Illyrian religion refers to the religious beliefs and practices of theIllyrian peoples, a group of tribes who spoke theIllyrian languages and inhabited part of the westernBalkan Peninsula from at least the 8th century BC until the 7th century AD.[1][2] The available written sources are very tenuous. They consist largely of personal and place names, and a fewglosses from Classical sources.[3]
Still insufficiently studied, the most numerous traces ofreligious practices of the pre-Roman era are those relating toreligious symbolism. Symbols are depicted in every variety of ornament and reveal that the chief object of the prehistoric cult of the Illyrians was theSun,[4][5] worshipped in a widespread and complex religious system.[6] The Illyrian Sun-deity is figuratively represented on Iron Age plaques as the god of thesky andlightning, also associated with thefire altar where he throws lightning bolts.[7] Illyrian deities were mentioned in inscriptions onstatues,monuments, andcoins of theRoman period, and someinterpreted by Ancient writers throughcomparative religion.[8][3] To these can be added a larger body of inscriptions from the south-easternItalian region ofApulia written in theMessapic language, which is generally considered to be related toIllyrian,[3][9][2][10] although this has been debated as mostly speculative.[11] There appears to be no single most prominent god for all theIllyrian tribes, and a number of deities evidently appear only in specific regions.[8]
Aspagans, Illyrians believed insupernatural powers and they attributed to the deities qualities that were reflected ineveryday life,health anddisease,natural abundance andnatural disaster.[12] A number of Illyriantoponyms andanthroponyms derived from animal names and reflected the beliefs in animals asmythological ancestors and protectors.[13] Theserpent was one of the most important animaltotems.[14] Illyrians believed in the force ofspells and theevil eye, in the magic power of protective and beneficialamulets which could avert the evil eye or the bad intentions of enemies.[15][8] The rich spectrum in religious beliefs and burial rituals that emerged in Illyria, especially during the Roman period, may reflect the variation in cultural identities in this region.[16]
Certain aspects of the deities and beliefs of the Illyrians stem ultimately fromProto-Indo-European mythology.[3] Alongside theThracian andDacian beliefs, it constitutes part ofPaleo-Balkan mythologies.[17]Albanians preserved traces of Illyrian religious symbolism,[18][19] and ancient Illyrian religion is one of the underlying sources from whichAlbanian folk beliefs have drawn nourishment.[20][21] One can also find several traces of Illyrian cults in the religious and superstitious beliefs among southSlavic peoples today.[22]
Cults from theNeolithic tradition—especially those that were associated with the fertility of the earth and with agriculture in general—continued to be practised throughout theBronze Age and at the beginning of theIron Age in the Western Balkans. Those traditions included the cult of theEarth Mother, the cult of thesun, and the cult of theserpent.[23][24] During the early Iron Age, the Illyrian art wasgeometric and non-representational, with the combination ofconcentric circles,rhomboids,triangles and brokenlines.[25] It was a severe type of art devoid of fantasy, intended forfarmers andcattle breeders orwarriors.[26] The absence of figured ornament may reflect an apparent lack ofanthropomorphic cults during the early Iron Age.[27] The geometric art of the period, which reached its climax in the 8th century BC, seems to be the only common feature between the different Illyrian areas,[28] as artistic ornaments found after the 6th century BC rather show an outside influence, mainly fromarchaic Greece andEtruscan Italy.[29]
Archaeological evidence demonstrate the existence of two maincults based upon two roughly defined geographic criteria: the cult of theserpent appears to have occurred principally in the southern regions ofIllyria, while thewaterfowl andsolar symbols predominated in the north.[30] The serpent as the symbol offertility, protector of thehearth and achthonic animal, could also be connected with the cult of the sun.[15]
Many of the symbols found throughout Illyria were associated with theSun, suggesting that theSun worship was a cult common to Illyrian tribes.[32] Early figurative evidence of the celestial cult inIllyria is provided by 6th century BCE plaques fromLake Shkodra, which belonged to theIllyrian tribal area of what was referred in historical sources to as theLabeatae in later times. Each of those plaques portray simultaneously sacred representations of the sky and the sun, and symbolism of lightning and fire, as well as thesacred tree and birds (eagles). In those plaques there is a mythological representation of the celestial deity: the Sun deity animated with a face and two wings, throwing lightning bolts into a fire altar, which in some plaques is held by two men (sometimes on two boats).[7]
The solar deity was often depicted by Illyrians as ananimal figure, the likes of thebirds,serpents andhorses, or representedgeometrically as aspiral, a concentriccircle or aswastika. The latter, moving clockwise (卍), portrayed the solar movement.[32] Several bronze pendants widespread in the region have the shape ofsolar symbols such as a simple disk without rays, with four rays which form a cross, and with more rays. There are pendants that have more circles placed concentrically from the center to the periphery.[33]Maximus of Tyre (2nd century AD) reported that thePaeonians worshipped the sun in the form of a small round disk fixed on the top of a pole.[34] The sun-disk fixed on the top of a pole is also depicted in thecoins of the Illyrian city ofDamastion.[35] Among theLiburnians and theVeneti, the sun-disk is depicted as a sun-boat borne across the firmament.[12]
Waterfowl are among the most frequent solar symbols of the Illyrians, especially in the north. A great number of pendants with waterfowl shapes have been found in theGlasinac plateau, in the regions of theJapodes inLika, inLiburnia and in the Illyrian regions of present-dayAlbania andNorth Macedonia.[35] AtNoricum were found two Illyrian temples with sacrificialaltars associated with the sun-cult and erected on mountain peaks.[36] Evidence of a widespread cult of the sun amongThracians suggests a commonancient Balkan religious practice.[36] Archaeological findings have shown that Illyrians and Thracians practicedritual sacrifices to the sun in roundtemples built in high places.[36] Among Illyrians, thedeer was an important sun symbol as it was considered a mainsacrificial animal offered to the Sun.[15]
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Remnants of the cult of the sun have been preserved among theAlbanians until the 20th century in agricultural and livestock cults, in craftsmanship, in calendarrituals, in the oral folk traditions and in art, and in some forms they still continue today (seeDielli). The solar deity was worshipped in the family life cycle, in the cult of hearth and fire, of water and the mountains; inoath swearing but also as a source of livelihood, of health and fertility, or simply as a useful protective object.[38] A significant element of the sun-worship are the "fires of the year" (zjarret e vitit).Bonfires take place in Albania on the peaks of mountains, on hills and near homes, onSummer Day (beginning of March) or on June 24, sometimes in July, August or December 24.[38] In theAlbanian Songs of the Frontier Warriors, different events are influenced by the sun. The "Mountains of the Sun" (Bjeshkët e Diellit) are the places where the heroes (Kreshnikët) operate.[38] The sun symbols are found inAlbania in many decorative ornaments,[36] and until the 20th century, the cult of the sun was displayed ontattoos practiced among Albanians (Albanian traditional tattooing) andCatholics in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[39]
The serpent cult was widespread among Illyrians,[14] especially in the south.[40] The image of theserpent was a symbol ofpotency andfertility,[41] and the protector of the domestic hearth.[14][24] This mystic animal was connected with thecult of the ancestors and with the magical–religious complex of the fertility of the earth and of the woman.[14] The Illyrian cult of the serpent is documented in ancient sources. An example is themythological legend ofCadmus and his wifeHarmonia, who, having come to the Illyrians and died in their homeland, continued to live after their death in the form of serpents. Their sonIllyrios, the eponymous hero of theIllyrian lineage, also had the form of a serpent, and as such he can be considered as the supremetotem of the Illyrians.[14][42]
The importance of the serpent in the symbolic and religious system of the Illyrians is reflected in numerous archaeological discoveries in their settlements andnecropolises, especially inAlbania,Bosnia and Herzegovina,North Macedonia andSerbia.[14] The serpent was used as a common terminal ornament for decorative items.[8] A 3rd century BCsilvered bronze belt buckle found inside theIllyrian Tombs of Selça e Poshtme near theLake Ohrid shows a scene of warriors and horsemen in combat, with a giant serpent as a protectortotem of one of the horsemen;[43] a very similar belt was found also in the necropolis of Gostilj near theLake Scutari.[14] A Roman era statue of a local goddess of abundance was found in the locality ofQesarat; the goddess holds in her left hand a basket around which a snake is twisted.Figureheads of serpents appear on the ships depicted onLabeatancoins, which were found in the town of Çinamak, nearKukës. Other representations of the serpent are found in the Greek-Illyrian coins ofByllis,Apollonia,Dyrrhachion,Olympe andAmantia.[14] InDardania andDalmatia there were dedicated altars to the serpentine pairDracon andDracaena/Dracontilla.[8][44] In later times, the serpent was considered an obstacle to theChristian spiritual life.[8]
The cult of the serpent has survived amongAlbanians throughout theMiddle Ages and to the present days.[45] All the beliefs, rites, and practices of magic associated with this cult have been well preserved in rural settlements by the elders until the last decades of the 20th century.[46] The serpent is worshiped as achthonic andwater deity. It is also considered a healer and a totem protector of the family and the house.[47][note 1] InAlbania, the serpent appears in many decorative symbols, intoponyms andanthroponyms.[49] In southernDalmatia in particular, the serpent is found in carving, heraldry and anthroponyms.[50] The cult of the serpent left traces in numerous similar ritual manifestations withinSlavic mythology.[51] AtSutomore inMontenegro, on the formerEncheleian coast, theblavor ("snake-lizard") is considered ahousehold protector, and it is a sin to kill it, similarly in Albania.[52] The wordblavor is related toAlbanianbullar andRomanianbalaur, which are pre-Slavic Balkanisms that show the continuity of the cult of the serpent among the peoples of the region.[44]
The horsemen was a commonPalaeo-Balkan hero.[53] A 3rd-century BCsilvered bronze belt buckle, found inside theIllyrian Tombs of Selça e Poshtme near the western shore ofLake Lychnidus inDassaretan territory, depicts a scene of warriors and horsemen in combat, with a giant serpent as a protectortotem of one of the horsemen; a very similar belt was found also in the necropolis of Gostilj near theLake Scutari in the territory of theLabeatae, indicating a common hero-cult practice in those regions. Modern scholars suggest that the iconographic representation of the same mythological event includes the Illyrian cults of theserpent, ofCadmus, and of thehorseman.[53][54]
The reliefs of theThracian horseman spread from the eastern Balkans into Illyria during theRoman era, appearing in the typical image of a hunter on horseback, riding from left to right.[29] The Thracian horseman was portrayed on bothvotive andfuneral monuments. A less used type of monument depicting a Thracian horseman was themedallion, found also atSarajevo, in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[55]
The study in the field of Illyrian religion is in several cases insufficient for a description even at the level of basic attributes of individual deities.[56] The Illyrian Sun-deity, which was the chief cult object of the Illyrians, worshipped in a widespread and complex religious system, is figuratively represented on Iron Age plaques fromLake Shkodra as the god of thesky andlightning, also associated with thefire altar where he throws lightning bolts.[7] The main source of information about the deities of the Illyrians are inscriptions from the Roman period;[56] some deities are also named by Roman and Greek writers in equation with the classicalpantheon which they were familiar with. Based on the available list of deities, there seems to be no single or prominent god shared by all theIllyrian tribes, and a number of deities evidently appear only in specific regions.[8] On the other hand, some derivatives and epithets of gods were more widespread among the different tribes: a lot of Illyrian personal names are similar to the Dardanian deityAndinus,[57] and certain Illyrian and Messapian goddesses (some of them borrowed from Greek) shared the titleAna orAnna,[58] which is plausibly interpreted as "Mother".[59]
The Illyrian names of the gods were not different in grammatical structures from the personal names reserved for humans.[58] The onomastic evidence demonstrates a general division between several cultural provinces, which can sometimes overlap: the southern region ofIllyria, the middlePannonian andDalmatian provinces, and the northwestern regions ofLiburnia andIstria.[60] Other Illyrian gods are more scarcely attested inMoesia Superior (present-dayNorth Macedonia),[61] and the pantheon may be extended to theIapygian deities if one follows the generally accepted Illyro-Messapic theory that postulates an Illyrian migration towards southeastern Italy (present-dayApulia) during the early first millennium BC.[3][9][62]
The lexicographerHesychius of Alexandria (fifth or sixth century AD) mentioned a god namedDei-pátrous, worshiped inTymphaea as theSky Father (*Dyēus-Ph2tḗr) and acognate of the VedicDyáuṣ Pitṛ́, GreekZeus Patēr and RomanJupiter.[63] According to linguistÉmile Benveniste, the region of Tymphaea was inhabited by an Illyrian population that may have influenced theDoric form copied by Hesychius as "Deipáturos" (Δειπάτυροϛ).[64] The tribe of theParthini worshipedJupiter Parthinus as a chief deity, identified with the chief Roman godJupiter.[65] Hesychius recorded that the Illyrians believed insatyr-like creatures calledDeuadai, which has been interpreted as a diminutive of the inheritedIndo-European word for a "god" (*deywós). PhilologistHans Krahe argued that Satyros (Σάτυρος) may be of Illyrian origin.[66]
The nameRedon appears in inscriptions found inSanta Maria di Leuca (present-dayLecce), and on coins minted by the Illyrian city ofLissos, suggesting that he was worshipped as the guardian deity of the city,[67] and probably as a sea god.[68] The fact that Redon was always depicted on coins wearing apetasos demonstrates a connection with travelling and sailing, which led historians to the conclusion that Redon was the deity protector of travellers and sailors.[69] Indeed, the inscriptions of Santa Maria di Leuca were carved by the crews of two Roman merchant ships manned by Illyrians.[70] Inscriptions mentioning Redon were also found on coins from the Illyrian cities ofDaorson andScodra, and even in archaeological findings fromDyrrhachium after the establishment of a Roman colony there.[69] His name keeps on being used in the AlbanianKepi i Rodonit ("Cape of Rodon"), a headland located nearDurrës which could be analysed as an Illyrian sanctuary dedicated to the god of the sailors in the past.[71]
Prende, widely worshiped byAlbanians as the goddess of dawn, love, beauty, fertility, and women protection, is considered to have been an Illyrian love-goddess.[72] The namePerëndi found in Albanian to refer to "god, deity, sky" is considered by some scholars as acognate of theProto-Indo-Europeanweather god*Perkwunos, deriving from the root*per- ("to strike"), and attached to the suffixes-en- and-di/dei, the Illyrian sky-god.[73][74][note 2] This would make it a possible Illyrian thunder god.[76] Thefire was evidently deified asEnji, which has been interpreted as a cognate of theVedic fire godAgni,[77] descending from the root*Hxn̩gwnis, the Proto-Indo-European divinised fire.[78] Enji, Prende and probably Perëndi are considered to have been worshiped by Illyrians until the spread ofChristianity in the region, after which Enji was demoted to demonic status, but his name survived in theAlbanian language to refer toThursday (enjte).[79] Prende was similarly inherited as a root forFriday (premte) andSaint Venera (Shënepremte),[80] while Perëndi was retained as thename of God.[81]
An Illyrian god namedMedaurus is mentioned in a dedication fromLambaesis (Numidia) made by a Romanlegatus native of the Illyrian city ofRisinium (present-dayMontenegro). The name is more scarcely attested on another inscription found in Risinium, engraved by thePeripolarchoi, the border guards of the city; and also in Santa Maria di Leuca, whereMedaurus is the divine name given to a merchant ship.[82] Portrayed as riding on horseback and carrying a lance, Medaurus was the protector deity of Risinium, with a monumental equestrian statue dominating the city from theacropolis.[83] He was also possibly regarded as a war god among Illyrian soldiers fighting in the Roman legions along thelimes, especially during theMarcomannic Wars (166–180 AD).[84]
Dalmatia andPannonia were ruled by theRoman Empire and grouped together within the province ofIllyricum from the creation of the empire in 27 BC until the reign ofVespasian in 69–79 AD, during which they were separated into two different provinces.[85] From the beginning of the reign ofSeptimius Severus in 193, Pannonians began to adopt Roman deities or put emphasis on local gods compatible with Roman cults.[86]Sedatus,Epona, MarsLatobius, Jupiter Optimus Maximus Teutanus, and other non-Illyrian deities were thus introduced by Roman and Celtic foreigners in the region, and local religion is hardly traceable before theSeveran period.[87]
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The cult ofSilvanus, the Romantutelary deity of the wild, woods and fields, was one of the most popular ritual traditions in Dalmatia and Pannonia during the Roman period.[88] Silvanus was so familiar in the region that his name was often abbreviated on inscriptions.[89] The way he was portrayed in Dalmatia differed from the rest of the Roman Empire, with various elements common only withPannonia. Silvanus was depicted with attributes generally related toPan, such as goat legs, horns,syrinx,pedum, grapes or other fruits, and he was escorted by agoat and female companions (Diana and theNymphs).[90] Severalcognomina were attributed to Silvanus in particular, such asDomesticus when he was portrayed as a bearded countryman with his watch-dog, holding the knife of a wine-grower or gardener. Under the name Silvanus Messor, he was the protector of the harvest, while the epithetSilvestris, often paired with Diana and the Nymphs, depicted the hunter and the rural woodland identity.[91]
Some scholars have interpreted those peculiarities from the point of the view that Silvanus was an indigenous deity resembling Pan, but recognized by Classical writers as 'Silvanus' through the eyes ofinterpretatio romana.[92] They generally link the representations of Silvanus with an erectphallus to pre-Roman fertility cults found earlier in the region, especially localithyphallic depictions of the Iron Age.[93] The cult of Silvanus was also more frequent in the towns of the Dalmatian heartlands such asVrlika than in the coastal Graeco-Roman colonies likeNarona.[94] An opposing view regards the cult of Silvanus in Dalmatia and Pannonia as a tradition ofItalian origin eventually adopted by Balkan populations living in Romanized areas during the second century AD.[95] The association of Silvanus with the Phrygian deityAttis also appears in Dalmatia and further north inAquileia (Italia).[94]
The Silvanae, whose name is the feminine plural ofSilvanus, were featured on many dedications acrossPannonia. As most of them were found in the western Balkans rather than in Italy, they may have represented Illyriannymphs.[96] In the hot springs ofTopusko (Pannonia Superior), sacrificial altars were dedicated toThana andVidasus, whose names invariably stand side by side as companions.[97] Vidasus is identified with Silvanus,[98] and his name may derive from thePIE root *widhu- ("tree, forest"), with a possiblecognate in the Norse godVíðarr, who is said to live amid long grass and brushwood.[99] Thana, compared with the Roman goddessDiana, was the deity of forestry and hunting. Scholars have argued that Thana survived asZana ofAlbanian mythology,[100][101] and that she can be traced today in the image of "mother Yana" within Serbian folklore.[51]
InDalmatia, the Roman deity of wine, fertility and freedomLiber was worshipped with the attributes of Silvanus and those ofTerminus, the protector god of boundaries.[29] His cult was more widespread in the Balkan provinces than in Italy, with prominent centres of cult inSalona andNarona.[102] On the islands ofBrattia andCorcyra Nigra, Liber was venerated under the epithetTorcle(n)sis as a god of the wine press.[103] Certainly due to a mixing of local traditions under Hellenistic influence, he was often associated withDionysus, the Greek god of wine, fertility andreligious ecstasy. InTragurium was erected a statue of Liber-Dionysus-Bacchus, and a relief fromOmiš depicts him as an effeminate Dionysus wearing vine branches and holding athyrsus.[104] Another relief fromLivno portrays him with athyrsus and serpent, or with a vase and a dog, a possiblesyncretism with the Greek god of medicineAsclepius.[104] A feminine version named Libera was also discovered in inscriptions fromHvar,Bihać,Zenica,Zemun andHumac.[103]
Tadenus was a Dalmatian deity bearing the identity or epithet ofApollo in inscriptions found near the source of theBosna river.[105] His identity is not known and the name may be ofThracian origin.[29] A local ruler named Ionios appears on inscriptions carved on Dalmatian coins.[106] His mythic dimensions have been highlighted by scholars, and it seems likely that he received his name from a mythical predecessor.[107] TheDelmatae also had Armatus as a war god inDelminium.[29] Two altars were dedicated to him under the nameArmatus Augustus in Dalmatia, and while he was recorded under a Latin name, the deity was likely of native origin.[108]
Aecorna (orArquornia) was a goddess worshipped exclusively in the Emona Basin, in the cities ofNauportus andEmona (Pannonia Superior), where she was the most important divinity next to Jupiter.[109] The earlier testimony of her cult appears in inscriptions dated 50–30 BC, and she is most likely of native origin.[110][111] Aecorna has been interpreted as a lake goddess, or as a patroness of the river traffic along theLjubjanica.[110] Laburus was also a local deity worshipped in Emona.[112] His name was found on an altar erected atFužine, in a dangerous site for navigation near the rapids of the Ljubjanica river. Laburus may thus have been a deity protecting the boatmen sailing through those perilous rapids.[113] OrientalMithraic mysteries became also widespread inPannonia during the Roman period, with an important centre of cult inPoetovio.[114]
Iutossica and Anzotica, the latter identified withVenus, were worshipped inLiburnia.[115] Some deities are known exclusively fromIstria, such as Nebres, Malesocus, Iria, or Boria, a mountain-god (from Illyrian*bora, "mountain").[116] Other local theonyms include Latra, Sentona, and the nymph Ica. In honour of Ica was erected a monument in the vicinity of a spring inFlanona, which still bears her name.[97][117]Bindus, identified withNeptune, was worshiped among theJapodes as the guardian deity of springs and seas. Altars were dedicated to him by tribal leaders at the Privilica spring sources nearBihać.[118] By the early 1st century AD, the Istrian goddess Heia was worshipped on thePag Island in asyncretism with the Roman goddessBona Dea. She is also attested in the towns ofNesactium andPula.[119]
The region ofMoesia Superior showed a great variety of cultural beliefs, as it lay on the cultural frontier between theLatin West and the Greek East.[120] The debated identity of tribes such as theDardanians, interpreted as either Illyrian or Thracian,[121] or thePaeonians, likewise dwelling between the Dardanians andMacedonians,[12] rests upon the fact that they inhabited an Illyrian-Thracian contact zone where both cultures intertwined over a long period.[122]
TheDardanian deityAndinus was worshipped in a region dominated by Thracian gods. The only trace left is a name carved on an altar dedicated by abeneficiarus ("a foreigner"). Variants likeAndia orAndio were also common among the Dardanians,[120] and a lot of Illyrian personal names are found under the forms Andes, Andueia or Andena.[57] ThePaeonians worshiped a god named Dualos, the equivalent ofDionysus. His name has been compared withAlbaniandej ("drunk") andGothicdwals ("a madman"), reinforcing the association of the Paeonian deity with wine and intoxication.[123]
Iapygian tribes (theMessapians,Daunians andPeucetians) all sharedMessapic as a common language until the Roman conquest ofApulia from the late 4th century BC onwards.[10] Messapic was probably related to theIllyrian languages spoken on the other side of theAdriatic Sea, as both ancient sources and modern scholars have described an Illyrian migration into Italy early in the first millennium BC.[9][124] The pre-Roman religion of Iapygians appears as a substrate of indigenous elements mixed withGreek mythology.[125] In fact, the Roman conquest probably accelerated the hellenisation of a region already influenced by contacts withMagna Grecia, a set of colonies Greeks had founded in southeastern Italy by the 8th century BC (Tarentum in particular), after first incursions centuries earlier during theMycenaean period.[125]Aphrodite andAthena were thus worshiped in Apulia asAprodita andAthana, respectively.[126]
Indigenous Iapygian beliefs featured the curative powers of the waters at theherõon of the godPodalirius and the fulfilling of oracles for anyone who slept wrapped in the skin of a sacrificed ewe.[125] Menzanas was a localMessapian deity whose name literally translates as "Lord of Horses". He was often worshipped under the epithetJuppiter Menzanas, and horses were sacrificed to him by being thrown alive into a fire.[127][128] Originally formed as*mendyo-no-, the name Menzanas derives from the root*mendyo- ("foal"),[note 3] attached to thePIE suffix-nos ("controller of, lord of").[130] The cult ofJuppiter Menzanas, known at least sinceVerrius Flaccus (c. 55 BC–20 AD), is probably a native custom eventually influenced by neighbouringItalic peoples.[131] In fact, the native sky-god of theMessapians,Zis (orDis), was likewise worshipped under the aspect ofZis Menzanas.[132] Attested by the early 6th century BC,[133] Zis is not a loanword adapted from the GreekZeus, but a parallel inheritance from theProto-Indo-European sky-god*Dyēus (via an intermediate form*dyēs), and other cognates appear in AlbanianZojz, VedicDyáuṣ, LatinJovis (*Djous) and IllyrianDei(-pátrous).[134] TheTarentine godDís (Δίς) has probably been borrowed from their neighbouring Messapians.[135]
The goddess Venas (<*wenos), also an inherited deity (cognate with LatinVenus or Old Indicvánas "desire"), is often invoked along with the sky-god Zis (kla(o)hi Zis Venas, "listen, Zis (and) Venas") and with an unknown god, Taotor (Θautour), probably related to the "tribe" or the "community" as his name stems fromPIE*teutéha- ('people').[135] Lahona was the name of a Messapian deity worshipped as an epithet attached to Aphrodite:ana aprodita lahona.[112] She was featured in votive inscriptions found inCeglie Messapica, and the dedication has been translated either as "To the goddess Aphrodite Lahona",[136] or as "Mother Aphrodite Lahona".[137] The theonymThana, attested on Messapian inscriptions, is also found on Dalmatian altars.[138]
The goddess Damatura (orDamatira) could be of Messapian origin rather than a borrowing from the GreekDemeter, with a formdā- ("earth", compare withAlbanian:dhe) attached to-matura ("mother") and akin to the Illyrian godDei-pátrous (dei-, "sky", attached to -pátrous, "father").[139][140][141] This theory was supported byPisani (1935) andGeorgiev (1937), rejected byKretschmer (1939),[140] and more recently supported byÇabej,Demiraj (1997),[142] andWest (2007),[139] althoughBeekes (2009) andDe Simone (2017) rather see a borrowing from Greek.[135][140] West further notes that "the formal parallelism between [Damatura andDeipaturos] may favour their having been a pair, but evidence of the liaison is lacking."[143]
Theperpetual fire at Nymphaion sanctuary was a place of worship in southernIllyria that was renowned throughoutclassical antiquity for its unique natural features. Placed around the lowerVjosë/Aoos river near ancientApollonia,Byllis, and present-daySelenica, inAlbania, the area was occupied byIllyrians since beforearchaic colonial times, and the site was likely already a place of worship because of its peculiar physical properties.[144] According to ancient literary accounts the fire of the sanctuary never went out before an ancient war fought between Apollonia and the Illyrians.[145] It probably passed to Apollonia at the time of the Apollonian victory towardsThronium (5th century B.C).[146] Inscriptions from Apollonia and Byllis mention the sanctuary, and coins from the same towns depict the eternal fire, as well as nymphs surrounding it.[147][148]
In his description of the siteStrabo (1st century BCE – 1st century CE) reports that a fire arises from a stone, and underneath it exists a source of warm water and asphalt.Pliny the Elder (1st century CE), in his description based on the accounts of historianTheopompus (4th century BCE), reports that even if the fire is located in the middle of a thick forest, it is very pleasant because it does not damage the greenery that surrounds it and the always lit crater of the nymphaion is located near a source of cold water.[149] Pliny reports a public form ofdivination according to which the welfare of the Apolloniates was connected to the steadiness of the fire spring.[144] He also gives the geographical position of the fire sanctuary: on the border of Apollonia, where the barbariansAmantini andBylliones lived.[149]Cassius Dio (2nd–3rd centuries CE) reports a description of the fire sanctuary including the practices related to the oracle provided by the great fire, giving a more detailed explanation of a private form of divination.[150][149] Dio also expressed in other accounts his wonder at the greenness and moistness of the site in spite of the presence of its fire.[150]
The fire sanctuary was associated with the cult of the nymphs.[149] A relief found near Byllis shows the nymphs and a cloth wrapped around the fire of the nymphaion.[151] A similar scene is also represented on a 1st-century BCE silver coin of Apollonia that depicts three nymphs dancing around the fire of the nymphaion.[151][152] Of very ancient origin, the indigenous Illyrian cult of the nymphs influenced Apollonia.[153] The continuation of the cult of the nymphs in theRoman imperial period in Apollonia is testified in a 2nd-century CE Greek inscription reporting Illyrian names.[154] In addition to the natural home of the nymphs, the site was also considered a beautiful, lush spot attractive tosatyrs.[152]
The opinion[12] according to which the Illyrians apparently did not develop a uniformcosmology on which to center theirreligious practices is incompatible with the discovery of a monument representing a round labyrinth that was dedicated to the "Dardanian Goddess" from Smira. This monument provides evidence for cosmogonic and cosmologic knowledges among theDardani.[155] The labyrinth was realized based on the concept of thetrinity. There is used a numerological and geometric approach through a multidimensional holographic field, which illustrates the Dardanian perception of the cosmic order and the interconnection between the material world and the higher realm.[156]
The absence of figured ornament during the earlyIron Age may reflect an apparent lack ofmythology among Illyrians in this period.[27] The most deeply rooted mythological tradition among the populations of northwestern Balkans was the legend ofCadmus andHarmonia; other legends were those of Bato and of theCadmeians.[157] The myth of the heroic pair Cadmus and Harmonia was strictly connected to theEnchelei and the territory they inhabited:Boeotia and Illyria.[158]
In Roman times Bato was one of the most notable Illyrian names, which perhaps was originally anomen sacrum, and is outstandingly spread but condensed in Illyria,Thebes andTroas, with the presence of a temple dedicated to him atArgos, as recorded byPausanias. In every region it is related to legends and religion, suggesting also an ancient cult.[159] According to a legendary account reported byPolybius, cited byStephanus of Byzantium, afterAmphiaraus disappearance his carioteer Baton settled in Illyria, near the country of the Enchelei.[160]
The meanings ofcompound personal names likeVeskleves (lit. "good-fame", i.e. "possessing good fame") have been interpreted as an indicator of an oral epic tradition among the Illyrians.[161][162]
According to a tradition reported byAppian, the Illyrian king Epidamnos was the eponymous founder of thehomonym city. His grandson Dyrrhachos, son of Epidamnos' daughter Melissa andPoseidon, founded a harbor that was called Dyrrhachion. According to this legend, when Dyrrhachus was attacked by his own brothers, the heroHeracles, who was promised part of the Illyrian land, came to his aid, but in the fight the hero killed by mistake Ionius, the son of his ally Dyrrhachos. During the funeral Heracles cast the body into the sea, thereafter namedIonian Sea.[163][164] The genealogy of the foundation of Dyrrhachium includes among the founders Illyrian men (the Illyrian king Epidamnos and his grandson Dyrrachos), Greek men (the Corinthian Falio, descendant of Heracles), heroes (Heracles who was given part of the lands) and gods (Poseidon, as father of Dyrrachos). The emergence of a mixed tradition with apparently divergent aspects (Heracles as a "god" and a Greek king on the one hand, Epidamnos and his grandson Dyrrachos as Illyrians on the other hand) was probably determined by the perception of a profane action carried out by the colonists, which only a new heroic and divine tradition could have justified. Considering the Hellenization process to which the Illyrian local aristocracies adhered early, this tradition can be conceivably considered as constructed both by the colonists and by the HellenizedTaulantian population.[164]
It has been argued that the legend ofAeneas was transmitted in Italy and Rome through Illyrian intermediacy. Similarly it can also be explained the unclear Latin formUlixes of the nameOdysseus.[165]
Illyriantotemism is known almost exclusively from Illyriantribal names,toponyms andanthroponyms, which were taken from the animal and plant world, reflecting a close relation of Illyrian peoples tonature.[166][167] Such cases include:Enchelei, "people of theeel" (cf.Albanian:ngjalë,Ancient Greek: ἔγχελυς,Latin:anguilla);Taulanti, "people of theswallow" (cf. Albanian:tallandyshe, also reflected in the Greek translation χελῑδόν,khelīdṓn);Delmatai, "people of thesheep" (cf. Albanian:delmë);Dardani, "people of thepear" (cf. Albanian:dardhë);Peuketi, "people of thepine" (cf. Ancient Greek:πεύχη,peúkē, fromPIE:*pewḱ-);Ulkinium, "city of thewolf" (cf. Albanian:ulk, fromPIE:*wĺ̥kwos);Delminium, "city of thesheep" (the same root of Delmatai).[168][12][167] Many tribes believed in the protection of certain animals and plants, feeling also an ancestry link with them.[166] Totemism may translate the ancient social relationships and religious conceptions held by Illyrians and their predecessors, a set of traditions that was still alive during theRoman period.[13]
As recorded by ancient Roman writers, Illyrians believed in the force ofspells and theevil eye.[169] Many examples of objects with the shape ofphallus,hand,leg, and animalteeth are indicators of a belief in the protective and beneficial force ofamulets.[170]
During theBronze Age bothflat graves andtumuli were built. The tumulus-burial is considered to have been imported from the firstIndo-European wave that spread throughout theBalkans towards the beginning of the Bronze Age. This form of burial practice, once it appeared, especially in central and southernIllyria, continued without interruption throughout the Late Bronze Age and the EarlyIron Age, becoming in this period a specific component of theIllyrian ethnic tradition. During the Bronze Age until the beginning of the Iron Age, the most common funerary practice was to lay out the body in a contracted position, a tradition continued fromNeolithic times.[23] The custom of burial in tumuli in the contracted position, which appeared also in southernItaly, especially inApulia, suggest a movement of Illyrian peoples from the easternAdriatic shore at the beginning of the first millennium BC.[171]Cremation, on the other hand, was very rare, however it was not discontinuous by the Middle Bronze Age.[23]
In the Iron Age, during the late 6th and early 5th century BC, the increase in cremation graves in theGlasinac culture has been interpreted as a possible collapse of the tribal structure which led to changes in the prevailing religious belief.[172] The shift frominhumation to cremation is thought to be an evidence of the arrival of new people from the north.[173] In fact, cremation became a more common rite among northern Illyrians, while inhumation persisted as the dominant rite in the south.[174] The gradual transition from the rite of cremation to that of inhumation during the Roman period can be interpreted as a sign of greater concern for theafterlife.[174] The rich spectrum in religious beliefs and burial rituals that emerged in Illyria, especially during the Roman period, is an indicator of the variation in cultural identities in this region.[16]
Stocker, Sharon R. (2009).Illyrian Apollonia: Toward a New Ktisis and Developmental History of the Colony.
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