassan II announced the policy ofMoroccanization, in which state-held assets, agricultural lands, and businesses that were more than 50 percent foreign-owned—and especially French-owned—were transferred to political loyalists and high-ranking military officers.[182][183] The Moroccanization of the economy affected thousands of businesses and the proportion of industrial businesses in Morocco that were Moroccan-owned immediately increased from 18% to 55%.[182] 2/3 of the wealth of the Moroccanized economy was concentrated in 36 Moroccan families.[182]
The patriotism engendered by Morocco's participation in the Middle East conflict and Western Sahara events contributed to Hassan's popularity. The king had dispatched Moroccan troops to theSinai front after the outbreak of theArab-Israeli War in October 1973.[184] Although they arrived too late to engage in hostilities, the action won Morocco goodwill among other Arab states.[citation needed] Soon after, the attention of the government turned to the acquisition ofWestern Sahara from Spain, an issue on which all major domestic parties agreed.[165]
Following years of discontent and inequality during the 1980s, on 14 December 1990, a general strike was called by two major trade unions in the country to demand an increase in the minimum wage and other measures. In Fez, this broke into protests and rioting led by university students and youths. The death of one of the students further inflamed protests, resulting in buildings being burned and looted, particularly symbols of wealth. While the official death toll was 5 people, theNew York Times reported a toll of 33 people and quoted an anonymous source claiming the real death toll was likely higher. The government denied reports that the deaths were due to the intervention of security forces and armoured vehicles. Many of those arrested were later released and the government promised to investigate and raise wages, though some of these measures were dismissed by skeptical opposition parties.[185]: 377 [186][187][188]
The Spanishenclave ofIfni in the south became part of the new state of Morocco in 1969, but other Spanish possessions in the north, includingCeuta,Melilla andPlaza de soberanía, remained under Spanish control, with Morocco viewing them asoccupied territory.[189]
In August 1974, Spain formally acknowledged the 1966 United Nations (UN) resolution calling for a referendum on the future status of Western Sahara and requested that aplebiscite be conducted under UN supervision. AUN visiting mission reported in October 1975 that an overwhelming majority of the Saharan people desired independence. Morocco protested the proposed referendum and took its case to theInternational Court of Justice atThe Hague, which ruled that despite historical "ties of allegiance" between Morocco and the tribes of Western Sahara, there was no legal justification for departing from the UN position on self-determination. Spain, meanwhile, had declared that even in the absence of a referendum, it intended to surrender political control of Western Sahara, and Spain, Morocco, andMauritania convened atripartite conference to resolve the territory's future. Spain also announced that it was opening independence talks with the Algerian-backed Saharan independence movement known as thePolisario Front.[165]
In early 1976, Spain ceded the administration of Western Sahara to Morocco and Mauritania. Morocco assumed control over the northern two-thirds of the territory and conceded the remaining portion in the south to Mauritania. An assembly of Saharan tribal leaders duly acknowledged Moroccan sovereignty. However, buoyed by the increasing defection of tribal chiefs to its cause, the Polisario drew up a constitution and announced the formation of theSaharawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), and itself formedgovernment-in-exile.[165]
The Moroccan government eventually sent a large portion of its combat forces into Western Sahara to confront the Polisario's forces, which were relatively small but well-equipped, highly mobile, and resourceful. The Polisario used Algerian bases for quick strikes against targets deep inside Morocco and Mauritania, as well as for operations in Western Sahara. In August 1979, after suffering military losses, Mauritania renounced its claim to Western Sahara and signed a peace treaty with the Polisario. In 1984, Morocco withdrew from theOrganisation of African Unity due to the admission of the SADR as a member.[190] Morocco then annexed the entire territory and, in 1985 built a2,500-kilometer sand berm around three-quarters of Western Sahara.[165]
In 1988, Morocco and the Polisario Front agreed on a United Nations (UN) peace plan, and a cease-fire and settlement plan went into effect in 1991. Even though the UN Security Council created apeacekeeping force to implement a referendum on self-determination for Western Sahara, it has yet to be held, periodic negotiations have failed, and the status of the territory remains unresolved.[165]
The war against the Polisario guerrillas put severe strains on the economy, and Morocco found itself increasingly isolated diplomatically. Gradual political reforms in the 1990s culminated in the constitutional reform of 1996, which created a new bicameral legislature with expanded, although still limited, powers. Elections for the Chamber of Representatives were held in 1997, reportedly marred by irregularities.[165]
With thedeath of Hassan II in 1999, the more liberal Crown Prince Sidi Mohammed took the throne, assuming the titleMohammed VI. He enacted successive reforms to modernize Morocco, and thehuman-rights record of the country improved markedly.[191] One of the new king's first acts was to free approximately 8,000 political prisoners and reduce the sentences of another 30,000. He also established a commission to compensate families of missing political activists and others subjected to arbitrary detention.[165] In 1999, theFirst Sahrawi Intifada took place.[192][193] Internationally, Morocco has maintained strong ties to the West. It was one of the first Arab and Islamic states to denounce the9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States.[194]
In September 2002, new legislative elections were held, and theSocialist Union of Popular Forces (USFP) won a plurality.[195] International observers regarded the elections as free and fair, noting the absence of the irregularities that had plagued the 1997 elections. In May 2003, in honor of the birth of a son, the king ordered the release of 9,000 prisoners and the reduction of 38,000 sentences. Also in 2003,Berber-language instruction was introduced in primary schools, prior to introducing it at all educational levels.[165] In March 2000, women's groups organized demonstrations inRabat proposing reforms to the legal status of women in the country. 200,000 to 300,000 women attended, calling fora ban on polygamy, and the introduction of civildivorce law.[196] Although a counter-demonstration attracted 200,000 to 400,000 participants, the movement was influential on King Mohammed, and he enacted a newMudawana, or family law, in early 2004, meeting some of the demands of women's rights activists.[197]
In July 2002, acrisis broke out with Spain over a small, uninhabited island lying just less than 200 meters from the Moroccan coast, namedToura or Leila by Moroccans and Perejil by Spain. After mediation by the United States, both Morocco and Spain agreed to return to the status quo, under which the island remains deserted.[199][200]
In May 2003, Islamistsuicide bombers simultaneouslystruck a series of sites in Casablanca, killing 45 and injuring more than 100 others.[201][202] The Moroccan government responded with a crackdown against Islamist extremists, ultimately arresting several thousand, prosecuting 1,200, and sentencing about 900. Additional arrests followed in June 2004. That same month, the United States designated Morocco a major non-North Atlantic Treaty Organization ally, stating that it was in recognition of its efforts to thwart international terrorism.[203][204] In May 2005, theSecond Sahrawi Intifada took place.[205][206] On 1 January 2006, a comprehensive bilateralfree trade agreement between the United States and Morocco took effect.[165] The agreement had been signed in 2004 along with a similar agreement with theEuropean Union, Morocco's main trade partner.[207]
In February 2011,thousands of people rallied in Rabat and other cities calling for political reform and a new constitution curbing the powers of the king.[208] Two months later, abombing in Marrakesh occurred, killing 17 people – mainly foreigners.[209][210][211] It was the deadliest attack in Morocco in eight years. TheMaghrebi arm of al-Qaeda denied involvement.[212][213] In July 2011 King Mohammed introduced aconstitutional referendum proposed in order to placate "Arab Spring" protests.[214] In article 5 of the 2011 constitution,Amazigh was recognized as an official language.[215][216]
In October 2016, large-scale protests erupted after a fish seller inal-Hoceima was crushed to death in a rubbish truck as he tried to retrieve fish confiscated by police. The protests became known as theHirak Rif Movement.[217][218] The2016 election witnessed the victory of theJustice and Development Party (PJD), attaining a plurality of seats for a second consecutive time.[219] On 30 January 2017, Morocco rejoined theAfrican Union as a member state, 33 years after leaving.[220][221][222] The2018 consumer boycott targeted the market-dominating fuel, bottled water, and dairy brands.[223]
TheCOVID-19 pandemic in Morocco was first confirmed on 2 March 2020.[224][225] Eight days later, on 10 March 2020, Morocco recorded its first COVID-19-related death.[226] On 10 December 2020, PresidentDonald Trump announced that the United States would officially recognize Morocco's claims over Western Sahara as part of theIsrael–Morocco normalization agreement,[227][228] which saw Morocco reestablishing diplomatic relations with Israel.[229] A joint declaration between the three countries was signed on 22 December 2020.[230]
On 17 May 2021,an incident occurred between the borders of Spain and Morocco, part of a diplomatic crisis between both nations.[231][232][233] On 24 August 2021, neighbouring Algeria cut diplomatic relations with Morocco, accusing Morocco of supporting a separatist group and "hostile actions against Algeria". Morocco called the decision "unjustified".[234]
The2021 election was held on 8 September 2021, which witnessed anelectoral wipeout of the PJD, having lost more than 90% of its seats and ending in eighth place.[235][236] TheNational Rally of Independents won a plurality of seats in the elections, andAziz Akhannouch was later named the 17thPrime Minister of Morocco.[237] On 24 June 2022,a migration incident occurred resulting in the deaths of 23 migrants.[238][239]
On 3 May 2023, King Mohammed VI declaredAmazigh New Year as an official national holiday to be celebrated yearly.[240][241]
On 8 September 2023, a 6.8 magnitudeearthquake hit Morocco killing more than 2,800 people and injuring thousands. Theepicentre of the quake was around 70 km southwest of the city ofMarrakech.[242]
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