The fourth stanza of the U.S. national anthem "The Star-Spangled Banner", adopted from the 1814 poem "The Defence of Fort M'Henry", contains the line: "And this be our motto—"In God is our trust"". The origins of "In God We Trust" as a political motto lie in theAmerican Civil War, whereUnion supporters wanted to emphasize their attachment toGod and to boost morale.[7] The capitalized form "IN GOD WE TRUST" first appeared on thetwo-cent piece in 1864 and initially only appeared on coins, but it gradually became accepted among Americans.[8] Much wider adoption followed in the 1950s. The first postage stamps with the motto appeared in 1954. A law passed in July 1955 by ajoint resolution of the84th Congress (Pub. L.84–140) and approved by PresidentDwight Eisenhower requires that "In God We Trust" appear on allAmerican currency. This law was first implemented on the updated one-dollarsilver certificate that entered circulation on October 1, 1957.[8] The 84th Congress later passed legislation (Pub. L.84–851), also signed by President Eisenhower on July 30, 1956, declaring the phrase to be the national motto.[8][a] Several states have also mandated or authorized its use in public institutions or schools;[9][10] whileFlorida,Georgia andMississippi have incorporated the phrase in some of their state symbols. The motto has also been used in some cases in other countries, most notably onNicaragua's coins.[11]
The motto remains popular among the American public, as most polls indicate. Some groups and people in the United States, however, have objected to its use, contending that its religious reference violates theEstablishment Clause of theFirst Amendment.[12] These groups believe the phrase should be removed from currency and public property, which has resulted in numerous lawsuits. This argument has not overcome the interpretational doctrine ofaccommodationism and the notion of "ceremonial deism". The former allows the government to endorse religious establishments as long as they are all treated equally, while the latter states that a repetitious invocation of a religious entity in ceremonial matters strips the phrase of its original religious connotation.[13] TheNew Hampshire Supreme Court, as well as theSecond,Fourth,Fifth,Sixth,Eighth,Ninth, andTenth Circuits, have all upheld the constitutionality of the motto in various settings. TheSupreme Court has discussed the motto in footnotes but has never directly ruled on its compliance with theU.S. constitution.[14]
The precise phrase, "In God We Trust" is also found in a publication ofIsaac Watts'Psalter which was revised and printed in the United States in 1785. Watts had translatedPsalm 115:9–11 with the words, "Britain, trust the Lord." An American publisher, Joel Barlow, sought to revise Watts' Psalter for an American audience. Barlow's goal was to modify Watts in such a way as to purge the un-American flavor. Barlow simply translated Psalm 115: 9–11 with the words "In God we Trust."[19]
Salmon P. Chase,Treasury Secretary, scribes "In God is Our Trust," scratches out "is Our" and overwrites "We" to arrive at "In God We Trust" in a December 9, 1863, letter toJames Pollock, Director of the Philadelphia Mint.[20][21]
Manuscript copy of Key's 1814 poem "Defence of Fort M'Henry" (better known today as "The Star-Spangled Banner") in which one line of the fourth verse reads, "And this be our motto-"In God is our trust,"" (enclosed section)
There were several other unrelated recordings of the motto. It can be encountered in some literary works of the early 19th century.[22] One of them, "Defence of Fort M'Henry", contained a version of the motto and subsequently became thenational anthem of the United States. It also appeared in 1845, when D.S. Whitney published ananti-slavery hymn inThe Liberator.[23][24]Odd Fellows have also used the phrase as their motto from the 1840s at least into the 1870s.[7][24][25]
In a letter dated November 13, 1861, Rev. Mark R. Watkinson of Ridleyville, Pennsylvania (pastor of the Prospect Hill Baptist Church in present-dayProspect Park), petitioned theTreasury Department to add a statement recognizing "Almighty God in some form on our coins" in order to "relieve us from the ignominy of heathenism".[8][26][27] At least part of the motivation was to declare that God was on the Union side of theCivil War,[7][8] given that theConfederacy's constitution, unlike the Union's, invoked God.[b] This sentiment was shared by other citizens who supported such inclusion in their letters.[28] Indeed, the125th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment of theUnion Army assumed the motto "In God we trust" in early August 1862.[29]
In the South, the phrase has also gained significant traction. A Confederatebunting with "In God We Trust" printed in the center, dated to late 1861 or early 1862 and attributed to the37th Arkansas Infantry Regiment, was probably captured by the33rd Iowa Infantry Regiment at theBattle of Helena and is currently in possession of theIowa Historical Society.[30][31] Another flag with exactly the same motto, this time of the60th Tennessee Infantry Regiment, was captured in the course of theBattle of Big Black River Bridge.[32] Additionally, in 1864,Harper's Weekly reported that theUnion Navy had captured a flag whose motto said: "Our cause is just, our duty we know; In God we trust, to battle we go."[33] Other Confederate symbols included close paraphrasing of the motto, such as the banner of theApalachicola Guard of Florida (In God is our trust)[34] and "The Star-Spangled Cross and the Pure Field of White", a popular song in the Southern military whose refrain contains the following passage: "Our trust is in God, who can help us in fight, And defend those who ask Him in prayer."[35]
President Abraham Lincoln'sTreasury Secretary,Salmon P. Chase, a lifelong evangelicalEpiscopalian who was known for his public shows of piety,[7][36] acted swiftly on the proposal to include a motto referring to God and directed the then-PhiladelphiaDirector of the Mint and member of theNational Reform Association,James Pollock, to begin drawing up possible designs that would include the religious phrase.[26] Chase chose his favorite designs and presented a proposal to the Congress for the new designs in late 1863. He then decided on the final version of the new motto, "In God We Trust," in December 1863.[37]Walter H. Breen, anumismatist, wrote that Chase drew inspiration from the motto ofBrown University ofProvidence, Rhode Island,In Deo speramus, which isLatin for a similarly sounding "In God we hope".[38] President Lincoln's degree of involvement in the process of the motto's approval is unclear, though he was aware of such talks.[c]
As Chase was preparing his recommendation to Congress, it was found that the federal legislature passed a bill on January 18, 1837, which determined the mottos and devices that should be stamped on U.S. coins. This meant that enactment of some additional legislation was necessary before "In God We Trust" could be engraved. Such bill was introduced and passed as theCoinage Act of 1864 on April 22, 1864, allowing the Secretary of the Treasury to authorize the inclusion of the phrase on one-cent and two-cent coins.[8]
On March 3, 1865, the U.S. Congress passed a bill, which Lincoln subsequently signed as the last act of Congress prior to hisassassination,[24] that allowed the Mint Director to place "In God We Trust" on all gold and silver coins that "shall admit the inscription thereon", subject to the Secretary's approval.[8][39] In 1873, Congress passed another Coinage Act, granting the Secretary of the Treasury the right to "cause the motto IN GOD WE TRUST to be inscribed on such coins as shall admit of such motto".[40]
In God We Trust (or, rarely, its variation, God We Trust) first appeared on2¢ coins, which were first minted in 1863 and went into mass circulation the following year.[41] According to David W. Lange, a numismatist, the inclusion of the motto on a coin was a major driver for the popularisation of the slogan.[42] Other coins, that is,nickels,quarter dollars,half dollars,half eagles andeagles, have had In God We Trust engraved from 1866 on.[43] Dollar coins got the motto in 1873 fortrade dollars and 1878 for common circulationMorgan dollars.[43] However, there was no obligation for the motto to be used, so some denominations still didn't have it. Others, such as nickels, have seen the phrase disappear after aredesign, so that by the late 19th century, most of the coins did not bear the motto.[44] Finally, in 1892, an oversight caused the Coinage Act to lose the language which mandated inclusion of the phrase.[45]
"IN GOD WE TRUST" first appeared on the obverse side of theTwo-cent piece in 1864.[8]$20 interest-bearing note from 1864; "in god is our trust" appears on the bottom-right shield.The reverse of theMorgan dollar presented the lower-cased "In God we trust".
Saint-Gaudens double eagle ("high relief" version), subject of public outcry in 1907 due to the lack of "In God we Trust" on the coin
Version with the national motto, 1908
Banknotes did not have formal authorization, or mandate, to have "In God We Trust" engraved until 1955. However, a version of the motto (In God Is Our Trust) first made a brief appearance on the obverse side of the 1864 $20interest-bearing andcompound interest treasury notes, along with the motto "God and our Right".[46][47]
The initial reaction of the general populace was far from unanimous approval. On the one hand, Christian newspapers were generally happy with the phrase being included in coins, though some advocated for more religiously connoted mottos, such as "In Godalone is our trust" or "God our Christ".[24] On the other, non-religious press was less impressed by the developments.The New York Times editorial board asked to "let us try to carry our religion—such as it is—in our hearts, and not in our pockets" and criticized theMint for including the motto only on golden and larger silver coins.[48]New York Illustrated News ridiculed the new coins for marking "the first time that God has ever been recognized on any of our counters ofMammon,"[24] with a similar comparison made by theDetroit Free Press.[7] The different opinions on its inclusion eventually grew into a dispute between secularists and faith congregations.[7] Others still started to make jokes of "In God We Trust". TheAmerican Journal of Numismatics suggested that people would misread the motto as "InGold we Trust", which they said was "much nearer the fact".[49] Newspapers also started reporting on puns made of the slogan. Already in 1860s, newspapers reported signs reading "In God we Trust – terms cash," "In God we trust. All others are expected to pay cash" and the like.[16][50]
The phrase, however, gradually became a symbol of national pride. Just six years after it first appeared on coins, theSan Francisco Chronicle called it "our nation's motto"; similarly, groups as diverse asprohibitionists andsuffragists,pacifists andnativists,Democrats andRepublicans,Christians andJews all adopted the motto or endorsed its usage by the end of the 19th century.[7] The motto stayed popular even as fewer denominations had "In God We Trust" embossed on coins.[24]
In 1904, PresidentTheodore Roosevelt sought to beautify American coinage and decided to give the task to his friend,Augustus Saint-Gaudens,[38] who, after several delays and technical issues with his design, produced a new design foreagles anddouble eagles. Roosevelt specifically instructed Saint-Gaudens not to include "In God We Trust" on the coins, as the President feared that these coins would be used to further ungodly activities, such as gambling, and facilitate crime.[38][51] Saint-Gaudens did not oppose the order, as he thought that the phrase would distract from the coin's design features.[51]
The coin, whose ultra-high relief version is now considered one of the most beautiful coins ever struck in the U.S.,[51][52] was indeed appreciated for its esthetics by art critics.[53] However, a scandal immediately erupted over the lack of "In God We Trust" on the eagles and double eagles.[54][55] Theodore Roosevelt insisted that while he was in favor of placing the motto on public buildings and monuments, doing so for money (orpostage stamps and advertisements) would be "dangerously close tosacrilege":[37]
"My own feeling in the matter is due to my very firm conviction that to put such a motto on coins, or to use it in any kindred manner, not only does no good, but does positive harm, and is in effect irreverence, which comes dangerously close to sacrilege. ... Any use which tends to cheapen it, and, above all, any use which tends to secure its being treated in a spirit of levity, is from every standpoint profoundly to be regretted. ... it seems to me eminently unwise to cheapen such a motto by use on coins ... In all my life I have never heard any human being speak reverently of this motto on the coins or show any signs of its having appealed to any high emotion in him, but I have literally, hundreds of times, heard it used as an occasion of and incitement to ... sneering ... Every one must remember the innumerable cartoons and articles based on phrases like 'In God we trust for the 8 cents,' ... Surely, I am well within bounds when I say that a use of the phrase which invites constant levity of this type is most undesirable."
— President Theodore Roosevelt, 13 November 1907[56]
Press response was largely negative. Most news outlets affiliated with Christian organisations, as well asThe Wall Street Journal,The Philadelphia Press and other newspapers were critical of the decision, with accusations amounting to the President being guilty of premeditated assault on religion and disregard for Americans' religious sentiments.[53]Atlanta Constitution wrote that people were to choose between "God and Roosevelt", whileThe New York Sun published a poem mocking Roosevelt's attitude.[37] In contrast,The New York Times,Chicago Tribune, and some religious newspapers such asThe Churchman, sided with the President,[7][53] who was both stunned and irritated by people's opposition to excluding the motto. This prompted debate in Congress, which quickly decided to reinstate the motto on the coins in an act adopted in 1908. As a result of controversy, relevant design changes were subsequently introduced by the Mint Chief Engraver,Charles E. Barber.[45]
Other coins have also retained or renewed the usage of the motto. All gold coins and silver $1 coins,half dollars andquarters have had the motto engraved since July 1, 1908;pennies followed in 1909 anddimes in 1916.[8] Since 1938, all U.S. coins have borne the "In God We Trust" inscription on them.[8]
8¢ postage stamp from 1954, with the motto inscribed around theStatue of Liberty's head. At the time, eight cents was the standard rate for international postage. A 3¢ (domestic mail rate) stamp with a similar design was also issued.
It is generally thought that during theCold War era, the government of the United States sought to distinguish itself from theSoviet Union, which promotedstate atheism and thus implementedantireligious legislation,[57] therefore, a debate for further usage of religious motto was started in Congress.Kevin M. Kruse offers an alternative explanation. In his book, he argues thatconservative opposition to theNew Deal, and those politicians' subsequent successful campaigns to expand the influence of religion, were the main factors that contributed to further adoption of "In God We Trust".[58]
TheEisenhower administration struck a deeply religious tone, which proved a fertile ground for lobbying for inclusion of the motto in more contexts.[59] This is often attributed to the influence ofBilly Graham, a prominent evangelist of the time.[60] After intense public pressure for inclusion of the national motto, it appeared for the first time on some postage stamps of the 1954Liberty Issue,[61][62][63] though lobbying for universal inclusion byMichigan SenatorCharles E. Potter and RepresentativeLouis C. Rabaut failed.[59]
On July 11, 1955, the bill, having passed with bipartisan support of both chambers of Congress, was signed into law by PresidentEisenhower.[68][69] Since all coins already complied with the law, the only changes were made to the paper currency. The motto first appeared on the $1silver certificate in 1957, followed by other certificates.Federal Reserve Notes andUnited States Notes[70] were circulated with the motto starting from 1964 to 1966, depending on the denomination.[8][71][72][d]
Adoption and display by government institutions in the United States
On July 30, 1956, the84th Congress passed a joint resolution "declaring 'IN GOD WE TRUST' the national motto of the United States", which is codified under36 U.S.C.§ 302.[73] The resolution passed both theHouse and theSenate unanimously and without debate.[74][75][e]E pluribus unum previously existed as ade facto official motto.[6] The congressional resolution was reaffirmed in 2006, on the 50th anniversary of its adoption, by the Senate,[76] and in 2011 by the House of Representatives, in a 396 to 9 vote.[77][78] In 2000, the House additionally encouraged to publicly display the motto.[79][80]
In December 1962, the motto was carved above the rostrum of theSpeaker of the House in response to the backlash against the Supreme Court's decision inEngel v. Vitale, which banned government-authored public school prayers.[81][82]
Georgia's flag features the motto since 2001, which was retained after a redesign two years later.[86]
InMississippi, thestate senate voted to add the words, "In God We Trust" to thestate seal, justifying it as an effort to protect religious freedom. The change was made effective on July 1, 2014.[87][88] Six years later, Mississippi GovernorTate Reeves signed into law a bill requiring that thestate's flag, which had contained theConfederate battle emblem, be replaced with a new one containing the phrase "In God We Trust."[89] A new flag containing the motto wasapproved by voters in a referendum, and it became the official state flag in January 2021.[90]
On April 28, 2023, GovernorBill Lee of Tennessee signed a bill that would require him to submit a newstate seal design which includes the national motto. Thesecretary of state should receive the proposal by July 1, 2025.[91]
A map of U.S. states with display of the national motto in public schools and government buildings as of April 2025
Display in schools mandated
Display in at least some government buildings mandated
Display in schools mandated if a copy of the motto is donated
Display in schools allowed
Display in government buildings allowed
Note. Florida, Georgia and Mississippi use the national motto in state symbols, therefore the display of In God We Trust as it appears on state symbols is regulated by laws governing their usage.
Arkansas: In March 2017, Act 911, sponsored by state RepresentativeJim Dotson, made it a requirement of Arkansas state law for public schools to display posters with the national motto, if these were donated.[92][93] In 2019, the law was later amended to require public display of the national motto in public schools, higher education institutions and state government buildings, if funds are available for that purpose.[10]
Idaho: House Concurrent Resolution 32, adopted in March 2020, mandates that the national motto be placed over the chairs of presiding officers of both chambers ofIdaho Legislature.[98]
Kentucky: In 2014, a law was passed that obliged display of the national motto in legislative buildings and in committees.[99] In June 2019, a bill sponsored by state representativeBrandon Reed ofHodgenville was passed that required Kentucky public schools to display the motto in a prominent location, beginning from the 2019–20 school year.[100][101] To protest the requirement,Fayette County Public Schools, a school district which servesLexington, complied by posting framedone-dollar bills, which bear the slogan,[101][102] while inLaRue County, of which Hodgenville is seat, schools were using oversized images ofpennies.[101]
Louisiana: A bill requiring public display of the motto in public schools was introduced by state senatorRegina Ashford Barrow in March 2018. It was passed unanimously both in theSenate (33 to 0) and in theHouse (93 to 0)[103] and signed into law by GovernorJohn Bel Edwards in May that year.[104][105] The bill also mandated school instruction about "In God We Trust" as part of the social studies curriculum.[103][106] In August 2023, another law required the motto to be hung in each classroom.[107]
Mississippi: In March 2001, GovernorRonnie Musgrove signed legislation requiring the motto "In God We Trust" to be displayed in everypublic school classroom, as well as the school auditoriums and cafeterias, throughout the state.[108]
Ohio: Ohio requires public schools to hang material featuring the motto if school districts receive it as donation, or if money is donated with the stated purpose of buying such materials.[10][109]
South Dakota: In March 2019, South Dakota required public schools to prominently display "In God We Trust" motto on their walls, starting from the 2019–20 school year.[110][111][112]
Tennessee: In March 2018, a bill sponsored by state representativeSusan Lynn, which requires Tennessee schools to prominently display "In God We Trust" passed the stateHouse 81-18.[113] After being approved unanimously in theSenate, it was signed by GovernorBill Haslam into law the following month.[114]
Texas: Texas allowed display of the motto in public schools and higher education institutions since 2003.[9][115] TheTexas Legislature then passed a bill in 2021 to mandate donated copies of the motto to be hung in a "conspicuous place" in a collage that should, aside from the motto, also include theUnited States flag and theTexas flag, but nothing more.[116][117] Two years later, another bill prohibited anyone from denying the possibility to hang such mottos.[117]
Virginia: A regulation that obliges all Virginia schools to publicly display the motto was signed into law in May 2002.[118][119]
Utah: Utah's law that obliges schools to publicly display "In God We Trust" was signed into law in March 2002 by GovernorMike Leavitt.[120] The law also mandates school instruction about the motto.[121]
West Virginia: Senate Bill 280 mandates display of the national motto in all educational establishments in the state; the motto must be displayed in a frame with the United States flag only. The bill was signed into law on April 29, 2025 byPatrick Morrisey.[122]
North Dakota: North Dakota statute allows display of the national motto in public schools.[10]
Oklahoma: A bill was passed in 2004 that allowed public schools to display "In God We Trust" andE pluribus unum in classrooms, auditoriums and cafeterias;[129] a 2018Senate bill to mandate such display died in theHouse.[130]
South Carolina: South Carolina allows political subdivisions and schools to post a display detailing the foundations of the American law and government, of which the national motto is one of thirteen documents, while providing context to these documents in terms detailed by the state statute.[131]
Several local governments have introduced the display of the motto in government buildings and municipal cars.[132][133][134] School boards have also seen voluntary introduction of the motto, particularly after theSeptember 11 attacks, when theAmerican Family Association supplied several 11-by-14-inch posters to school systems and vowed to defend any legal challenges to their display.[135]
InJudaism andChristianity, the official motto "In God We Trust" is not foundverbatim in any verses from theBible, but the phrase is translated in similar terms inPsalm 91:2,[f] in theOld Testament ("I will say of the LORD,He is my refuge and my fortress: my God; in him will I trust") and in theNew Testament in2 Corinthians 1:10 ("Who delivered us from so great a death, and doth deliver: in whom we trust that he will yet deliverus.") The concept is paraphrased inPsalm 118:8,Psalm 40:3,Psalm 73:28, andProverbs 29:25.[137] According toPhilip Jenkins, a historian of religion, some Bible translations rendered Psalm 56:11 as "In God I trust; I will not fear",[138] which could lead to substitution of the first "I" for "we".[18]
InIslam the word for the concept of reliance on God is calledTawakkul; "In God We Trust" is theverbatim translation of the phraseعَلَى ٱللَّهِ تَوَكَّلْنَا that appears in two places of theQuran, insurahYunus (10:85), as well assurahAl-A'raf (7:89), and several other verses reinforce this concept.[139] Melkote Ramaswamy, a Hindu American scholar, writes that the presence of the phrase "In God We Trust" on American currency is a reminder that "there is God everywhere, whether we are conscious or not."[140]
"In God We Trust" optionallicense plate of South Carolina, designed in 2002Mississippi former standard plate design, approved in 2019.[141] "IN GOD WE TRUST" can be seen at the bottom of the state seal.
As of May 25, 2021, the following U.S. states currently offer an "In God We Trust" license plate (vanity and standard issues):Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado,[142] Florida, Georgia, Indiana,Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana,North Carolina, Ohio,[143]Oklahoma,Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia,West Virginia, andWisconsin.[144][145]
Among the states that use the motto in standard issues, theMississippi's standard plate will feature the motto as displayed on itsstate seal until the end of 2023, when it will change to the design that does not contain the motto.[146]Utah offers a standard option license plate with a seal.[147] Florida, which also offers a specialty plate, has an option to place "In God We Trust" instead of theofficial state nickname orcounty name;[148] Georgia also provides for such an option,[149] while North Carolina offers an option with North Carolina's state motto and "In God We Trust" instead of "First in Flight" or "First in Freedom".[150] In Tennessee, the 2022 issue license plates have two versions: with and without the national motto.[151] As of March 2023, about 60% of the state's license tags feature "In God We Trust", but this falls to 21% inDavidson County, which includes the state capital,Nashville.[152]
According to a 2003 joint poll byUSA Today,CNN, andGallup, 90% of Americans support the inscription "In God We Trust" on U.S. coins.[153]MSNBC launched a similar live survey online that ran for several years in the late 2000s and yielded overwhelming opposition to the removal of the motto.[154] Additionally, a 2024 poll by RealClearPolitics found that only 17% of Americans want "In God We Trust" removed from currency. However, a student poll in 2019 byCollege Pulse made forThe College Fix showed that just over a half of students supports inclusion of the national motto in currency, with two-thirds of those who recognised themselves as Democrats opposing and 94% of Republicans in favor of the measure.[155]
Proponents have extensively argued for inclusion of the national motto in more settings, grounding it in the traditional invocations of God that they say have now become an element of a civil religion and should express the will of thefounders, who believed in God.[7][80][162][163] Opponents, on the other hand, argue that not only does the motto violate the secular character of the United States, but it also predefines the type and number of gods (if any) to be trusted.[164][157][165]
The constitutionality of the phrase "In God We Trust" has been repeatedly upheld according to the judicial interpretation ofaccommodationism, whose adherents state that this entrenched practice has not historically presented any constitutional difficulty, is not coercive, and does not prefer one religious denomination over another.[166] InZorach v. Clauson (1952), theSupreme Court also wrote that the nation's "institutions presuppose a Supreme Being" and that government recognition ofGod does not constitute the establishment of a state church as theU.S. constitution's authors intended to prohibit.[167] The courts also rely on the notion of "ceremonial deism" (often as defined inBrennan's dissent inLynch v. Donnelly, 1984),[168] i.e. that there exist religious references that, through their repetitious and customary usage, have become secular and are thus constitutional.[169] While opponents of such rulings argue thatJefferson's notion of a "wall of separation between church and state" prohibits any aid, direct or indirect, to any religious institution, and therefore any ruling to the contrary goes counter toFounders' intent, this separationist view has not gained significant ground in judicial settings.[166][170]
Even though not directly related to the motto,Engel v. Vitale (1962) elicited much speculation on the future of "In God We Trust" in public settings. In the ruling, theU.S. Supreme Court struck down aNew York law that encouraged public schools to recite a prayer as written in state law onFirst Amendment grounds. The ruling sparked widespread outrage and was extremely unpopular at the time, even as the judges' decision was near-unanimous.[171] Almost 4/5 of Americans disapproved of the ruling, according to a Gallup poll.[172] Congressmen were afraid that "In God We Trust" would have to disappear from coins and banknotes,[173] the feeling shared by the then president of theAmerican Bar Association, John C. Salterfield.[7] SenatorSam Ervin, a Democrat from North Carolina, went so far as to wonder if God was declared unconstitutional by that decision.[174] Congressmen tried to direct federal funds to buyBibles for the Supreme Court justices and to propose aconstitutional amendment allowingschool prayer (both measures failed).[171] A similar ruling the following year inAbington Township v. Schempp prompted senators to attempt to force the Supreme Court to hang the national motto in the courtroom, which also did not succeed.[7]
Even though the Supreme Court has never ruled directly on the constitutionality of "In God We Trust",[14] severalappellate federal courts and some state courts have, and the Supreme Court itself did not seem to have any problem with the phrase being inscribed on coins and banknotes.[43]
Aronow v. United States (1970) was the first case to challenge the inclusion of "In God We Trust" onU.S. currency.[175] The challenged statute ("the inscription 'In God we Trust'...shall appear on all United States currency and coins",31 U.S.C.§ 324a)[175] stood, and theNinth Circuit stated that "its [motto's] use is of patriotic or ceremonial character and bears no true resemblance to a governmental sponsorship of a religious exercise". InO'Hair v. Blumenthal (1978), theU.S. District Court for the Western District of Texas also upheld the law. TheFifth Circuit sustained the ruling in 1979 and found that the "primary purpose of the slogan was secular".[40] The same decision was reached inGaylor v. United States (1996) when it was appealed to theTenth Circuit[176] and inDoe v. United States (2018) in theEighth Circuit.[177]
Michael Newdow then launched a series of lawsuits attempting to outlaw "In God We Trust", with support of the Freedom From Religion Foundation. Newdow was known for his previous caseElk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow (2004), in which the Ninth Circuit issued a ruling removing "under God" from thePledge of Allegiance (the ruling was overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court). A federal judge inCalifornia rejected his reasoning in a June 2006 ruling, as did the Ninth Circuit. The appellate court wrote that the national motto is of a "patriotic or ceremonial character," has "no theological or ritualistic impact," and does not constitute "governmental sponsorship of a religious exercise".[178] A lawsuit filed by Newdow and Freedom from Religion Foundation in 2013 inNew York also failed, both on trial[179] and on appeal to theSecond Circuit;[180] yet another one, filed in Ohio in 2016, was dismissed by theU.S. District Court for the Northern District of Ohio and theSixth Circuit.[181] He also lost the lawsuit inDoe v. United States (2018).[177] The Supreme Court deniedcertiorari on the Ninth[178] and the Eighth Circuit lawsuits.[182]
In 2015,David F. Bauman, aNew Jersey state judge, dismissed a case against theMatawan-Aberdeen Regional School District brought by a student of the district and theAmerican Humanist Association that argued that the phrase "under God" in thePledge of Allegiance created a climate of discrimination because it promoted religion, making non-believers "second-class citizens".[183][184] Bauman noted that "as a matter of historical tradition, the words 'under God' can no more be expunged from the national consciousness than the words 'In God We Trust' from every coin in the land, than the words 'so help me God' from every presidential oath since 1789, or than the prayer that has opened every congressional session of legislative business since 1787."[185]
Additionally, several courts have agreed that "In God We Trust" on public buildings did not violate the Establishment Clause: theNew Hampshire Supreme Court (1967)[186] and theFourth Circuit (2005)[187] did so for public schools, and the same appellate federal court argued the same for a county government office (2005).[188][189]
Even though efforts to remove "In God We Trust" in most settings were largely fruitless, mandatory display of mottos in general on license plates drew some skepticism from the judiciary. InWooley v. Maynard (1977), the Supreme Court struck down aNew Hampshire law mandating that every person carrythe state motto on their license plates. The Supreme Court noted in the case that the state can't force its citizens to "use their private property as a 'mobile billboard' for the State's ideological message". ApplyingWooley inGriggs v. Graham (2023), a federal judge in Mississippi ruled that under theFree Speech Clause, the state may not force individuals to display "In God We Trust" as it appears on the state seal on their license plates (seeabove). The judge suggested that objectors to the statement may deface the part of the license tag containing it even though a Mississippi statute may arguably punish this behavior, but declined to order the state to issue religiously neutral license plates free of charge.[190] In an unrelated development while the ruling was on appeal, Mississippi announced the winner of a design contest for the new standard plate, which did not include the motto.[191] Atheist plaintiffs were satisfied and dropped the lawsuit in May that year.[192]
The Supreme Court never decided a case challenging the constitutionality of "In God we Trust" as a national/state motto on the merits. But inobiter dicta, the majority of the Supreme Court inWooley indicated they would reject the line of argument that the plaintiffs used in that case to declare the presence of the national motto on currency unconstitutional. They argued that unlike license plates, currency was not something that was either associated directly with the owner or made to display.[43][193]
TheSpanish equivalent of "In God We Trust",En Dios Confiamos, is an unofficial motto of theRepublic of Nicaragua. The phrase can be seen on most of Nicaragua's coins.[11] In 2023,Shas, aHaredi religious political party inIsrael, proposed a bill that would order inclusion of "In God we trust" motto onbanknotes, but it died in theKnesset.[194]
^See preamble ofCSA Constitution: ...invoking the favor and guidance of Almighty God...
^According to the Congressional Record (1908,U.S. House of Representatives), p. 3387, the motto was adopted "doubtless with his [Lincoln's] knowledge and approval".
^Disney, David T. (February 1845)."Bro. Disney's Address".The Ark, and Odd Fellows Magazine.2 (2): 20, 184.Archived from the original on 2021-10-15. Retrieved2021-06-19 – viaGoogle Books.
Pennsylvania Infantry. 125th Regiment, 1862–1863 (2009).History Of The One Hundred And Twenty-fifth Regiment, Pennsylvania Volunteers, 1862–1863.Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Library. pp. 150–152.ISBN978-1-112-13570-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^abcBreen, Walter (1988).Walter Breen's Complete Encyclopedia of U.S. and Colonial Coins. New York: Doubleday. pp. 238, 353,572–573.ISBN978-0-385-14207-6.
^Kruse, Kevin M. (2015).One Nation Under God: How Corporate America Invented Christian America. New York:Basic Books. pp. xiv–xv.ISBN978-0-465-04949-3.
^"United States Currency Inscription".Miscellaneous Hearings: Hearings Before ... , 84-1 on H.J.Res. 202 ... , H.R. 3327 ... , H.R. 619 ... 1956. Washington, D.C.: United States Congress House Banking and Currency Committee. 1956. pp. 47–57.Archived from the original on 2021-08-17. Retrieved2021-08-11.
^Miller, Douglas; Marion, Nowak (1977).The Fifties: The Way We Really Were.Doubleday. p. 89.'In God We Trust' was adopted as the national motto in 1956, with neither debate nor a single dissenting vote in the House or Senate.
^Felicia Sonmez (2011-11-01)."Social issues return to fore with 'In God We Trust' resolution".The Washington Post.Archived from the original on 2011-11-04. Retrieved2021-08-09.'In 2006, on the 50th anniversary of its adoption, the Senate reaffirmed 'In God We Trust' as the official national motto of the United States,' Forbes said in a statement announcing the vote. 'Tomorrow, the House of Representatives will have the same opportunity to reaffirm our national motto and directly confront a disturbing trend of inaccuracies and omissions, misunderstandings of church and state, rogue court challenges, and efforts to remove God from the public domain by unelected bureaucrats.'
^Jennifer Steinhauer (2011-11-03)."In God We Trust, With the House's Help".The New York Times.Archived from the original on 2011-11-07. Retrieved2021-08-09.Citing a crisis of national identity and mass confusion among Americans about their nation's motto, the House on Tuesday voted on a resolution 'reaffirming "In God We Trust" as the official motto of the United States.'
^Todd Starnes (2011-11-03)."See Which Congressmen Voted Against 'In God We Trust'".Fox News. Archived fromthe original on 2011-11-04. Retrieved2011-11-07.The House of Representatives passed a bi-partisan resolution Tuesday night reaffirming "In God We Trust" as the official motto of the United States. The 396–9 vote came at the request of Rep. Randy Forbes (R-VA).
^"4503.763 Ohio Battleflag license plates".Ohio Administrative Code. Lawriter LLC.Archived from the original on 2018-05-30. Retrieved2018-05-29.Ohio Battleflag" license plates shall be inscribed with the words "In God We Trust
^"USA Today/CNN/Gallup Poll results".USA Today. 2011.Archived from the original on 2022-01-08. Retrieved2011-11-15.C. The inscription 'In God We Trust' on U.S. coins; 2003 Sep 19–21; Approve 90; Disapprove 8; No opinion 2
^abRichard H. Fallon (2004).The Dynamic Constitution: an Introduction to Americans Constitutional Law.Cambridge University Press. p. 60.ISBN978-0-521-60078-1.Archived from the original on 2016-11-18. Retrieved2016-09-24.'Strict separationists' believe that the government has no business supporting religious beliefs or institutions in any way – for example, by providing tax breaks to churches, assisting parochial schools, including prayers or benedictions in public ceremonies, or inscribing "In God We Trust" on the currency. Religious accommodationists can well explain why certain entrenched social practices (such as the inscription of "In God We Trust" on the currency) were not historically perceived as presenting constitutional difficulties: The relevant practices are not coercive and do not prefer one narrow sect over another.
^ABA Journal Sep 1962. 1962.Archived from the original on November 19, 2016. Retrieved2016-09-24.Much more recently, in 1952, speaking through Mr. Justice Douglas inZorach v. Clauson, 343 U.S. 306, 313, the Supreme Court repeated the same sentiments, saying: We are a religious people whose institutions presuppose a Supreme Being. Mr. Justice Brewer in theHoly Trinity case,supra, mentioned many of these evidences of religion, and Mr. Justice Douglas in theZorach case referred to ... [P]rayers in our legislative halls; the appeals to the Almighty in the messages of the Chief Executive; the proclamation making Thanksgiving Day a holiday; "So help me God" in our courtroom oaths – these and ... other references to the Almighty ... run through our laws, our public rituals, our ceremonies ... the supplication with which the Court opens each session: "God save the United States and this Honorable Court" (312–313). To this list may be added tax exemption of churches, chaplaincies in the armed forces, the "Pray for Peace" postmark, the widespread observance of Christmas holidays, and, in classrooms, singing the fourth stanza ofAmerica which is prayer invoking the protection of God, and the words "in God is our trust" as found in the National Anthem, and the reciting of the Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag, modified by an Act of Congress of June 14, 1954, to include the words "under God.
^Merriam, Jesse; Lupu, Ira; Elwood, F.; Davis, Eleanor; Tuttle, Robert; R., David; Kirschner, Sherry (2008-08-28)."On Ceremonial Occasions, May the Government Invoke a Deity?".Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project.Archived from the original on 2021-06-02. Retrieved2021-05-31.
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