Before the period ofBritish colonial rule in the 20th century, the Igbo people were largely governed by the centralized chiefdoms ofNri,Aro Confederacy,Agbor andOnitsha.[26] The Igbo people becameoverwhelmingly Christian during the evangelism of the missionaries in the colonial era in the twentieth century.[27] In the wake ofdecolonisation, the Igbo developed a strong sense of ethnic identity. Christianity andOmenala/Odinala are the major religions, with Islamic minorities.[28]
After ethnic tensions following the independence of Nigeria in 1960, the Igbos seceded from Nigeria and attempted to establish a new independent country calledBiafra, triggering theNigerian Civil War (1967–1970).[29] Millions of Biafran civilians died from starvation after the Nigerian military formed a blockade around Biafra, an event that led to international media promotinghumanitarian aid for Biafra. Biafra was eventually defeated by Nigeria and reintegrated into the country. TheMovement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra and theIndigenous People of Biafra (IPOB), two organizations formed after 1999, continue to struggle for an independent Igbo state.[30]
"Igbo" as a unitary identity for all Igbo speaking people developed comparatively recently, in the context of decolonisation and the Nigerian Civil War. The various Igbo-speaking communities were historically decentralised;[31] in the opinion of Nigerian novelistChinua Achebe, Igbo identity should be placed somewhere between a "tribe" and a "nation".[32]
Forms of the nameIgbo – (formerly also spelledHeebo,Eboe, orIbo) have been used in Western literature at least since the 18th century.[33] Some theories give it the meaning "forest dwellers", connect it to "the ancients" (Ndi-gbo), or suggest that it simply refers to "a community of people".[34][35]
The Igboid languages form a cluster within theVolta–Niger phylum, most likely grouped withYoruboid andEdoid.[36] The greatest differentiation within the Igboid group is between theEkpeye, and the rest. Williamson (2002) argues that based on this pattern, proto-Igboid migration would have moved down the Niger from a more northern area in the savannah and first settled close to the delta, with a secondary center of Igbo proper more to the north, in theAwka area.[37] Genetic studies have shown the Igbo to cluster most closely with other Niger-Congo-speaking peoples.[38] The predominant Y-chromosomal haplogroup isE1b1a1-M2.[39]
Pottery dated from around 3,000–2,500 BC[40] showing similarities with later Igbo work was found atNsukka, and Afikpo regions of Igboland in the 1970s,[41] along with pottery and tools at nearby Ibagwa; the traditions of theUmueri clan have as their source theAnambra valley. In the 1970s, theOwerri,Okigwe,Orlu,Awgu,Udi andAwka divisions were determined to constitute "an Igbo heartland" from the linguistic and cultural evidence.[42] In the Nsukka region of Igboland, evidence of early iron smelting has been excavated, dating to 750 BC at the site ofOpi and 2,000 BC at the site ofLejja.[43][44][45]
The Nri and Aguleri people are in the territory of the Umueri clan who trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king-figureEri.[46] Eri's origins are unclear, though he has been described as a "sky being" sent byChukwu (God).[46][47] He has been characterized as having first given societal order to the people ofAnambra.[47] The historianElizabeth Allo Isichei says "Nri and Aguleri and part of the Umueri clan, [are] a cluster of Igbo village groups which traces its origins to a sky being called Eri."[48]
Archaeological evidence suggests that Nriinfluence in Igboland may go back as far as the 9th century,[49] and royal burials at theIgbo-Ukwu sites have been unearthed dating to at least the 10th century.Eri, the god-like founder of Nri, is believed to have settled the region around 948 with other related Igbo cultures following after in the 13th century.[50] The first Eze Nri (King of Nri)Ìfikuánim followed directly after him. According to Igbo history, his reign started in 1043.[51]
Each king traces his origin back to the founding ancestor, Eri. Each king is a ritual reproduction of Eri. The initiation rite of a new king shows that the ritual process of becomingEzeNri (Nri priest-king) follows closely the path traced by the hero in establishing the Nri kingdom.
The Kingdom of Nri was a religio-polity, a sort of theocratic state that developed in the central heartland of the Igbo region.[50] The Nri had seven types of beliefs which included human (such as the birth oftwins), animal (such as killing or eating of pythons),[53] object, temporal, behavioural, speech and place.[54] The rules regarding these beliefs were used to educate and govern Nri's subjects. This meant that, while certain Igbo communities may have lived under different formal administrations, all followers of theIgbo religion had to abide by the rules of the faith and obey its representative on earth, the Eze Nri.[54][55]
Igbo-Ukwu is a historically significant archaeological site located in southeastern Nigeria, in what is nowAnambra State. The site is renowned for its remarkable discoveries of ancient artifacts that date back to the 9th and 10th centuries AD. The archaeological findings at Igbo-Ukwu have provided valuable insights into the early history and cultural achievements of the Igbo people and their interactions with other civilizations in the region. The artifacts may be associated with the traditionalKingdom of Nri and its priest-king, the Eze Nri.[57]
The significance of Igbo-Ukwu lies in the following aspects:
Sophisticated Artifacts: The excavations at Igbo-Ukwu revealed a collection of highly sophisticated and elaborately crafted artifacts, including intricately designed bronze, copper, and iron objects. These artifacts demonstrate the advanced metallurgical skills of the ancient Igbo people and their ability to work with various metals.
The Igbo-Ukwu artifacts predate certain other well-known Nigerian bronze sculpture traditions such as those ofIfe and theBenin Kingdom and have contributed to our understanding of the development of metallurgical techniques in Africa.
Cultural exchange and trade: The presence of exotic materials like glass beads and imported ceramics at the site suggests that the people of Igbo-Ukwu were engaged in trade and had connections with other cultures and civilizations, both within and outside of Africa.
Evidence of social complexity: The intricate and finely crafted artifacts found at Igbo-Ukwu suggest the existence of a sophisticated and socially complex society. The level of craftsmanship and the variety of artifacts indicate the presence of skilled artisans and a hierarchical social structure.
Influence on Igbo art and culture: The artifacts discovered at Igbo-Ukwu have had a profound impact on the understanding and appreciation of Igbo art and culture. They have inspired contemporary Igbo artists and craftsmen and contributed to a sense of cultural identity and heritage.
Recognition of African achievements: The discoveries at Igbo-Ukwu challenged the outdated notion of Africa as a continent with no significant history or cultural achievements. The site's findings have demonstrated the richness and complexity of ancient African civilizations. The archaeological site of Igbo-Ukwu was first discovered in 1939 when a group of villagers accidentally came across the artifacts while digging a trench. Subsequent excavations conducted in the 1950s and 1970s uncovered a wealth of cultural treasures. The Igbo-Ukwu artifacts are now housed in various museums, including theNigerian National Museum in Lagos.
Glass production: Igbo-Ukwu has one of the oldest glass productions in West Africa. The archeology of Igbo-Ukwu had over 600 prestige objects including complex cast copper-alloy sculptures and more than 165,000 glass and carnelian beads.[58] The most common glass among the 138 analytical results for Igbo-Ukwu beads is soda-lime glass produced using plant ash.[59]
Overall, Igbo-Ukwu remains a vital archaeological site that continues to contribute to our understanding of ancient African civilizations and their contributions to human history.[60]
Examples of artifacts found in Igbo-Ukwu
Double egg pendant, leaded bronze, 9th-10th century, unearthed in Igbo-Ukwu,Anambra
9th-century face pendant
Bronze ornamental staff head, 9th century
Shell Vessel with Leopard
9th-century bowl or pot
Intricate bronze ceremonial pot withglass beads, 9th century
TheAro Confederacy (1690–1902) was a political union orchestrated by theAro people, Igbo subgroup, centered inArochukwu in present-day southeasternNigeria. The Aro Confederacy kingdom was founded after the beginning of theAro-Ibibio Wars. Their influence and presence was all overEastern Nigeria, lowerMiddle Belt, and parts of present-dayCameroon andEquatorial Guinea during the 18th and 19th centuries. TheArochukwu Kingdom was an economic, political, and an oracular center as it was home of theIbini Ukpabi oracle, High Priests, the Aro KingEze Aro, and central council (Okpankpo). The Aro Confederacy was a powerful and influential political and economic alliance of various Igbo-speaking communities in southeastern Nigeria. It emerged during the 17th century and played a significant role in the region until the late 19th century.
TheAro people, who are part of the Igbo ethnic group, inhabited the region around present-day Arochukwu in Abia State, Nigeria. They were skilled traders and missionaries who played a pivotal role in connecting various Igbo communities. This trading expertise and their military power; supported by their alliances with several related neighbouring Igbo and eastern Cross River militarized states (particularlyOhafia,Edda,Abam,Abiriba,Afikpo,Ekoi,Bahumono,Amasiri ), quickly established the Aro Confederacy as a regional economic power. The Aro Confederacy's strength came from its well-organized network of Aro agents who were dispersed across different communities in the region. These agents acted as intermediaries in trade, diplomacy, and religious matters. They facilitated commerce, resolved disputes, and spread the worship of the Aro deity that later came to be known as the "Long Juju" oracle.
"The Opening Up of Nigeria, the Expedition Against the Aros" – by Richard Caton Woodville II, 1901
The "Long Juju" oracle was the spiritual centerpiece of the Aro Confederacy. It was housed inArochukwu and considered a potent source of political authority and religious guidance. TheAro people used the oracle to enforce their influence and control over surrounding communities. It also served as a means to administer justice and settle disputes, often attracting pilgrims seeking solutions to their problems.
Igbo-made swords acquired by Jean Barbot, 1699
The Aro Confederacy gained significant economic power through trade and commerce. Their economy was primarily based on agriculture, with the cultivation of crops like palm oil, yams, and cassava. They were also involved in trade with neighboring communities and European merchants. They controlled trade routes that passed through their territories, collecting tolls and taxes from traders. TheAro also engaged in theTrans-Atlantic slave trade by capturing and selling slaves to European traders.
Aro activities on the coast helped the growth of city-states in theNiger Delta, and these city states became important centres for the export of palm oil and slaves. Suchcity-states includedOpobo,Bonny,Nembe,Calabar, as well as other slave trading city-states controlled by theIjaw,Efik, and Igbo. The Aros formed a strong trading network, colonies, and incorporated hundreds of communities that formed into powerful kingdoms. TheAjalli,Arondizuogu, Ndikelionwu, andIgbene Kingdoms were some of the most powerful Aro states in the Confederacy after Arochukwu. Some were founded and named after commanders and chiefs likeIzuogu Mgbokpo andIheme who led Aro/Abam forces to conquerIkpa Ora and founded Arondizuogu. Later Aro commanders such asOkoro Idozuka (also of Arondizuogu) expanded the state's borders through warfare at the start of the 19th century. Aro migrations also played a large role in the expansion of Ozizza, Afikpo, Amasiri, Izombe, and many other city-states. For example, Aro soldiers founded at least three villages in Ozizza. The Aro Confederacy's power, however, derived mostly from its economic and religious position. With European colonists on their way at the end of the 19th century, things changed.
Burning of Arochukwu, 1901Remains of Long JuJu Shrine
During the 1890s, theRoyal Niger Company ofBritain bore friction with the Aros because of their economic dominance. The Aro resisted British penetration in the hinterland because their economic and religious influence was being threatened. The Aro and their allies launched offensives against British allies inIgboland andIbibioland. After failed negotiations, the British attempted to conquer the Aro Confederacy in 1899. By 1901, the tensions were especially intensified when British prepared for the Aro Expedition. The invasion ofObegu (in Igboland) was the last major Aro offensive before the start of theAnglo-Aro War. In November 1901, the British launched the Aro Expedition and after strong Aro resistance, Arochukwu was captured on 28 December 1901. By early 1902, the war was over, and the Aro Confederacy collapsed. Contrary to the belief that theIbini Ukpabi was destroyed, theshrine still exists, and is intact in Arochukwu and serves mainly as a tourist site.
The Aro-Ibibio Wars were a series of conflicts between theAro people (subgroup of the Igbo) and aIbibio in present-day SoutheasternNigeria atIbom Kingdom from 1630 to 1902. These wars led to the foundation of theArochukwu kingdom.
A group of protoIbibio migrated to the area and established theIbom Kingdom. This proto-Ibibio group originally came from Usak Edet (Isanguele), a segment of theEjagham in present-day SouthernCameroon. TheEze Agwu fromAbiriba, initiated Igbo migration into the region around the mid-17th century. The Eze Awgu group who lead the rebellion against the ruling family aligned with several outside forces like the PriestNnachi from the Edda group nearAfikpo, was called by their king Awgu Inobia (Eze Agwu) for military support. When he arrived, Nnachi and Eze Agwu allied with princeAkakpokpo Okon of the Ibibio kingdom of Ibom Kingdom. Akakpokpo Okon was the son of a marriage between an Igbo woman of Eze Agwu and the KingObong Okon Ita in an attempt of a peace treaty for a war that have been fought between the Igbo subgroup and Ibibio. The Eze Agwu/Nnachi faction decided to help Akakpokpo attempt to overthrow his brother kingAkpan Okon.
The coup was heavily resisted which called for even more help. Through Nnachi, an Eastern Cross river group answered the call for help. They were known as theAkpa who were living at todayAkwa Akpa before the arrival of theEfik people in that region. These warriors and traders may have hadEuropeanguns which were new to the territory. Being the Igbo allies, the Akpas were led by the royal Nnubi family.Osim and Akuma Nnubi led Akpa soldiers to help fight against the ruling household. Together with Igbo forces and rebels, they fought against theIbom Kingdom forces (1690). During the final battles, Osim Nnubi was slain in Oror city state making it the capital of Arochukwu. But at the end of the war, Osim and Akakpokpo were dead. In order to honor Osim's legacy, his brother Akuma was crowned the first EzeAro (king). After his death, Nnachi's descendants took the throne starting with his first sonOke Nnachi. The Arochukwu kingdom, was founded.
After Arochukwu was formed, it began to expand because of the growing population and territorial protection. Aro forces formed towns and villages which eventually grew into communities on the Arochukwu-Ibibio boundaries.
TheIgbo-Igala Wars refer to a series of conflicts that took place between the Igbo people and theIgala people of Nigeria during the 18th and 19th centuries. These wars were characterized by intense military engagements, territorial disputes, and clashes over resources and political dominance. The conflicts occurred in the southeastern region of Nigeria, primarily in the areas now known asAnambra,Enugu,Ebonyi,Kogi andDelta states. These wars led to the drasticBattle of Nsukka.
Background: In the 16th century a large Igala migration occurred across the Niger River following a defeat to theKingdom of Benin. Shortly after, aJukun migration fromWukari conquered and established a royal dynasty inIdah, bringing them into contact withIgbo speaking groups.
Conquest of Nsukka: The Nsukka-Igala wars occurred in the 18th to 19th century following an Igala invasion and left most of Nsukka under Igala control. Nsukka is the most notable Igbo subgroup to be involved in these wars as the Igala people conquered and installed priest-kings to govern the district for almost a century. The Nsukka people have continuously inhabited northern Igboland since the 3rd millennium BCE as shown through archeological continuity andGlottochronology. They are considered to be one of the first Igbo subgroups by historian and archeologist Edwin Eme Okafor.
During the period of the Igbo-Igala Wars, marked by a scarcity of labor and insecurity resulting from slave raiding and the Nsukka-Igala conflicts, notable changes occurred in the iron smelting practices of the Nsukka people. Due to urgency, some iron smelters resorted to using wood directly in their smelting process, bypassing the usual practice of burning it to produce charcoal. This adaptation in smelting techniques demonstrates the impact of the war on the traditional methods employed by the Nsukka community, as they incorporated wood into their process to sustain their iron production amidst the challenging conditions. The conflicts started with the arrival of a figure named Onọjọ Ogboni whose background is surrounded in mystery. One of the 18th-century conflicts was the Battle of Nsukka in 1794, which resulted in a Nsukka military victory, but with significant losses including the Eze's eldest son, and three of his wives. The battle was witnessed by Sailor, Joseph B. Hawkins.
Ebonyi conflicts: During the early 19th century, the Eastern Igbo subgroups located inEbonyi State underwent a significant migration towards theCross River areas, this in turn manifested in boundary disputes between several Eastern Igbo groups with her neighbors such as Ikwo-Nsobo and Osopo of Cross River State, Izzi – Osopo and Yala of Cross River State and Mgbo-Igala of Benue State. A similar migration skirmish towardsAbia State in the 17th century established theAro Confederacy. As theEzza,Izzi,Ikwo subgroups moved northward, all who are said to descend from siblings whose patriarch hailed fromAfikpo, the Ezza encountered the indigenousOrri people and protected them from extinction in exchange for farming rights. The Ikwo people encountered the Okum eventually displacing them and assimilated the rest. the Okum do not exist as an identifiable group anymore but there is archeological and cultural proof of their existence, as there are non-Igbo dances and masquerades in modernIkwo culture. The southern Ikwo displaced the indigenousAdadama group far to modernCross River State.
Conflict withIgala: As the Igala already lived in the area with the Orri they sought friendship with the Ezza and gave them land for farming. However, betrayed by the Ezza whose true intent was expansion and to address their ongoing land scarcity. It led to a conflict between the two groups, resulting in the Igala's defeat and expulsion from their occupied territory which the Ezza then took control of. The Agba community, located in Ebo Ndiagu, Ochuhu Agba, and Orie Agba Elu, faced defeat as the Ezza's territory expanded. Some rallied, but despite putting up a spirited but brief defense, the Agba were compelled to retreat southwards, leaving their abandoned lands to be later settled by Umunwagu and Ikwuate (Idembia). Seeking safety and security, the Agba people sought refuge in Ishielu Division, departing from their original mainland settlements. The Ezza met them again in 1850 and again conquered and displaced the remnants, naming the new territory Ezzagu.
Western Igbo influence: The Western Igbo people consist of theAnioma people ofDelta State and the riverine side ofAnambra state. While specific conflicts with theEnuani and Igala people remain poorly documented, there is one Igala-speaking community in Enuaniland known as Ebu. TheIdah Kingdom conquered some significant riverine trading centers, but just as quickly as they were conquered, most came under the control ofAboh, anUkwuani kingdom, while the others were significant trading partners to both kingdoms, supplying the entirety ofpalm oilAboh traded. Although some Igala dances continue to be performed in Anioma, there is no evidence of any lasting military conquests; instead, it appears that cultural traditions were exchanged mostly through trade and interactions between the neighboring communities.
King Jaja of Opobo (full name:Jubo Jubogha; 1821–1891) was the first king (amanyanabo) of Opobo. He was also the founder ofOpobo city-state in present dayRivers State ofNigeria.King Jaja of Opobo is listed as an African legend, because of the hardships he overcame, and persistency to rise, even despite all the odds against him. He became a merchant, and a general, becoming one of the richest and most influentialPre-colonial Africans in history. At an indeterminate date, Jaja was kidnapped and sold intoslavery, most likely by a rival Igbo warring state, or by theAro's. He was then brought to Ijawland thereafter. As was customary amongst the Ijaw, Jaja earned his way out of slavery after serving his master for a number of years. At the death of his master, he took charge of the trade and went on to head the Anna Pepple House merchant faction ofBonny. Under him, Anna Pepple absorbed other trade houses until a war with theManilla Pepple House led byOko Jumbo compelled Jaja to break away to form the Opobo city-state (26 miles east of Bonny) in 1869.
Opobo came to be a prominent trading post in the region'spalm oil trade. Jaja barred entry to European and African middlemen, effectively monopolizingtrade, and by 1870 was selling eight thousand tons of palm oil directly to the British. Opobo also shipped palm oil directly toLiverpool. Despite his trade rivalry with the Europeans, Jaja sent his children to schools inGlasgow and enlisted whites to staff the secular school he built in Opobo. He barred any missionaries from entering Opobo.
At the 1884Berlin Conference, the Europeans designated Opobo as British territory. When Jaja refused to cease taxing the British traders,Henry Hamilton Johnston, a British vice consul, invited Jaja for negotiations in 1887. Jaja was arrested on arrival aboard a British vessel; he was tried inAccra in theGold Coast (nowGhana) then exiled, first to London, and later toSaint Vincent andBarbados in theBritish West Indies. His presence in the West Indies was alleged to be the cause of civil unrest, as the people ofBarbados, ofAfrican descent, were upset at thepoor treatment of a King from their homeland.
In 1891, Jaja was granted permission to return to Opobo, but died en route. Following hisexile and death, the power of the Opobo state rapidly declined. In 1903, theKing Jaja of Opobo Memorial was erected in his honor in Opobo town centre.
Traditional Igbo political organization was based on a democraticrepublican system of government. In tight knit communities, this system guaranteed its citizens equality, as opposed to a feudalist system with a king ruling over subjects.[61] This government system was witnessed by thePortuguese who first arrived and met with the Igbo people in the 15th century.[62] With the exception of a few notable Igbo towns such asOnitsha, which had kings calledObi and places like the Nri Kingdom and Arochukwu, which had priest kings; Igbo communities and area governments were overwhelmingly ruled by a republican consultative assembly of the common people.[61] Communities were usually governed and administered by a council ofelders.[63] Many Igbo towns however, were also partly governed the high council known as theOzo society, whose titles could be both earned and inherited. And the spiritual (though not political) authority of the king of Nri was recognized all over Igboland[64][65][66]
"Rich Women. Onitsha. (church members.)" G. F. Packer, 1880s
Although title holders were respected because of their accomplishments and capabilities, they were not revered as kings but often performed special functions given to them by such assemblies. This way of governing was different from most other communities ofWestern Africa and only shared by theEwe ofGhana.Umunna are a form ofpatrilineage maintained by the Igbo. Law starts with theUmunna which is a male line of descent from a founding ancestor (who the line is sometimes named after) with groups of compounds containing closely related families headed by the eldest male member. TheUmunna can be seen as the most important pillar of Igbo society.[67][68][69] It was also a culture in which gender was re-constructed and performed according to social need; "The flexibility of Igbo gender construction meant that gender was separate from biological sex. Daughters could become sons and consequently male."[70]
Mathematics in indigenous Igbo society is evident in their calendar,banking system and strategic betting game calledOkwe.[71] In theirindigenous calendar, a week had four days, a month consisted of seven weeks, and 13 months made a year. In the last month, an extra day was added.[72][73] This calendar is still used in indigenous Igbo villages and towns to determine market days.[74] They settled law matters via mediators, and their banking system for loans and savings, called Isusu, is also still used.[75] The Igbo new year, starting with the monthỌ́nwạ́ M̀bụ́ (Igbo:First Moon) occurs on the third week of February,[76] although the traditional start of the year for many Igbo communities is around springtime inỌ́nwạ́ Ágwụ́ (June).[77][78]
Used as a ceremonial script by secret societies, the Igbo have an indigenousideographic set of symbols calledNsibidi, whose origin is now generally attributed to the neighboringEjagham people,[79][80][81][82] though in the 1900s J. K. Macgregor recorded a native tradition attributing it to the Uguakima or Uyanga section of the Igbo.[83][84]
Igbo people produced bronzes from as early as the 9th century, some of which have been found at the town ofIgbo Ukwu,Anambra State.[85]
A system ofindentured servitude existed among the Igbo before and after the encounter with Europeans.[86][87] Indentured service in Igbo areas was described byOlaudah Equiano inhis memoir. He describes the conditions of the slaves in his community of Essaka and points out the difference between the treatment of slaves under the Igbo in Essaka and those in the custody of Europeans in West Indies:
...but how different was their condition from that of the slaves in the West Indies! With us, they do no more work than other members of the community,... even their master;... (except that they were not permitted to eat with those... free-born;) and there was scarce any other difference between them,... Some of these slaves have... slaves under them as their own property... for their own use.[87]
Prior to European contact, Igbo trade routes stretched as far asMecca,Medina andJeddah on the African continent and the Middle East.[88]
Chambers (2002) argues that many of the slaves taken from theBight of Biafra across theMiddle Passage would have been Igbo.[94] These slaves were usually sold to Europeans by theAro Confederacy, who kidnapped or bought slaves from Igbo villages in the hinterland.[95] Igboslaves may have not been victims of slave-raiding wars or expeditions but perhaps debtors or Igbo people who committed within their communities alleged crimes.[96] With the goal for freedom, enslaved Igbo people were known to Europeanplanters as being rebellious outspoken and having a high rate of suicide to escape slavery.[97][98][99] There is evidence that traders sought Igbo women.[100][101] Igbo women were paired withCoromantee (Akan) men to subdue the men because of the belief that the women were bound to their first-born sons' birthplace.
It is alleged that European slave traders were fairly well informed about various African ethnicities, leading to slavers targeting certain ethnic groups that were less challenging to European dominance, which plantation owners preferred. These ethnic groups consequently became fairly concentrated in certain parts of the Americas.[102] While those that were outspoken, like the Igbo people, were dispersed to colonies such asJamaica,[16]Cuba,[16]Saint-Domingue,[16]Barbados,[103]Colonial America,[104]Belize[105] andTrinidad and Tobago,[106] among others.
Elements of Igbo culture can still be found in these places. For example, inJamaican Patois, the Igbo wordunu, meaning "you" plural, is still used.[107] "Red Ibo" (or "red eboe") describes ablack person with fair or "yellowish" skin. This term had originated from the prevalence of theseskin tones among the Igbo people, but eastern Nigerian influences may not be strictly Igbo.[108] The wordBim, a colloquial term forBarbados, was commonly used among enslavedBarbadians (Bajans). This word is said to have derived frombém in the Igbo language meaning 'my place or people', but may have other origins (see:Barbados etymology).[109][110] A section ofBelize City was namedEboe Town after its Igbo inhabitants.[111]
In the United States, the Igbo were imported to theChesapeake Bay colonies and states ofMaryland andVirginia, where they constituted the largest group of Africans.[112][113] Since the late 20th century, a wave of Nigerian immigrants, mostly English and Igbo-speaking, have settled in Maryland, attracted to its strong professional job market.[114] They were also imported to the southern borders ofGeorgia andSouth Carolina considered the low country and whereGulluh culture still preserves African traditions of its ancestors. Today, there is an area calledIgbo Landing, where a group of Igbo had tried to drown themselves, rather than become slaves, when they disembarked the slave ship.
The establishment of British colonial rule in present-day Nigeria and increased encounters between the Igbo and other ethnicities near the Niger River led to a deepening sense of a distinct Igbo ethnic identity. The Igbo proved decisive and enthusiastic in their embrace of Christianity and Western-style education.[115][116] Because of the incompatibility of the Igbo decentralized style of government and the centralized system including the appointment of warrant chiefs required for British system ofindirect rule, the periodcolonial rule was marked with numerous conflicts and tension.[86] During the colonial era, the diversity within each of Nigeria's major ethnic groups slowly decreased, and distinctions between the Igbo and other large ethnic groups, such as theHausa and theYoruba, became sharper.[117]
The establishment of British colonial rule transformed Igbo society, as portrayed inChinua Achebe's novelThings Fall Apart. Colonial rule brought about changes in culture, such as the introduction of warrant chiefs asEze (indigenous rulers) where there were no such monarchies.[118] Christian missionaries introduced aspects of European ideology into Igbo society and culture, sometimes shunning parts of the culture.[119] The rumours that the Igbo women were being assessed for taxation sparked off the 1929Igbo Women's War inAba (also known as the 1929 Aba Riots), a massive revolt of women never encountered before in Igbo history.[120]
Aspects of Igbo culture such as construction of houses, education and religion changed following colonialism. The tradition of building houses out of mud walls andthatched roofs ended as the people shifted to materials such as concrete blocks for houses and metal roofs. Roads for vehicles were built. Buildings such as hospitals and schools were erected in many parts of Igboland. Along with these changes, electricity and running water were installed in the early 20th century. With electricity, new technology such as radios and televisions were adopted, and have become commonplace in most Igbo households.[121]
A series of ethnic clashes between NorthernMuslims and the Igbo, and other ethnic groups of Eastern Nigeria Region living in Northern Nigeria took place between 1966 and 1967. Elements in the army had assassinated the Nigerian military head of state GeneralJohnson Aguiyi-Ironsi on 29 July 1966,[124] and peace negotiations failed between the military government that deposed Ironsi and the regional government ofEastern Nigeria at theAburi Talks in Ghana in 1967.[125] These events led to a regional council of the peoples of Eastern Nigeria deciding that the region should secede and proclaim the Republic of Biafra on 30 May 1967.[126] GeneralEmeka Odumegwu-Ojukwu made this declaration and became the head of state of the new republic.[127]
The resultant war, which became known as theNigerian Civil War or the Nigerian-Biafran War, lasted from 6 July 1967 until 15 January 1970, after which the federal government re-absorbed Biafra into Nigeria.[126][128] Several million Eastern Nigerians died from thepogroms against them, such as the1966 anti-Igbo pogrom where between 10,000 and 30,000 Igbo people were killed.[129][130] Many homes, schools, and hospitals were destroyed in the conflict. The federal government of Nigeria denied Igbo people access to their savings placed in Nigerian banks and provided them with little compensation. The war also led to a great deal of discrimination against the Igbo people at the hands of other ethnic groups.[131]
In their struggle, the people of Biafra earned the respect of figures such asJean-Paul Sartre andJohn Lennon, who returned hisMBE, partly in protest against British support for the Nigerian government in the Biafran War.[132]Odumegwu-Ojukwu, stated that the three years of freedom allowed his people to become the most civilized and most technologically advanced black people in the world.[131] In July 2007, Odumegwu-Ojukwu renewed calls for the secession of the Biafran state as a sovereign entity.[133]
Some Igbo subgroups, such as theIkwerre, started dissociating themselves from the larger Igbo population after the war.[134] In the post-war era, Nigeria changed the names of places to non-Igbo-sounding words. For instance, the town ofIgbo-uzo was anglicized toIbusa.[135] Because of discrimination, many Igbo had trouble finding employment, and during the early 1970s, the Igbo became one of the poorest ethnic groups in Nigeria.[136][137][138]
However, since then, the Igbo people have rebuilt their cities by themselves without any support from the federal government of Nigeria. This led to the establishment of new factories, and industry in south-eastern Nigeria, making the Igbo people some of the wealthiest ethnic groups in Nigeria. Many Igbo people eventually took government positions,[139] although many were engaged in private business.[140] Since the early 21st century, there has been a wave of Nigerian migration to other African countries, Europe, and the Americas.[141]
Igbo culture includes various customs, practices and traditions of the Igbo people. It comprises archaic practices as well as new concepts that entered Igbo culture either through evolution or outside influences. These customs and traditions include the Igbo people's visual art, use of language, music and dance forms, as well as their attire, cuisine and language variation. Due to the varioussubgroupings of Igbo society, Igbo culture is quite diverse.
Ekpe (leopard society) meeting house.An "Ógwa", an ancestral meeting and reception shrine hall of household patriarchs photographed by P. Talbot
Traditional Igbo architecture predominantly uses locally sourced materials such as mud, clay, wood, bamboo, thatch, and palm fronds.[142] These materials are abundant and well-suited to the local climate. The traditional Igbo dwelling is often organized within a compound, which includes several houses for extended family members arranged around a central courtyard.[142] The courtyard serves as a communal space for gatherings and interactions. Igbo architecture is modular, with structures being added or expanded as family needs grow.[143] This flexibility allows for adaptability over time. Most traditional Igbo houses feature steeply pitched thatched roofs made from palm fronds or grass.[142] The roofs provide insulation, natural ventilation, and protection from rain. Houses may be adorned with decorative patterns and motifs, often carved into wooden beams, walls, and doors. Such designs hold cultural and symbolic significance.
Some Igbo houses have elevated floors, which serve multiple purposes, including protection against flooding, improved ventilation, and storage space underneath.[citation needed] Verandas and raised platforms are common features, offering shaded outdoor spaces for relaxation, socializing, and various activities.[144]
Many Igbo houses incorporate sacred spaces, such as shrines or altars, for religious practices, ancestor veneration, and community rituals.[142] Architectural elements often carry cultural and religious symbolism, reflecting the Igbo worldview and values. Building and maintaining structures involve collective effort, highlighting the communal nature of Igbo society.[citation needed] Igbo architecture takes into account the region's climate and natural surroundings, using design elements that promote comfort and harmony with the environment. In some Igbo communities, wooden communication towers called "ogene" or "isiokwe" are erected for signaling and communication during events or gatherings. Towers were common, in Igbo architecture, oftenTwo-storey buildings,[citation needed] which disproves the popular western myth that Africans didn't have multi-story buildings prior to Colonization.[145]
One of the unique structures of Igbo culture were theNsude pyramids, which was a form ofstep pyramid built at the town ofNsude, in modern dayEnugu, northernIgboland. Ten pyramidal structures were built of clay and mud. The first base section was 60 ft (18 m) in circumference and 3 ft (0.91 m) in height. The next stack was 45 ft (14 m) in circumference. Circular stacks continued, until it reached the top. The structures were temples for the god Ala/Uto, who was believed to reside at the top. A stick was placed at the top to represent the god's residence. The structures were laid in groups of five parallel to each other. Because it was built of clay/mud, time has taken its toll requiring periodic reconstruction.[146]
Igbo art is noted forMbari architecture.[147] Mbari houses of theOwerri-Igbo are large opened-sided square planned shelters. They house many life-sized, painted figures (sculpted in mud to appease theAlusi (deity) andAla, theearth goddess, with other deities of thunder and water).[148] Other sculptures are of officials, craftsmen, foreigners (mainly Europeans), animals, legendary creatures and ancestors.[148] Mbari houses take years to build in what is regarded as a sacred process. When new ones are constructed, old ones are left to decay.[148] Everyday houses were made of mud with thatched roofs and bare earth floors with carved design doors. Some houses had elaborate designs both in the interior and exterior. These designs could includeUli art designed by Igbo women.[149]
Examples of Igbo architecture
Exterior of Igbo building
A building photographed in the western Igbo area (filed underOnicha Olona by the MAA Cambridge, but possibly from another nearby Igbo town)
Nsibidi ideography existed among the Igbo before the 16th century but died out after it became popular among secret societies, who made Nsibidi a secret form of communication.[151] Igbo language is difficult because of the huge number of dialects, its richness in prefixes and suffixes and its heavy intonation.[152] Igbo is atonal language, and there are hundreds of different Igbo dialects and Igboid languages, such as theIkwerre andEkpeye languages.[25] In 1939, Dr.Ida C. Ward led a research expedition on Igbo dialects which could possibly be used as a basis of a standard Igbo dialect, also known asCentral Igbo. This dialect included that of theOwerri andUmuahia groups, including theOhuhu dialect. This proposed dialect was gradually accepted by missionaries, writers, publishers, andCambridge University.[153]
In 1789,The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano was published in London, England, written byOlaudah Equiano, a former slave. The book features 79 Igbo words.[154] In the first and second chapter, the book illustrates various aspects of Igbo life based on Olaudah Equiano's life in his hometown of Essaka.[155] Although the book was one of the first books published to include Igbo material,Geschichte derMission der evangelischen Brüder auf den caraibischen InselnSt. Thomas,St. Croix undS. Jan (German:History of the Evangelical Brothers' Mission in the Caribbean Islands St. Thomas, St. Croix and St. John),[156] published in 1777, written by the German missionary C. G. A. Oldendorp, was the first book to publish any Igbo material.[154]
Perhaps the most popular and renowned novel that deals with the Igbo and their traditional life was the 1959 book by Chinua Achebe,Things Fall Apart. The novel concerns the influence of British colonial rule and Christian missionaries on a traditional Igbo community during an unspecified time in the late nineteenth or early 20th century. Most of the novel is set in Iguedo, one of nine villages on the lower Niger.[157]
The Igbo people have a musical style into which they incorporate various percussion instruments: theudu, which is essentially designed from a clay jug; anekwe, which is formed from a hollowed log; and theogene, a hand bell designed from forged iron. Other instruments include opi, a wind instrument similar to the flute,igba, and ichaka.[158] Another popular musical form among the Igbo ishighlife. A widely popular musical genre inWest Africa, highlife is a fusion ofjazz and traditional music. The modernIgbo highlife is seen in the works ofDr Sir Warrior,Oliver De Coque,Bright Chimezie andChief Osita Osadebe, who were among the most popular Igbo highlife musicians of the 20th century.[159]
Masking is one of the most common art styles in Igboland and is linked strongly with Igbo traditional music. A mask can be made of wood or fabric, along with other materials including iron and vegetation.[160] Masks have a variety of uses, mainly in social satires, religious rituals, secret society initiations (such as the Ekpe society) and public festivals, which now include Christmas time celebrations.[161] Some of the best known include theAgbogho Mmuo (Igbo:Maiden spirit) masks of the northern Igbo which represent the spirits of deceased maidens and their mothers with masks symbolizing beauty.[160] Other impressive masks include northern IgboIjele masks. At 12 feet (3.7 m) high, Ijele masks consist of platforms 6 feet (1.8 m) in diameter,[160] supporting figures made of coloured cloth and representing everyday scenes with objects such as leopards. Ijele masks are used for honoring the dead to ensure the continuity and well-being of the community and are only seen on rare occasions such as the death of a prominent figure in the community.[160]
There are many Igbo dance styles, but perhaps, Igbo dance is best known for itsatilogwu dance troops. These performances include acrobatic stunts such as high kicks andcartwheels, with each rhythm from the indigenous instruments indicating a movement to the dancer.[162] TheEgedege Dance is an Igbo traditional Royal-styled cultural dance of South Eastern Nigeria.[163]
The Igbo traditional religion is known asOdinani.[46] The supreme deity is calledChukwu ("great spirit"); Chukwu created the world and everything in it and is associated with all things in the universe. They believe thecosmos is divided into four complex parts: creation, known as Okike; supernatural forces or deities calledAlusi;Mmuo, which are gods/spirits; and Uwa, the earthly world.[164]
Chukwu is the supreme deity in Odinani and considered the creator deity, and the Igbo people believe that all things ultimately came from him,[165] and that everything on earth,heaven and the rest of the spiritual world is under his supervision.[166] Linguistic studies of the Igbo language suggest that the nameChukwu is a compound of the Igbo wordsChi (spiritual being) andUkwu (great in size).[167] Each individual is born with a spiritual guide/guardian angel or guardian principle, "Chi", unique to each individual and the individual's fate and destiny is determined by their Chi. Thus, the Igbos say that the siblings may come of the same mother, but no two people have the same Chi and thus different destinies for all.Alusi, alternatively known as Arusi or Arushi (depending on dialect), are minordeities that are worshiped and served in Odinani. There are many different Alusi, each with its own purpose. When an individual deity is no longer needed, or becomes too violent, it is discarded.[168]
The Igbo have traditionally believed in the possibility forreincarnation of individuals within the family. People are believed to be able to reincarnate into families that they were part of while alive. Before a relative dies, it is said that the soon to be deceased relative sometimes give clues of who they will reincarnate as in the family. Once a child is born, he or she is believed to give signs of who they have reincarnated from. This can be through behavior, physical traits and statements by the child. A diviner can help in detecting who the child has reincarnated from. It is considered an insult if a male is said to have reincarnated as a female.[169]
Children are not allowed to call elders by their names without using anhonorific (as this is considered disrespectful). As a sign of respect, children are required to greet elders when seeing them for the first time in the day. Children usually add the Igbo honorificsMazi orDede before an elder's name when addressing them.[170][171]
Christianity was introduced to the Igbo people through European colonization in 1857. The Igbo people were hesitant to convert to Christianity initially because they believed the gods of their native religion would bring disaster to them. However, Christianity gradually gained converts in Igbo land, mainly through the work of church agents. These men built schools and focused on persuading the youth to adopt Christian values.[172] The Igbo people today are known as the ethnic group that has adopted Christianity the most in all of Africa.[173]
The Holy Ghost depicted as a dove on a relief inOnitsha
The Igbo people were unaffected by the Islamic jihad waged in Nigeria in the 19th century, but a small minority converted to Islam in the 20th century.[174] There is also a small population ofIgbo Jews,[175] some of whom merely identifying as Jews, while others having converted to Judaism. These draw their inspiration fromOlaudah Equiano, a Christian-educated freed slave who remarked in his autobiography of 1789 on "the strong analogy which... appears to prevail in the manners and customs of my countrymen and those of the Jews, before they reached the Land of Promise, and particularly the patriarchs while they were yet in that pastoral state which is described in Genesis—an analogy, which alone would induce me to think that the one people had sprung from the other." Equiano's speculation has given rise to a great debate on the origins of the Igbo.
After a death, the body of a prominent member of society is placed on a stool in a sitting posture and is clothed in the deceased's finest garments. Animal sacrifices may be offered, and the dead person is well perfumed.[176] Burial usually follows within 24 hours of death. In the 21st century, the head of a home is usually buried within the compound of his residence.[171] Different types of deaths warrant different types of burials. This is determined by an individual's age, gender and status in society. Children are buried in hiding and out of sight; their burials usually take place in the early mornings and late nights. A simple untitled man is buried in front of his house and a simple mother is buried in her place of origin: in a garden or a farm-area that belonged to her father.[177] In the 21st century, a majority of the Igbo bury their dead in the western way, although it is not uncommon for burials to be practiced in the traditional Igbo ways.[178]
The process of marrying usually involves asking the young woman's consent, introducing the woman to the man's family and the same for the man to the woman's family, testing the bride's character, checking the woman's family background, and paying the brides' wealth.[179] Typically speaking, bride wealth is more symbolic. Nonetheless,kola nuts, wine, goats, and chickens, among other things, are listed in the proposal, as well. Negotiating the bride wealth can also take more than one day, giving both parties time for a ceremonial feast.[180] Marriages were sometimes arranged from birth through negotiation of the two families.[181] However, after a series of interviews conducted in the 1990s with 250 Igbo women, it was found that 94.4% of that sample population disapproved of arranged marriages.[182]
A traditional Igbo wedding ceremonyA modern Igbo wedding inNnewi, Nigeria
In the past, many Igbo men practicedpolygamy. The polygamous family is made up of a man and his wives and all their children.[171] Men sometimes married multiple wives for economic reasons so as to have more people in the family, including children, to help on farms.[183] Christian and civil marriages have changed the Igbo family since colonization. Igbo people now tend to entermonogamouscourtships and createnuclear families, mainly because of Western influence.[184] Some Western marriage customs, such as weddings in achurch, take place either before or after the lgbo cultural traditional marriage.[185]
Traditionally, the attire of the Igbo generally consisted of little clothing, as the purpose of clothing originally was simply to conceal private parts. Because of this purpose, children were often nude from birth until the beginning of their adolescence—the time they were considered to have something to hide.[186] Uli body art was used to decorate both men and women in the form of lines forming patterns and shapes on the body.[187]
Men wearing contemporaryIsiagu with the ceremonial Igbo men's hatokpu agu
Women traditionally carry their babies on their backs with a strip of clothing binding the two with a knot at her chest, a practice used by many ethnic groups across Africa.[188] This method has been modernized in the form of thechild carrier. Maidens usually wore a short wrapper with beads around their waist and other ornaments such as necklaces and beads.[188] Both men and women wore wrappers.[187][188] Men would wearloincloths that wrapped round their waist and between their legs to be fastened at their back, the type of clothing appropriate for the intense heat as well as jobs such as farming.[187][188]
Our principal luxury is in perfumes; one sort of these is an odoriferous wood of delicious fragrance: the other a kind of earth; a small portion of which thrown into the fire diffuses a most powerful odor. We beat this wood into powder, and mix it withpalm oil; with which both men and women perfume themselves.
As colonialism became more influential, the Igbo adapted their dress customs.[190] Clothing worn before colonialism became "traditional" and worn on cultural occasions. Modern Igbo traditional attire, for men, is generally made up of theIsiagu top, which resembles theDashiki worn by other African groups. Isiagu (orishi agu) is usually patterned with lions' heads embroidered over the clothing and can be a plain colour.[191] It is worn with trousers and can be worn with either a ceremonial title holders hat or with the conventionalstriped men's hat known asokpu agu.[192] For women, a puffed sleeveblouse along with two wrappers and a head tie are worn.[188][190]
Theyam is very important to the Igbo as thestaple crop. It is known for its resiliency (a yam can remain fully edible for six months without refrigeration), but it can also be very versatile in terms of its incorporation into different dishes.[194] Yams can be fried, roasted, boiled, or made into a potage withtomatoes and herbs. The cultivation of yams is most commonly carried out by men, as women tend to focus on other crops.[195]
There are celebrations such as theNew Yam festival (Igbo:Iwaji) which are held for the harvesting of the yam.[196] During the festival, yam is eaten throughout the communities as celebration. Yam tubers are shown off by individuals as a sign of success and wealth.[197] Rice has replaced yam for many ceremonial occasions. Other indigenous foods include cassava,garri, maize and plantains. Soups or stews are included in a typical meal, prepared with avegetable (such asokra, of which the word derives from the Igbo language,okwuru)[198] to which pieces of fish, chicken, beef, or goat meat are added.Jollof rice is popular throughoutWest Africa, andpalm wine is a popular alcoholic traditional beverage.[199]
The 1930s saw the rise of Igbo unions in the cities of Lagos and Port Harcourt. Later, the Ibo Federal Union (renamed the Ibo State Union in 1948) emerged as an umbrellapan-ethnic organization. Headed byNnamdi Azikiwe, it was closely associated with theNational Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons, which he co-founded withHerbert Macaulay. The aim of the organization was the improvement and advancement (such as in education) of the Igbo and their indigenous land and included an Igbo "national anthem" with a plan for an Igbo bank.[200][201]
In 1978, afterOlusegun Obasanjo's military regime lifted the ban on independent political activity, theOhanaeze Ndigbo organization was formed, an elite umbrella organization which speaks on behalf of the Igbo people.[202][203] Their main concerns are the marginalization of the Igbo people in Nigerian politics and the neglect of indigenous Igbo territory in social amenities and development of infrastructure. Other groups which protest the perceived marginalization of the Igbo people are the Igbo Peoples Congress.[204] Even before the 20th century, there were numerous Igbo unions and organizations existing around the world, such as the Igbo union inBathurst, Gambia in 1842, founded by a prominent Igbo trader and ex-soldier named Thomas Refell. Another was the union founded by the Igbo community inFreetown, Sierra Leone by 1860, of whichAfricanus Horton, a surgeon, scientist and soldier, was an active member.[205]
Decades after the Nigerian-Biafran war, the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB), a secessionist group, was founded in September 1999 by Ralph Uwazurike for the goal of an independent Igbo state. Since its creation, there have been several conflicts between its members and the Nigerian government, resulting in the death of members.[204][206][207] After the 2015 Nigerian general elections a group known as theIndigenous People of Biafra became the most prominent vocal group for the agitation of the creation of an independent state of Biafra through a radio station namedRadio Biafra.[208][209][210] For the promotion of the Igbo language and culture, theSociety for Promoting Igbo Language and Culture was founded in 1949 by Frederick Chidozie Ogbalu and has since created a standard dialect for Igbo.[211][212]
The official data on the population of ethnic groups in Nigeria continues to be controversial as a minority of these groups have claimed that the government deliberately deflates the official population of one group, to give the other numerical superiority.[215][216][217] TheCIA World Factbook puts the Igbo population of Nigeria at 15.2% of a total population of 230 million, or approximately 35 million people.[218]
Southeastern Nigeria, which is inhabited primarily by the Igbo, is the most densely populated area in Nigeria and possibly in all of Africa.[219][220] Most ethnicities that inhabit southeastern Nigeria, such as the closely relatedEfik andIbibio people, are sometimes regarded as Igbo by otherNigerians andethnographers who are not well informed about the southeast.[221][222]
^Oriji, John N. (2011).Political Organization in Nigeria since the Late Stone Age: A History of the Igbo People. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 5.ISBN978-0-230-62193-0.
^Jeffrey, M. D. W (1956). "The Umunri Tradition of Origin".African Studies.15 (3):119–131.doi:10.1080/00020185608706990.
^Williamson & Blench (2000) 'Niger–Congo', in Heine & Nurse,African Languages.ISBN9780521661782
^Kay Williamson in Ebiegberi Joe Alagoa, F. N. Anozie, Nwanna Nzewunwa (eds.),The Early History of the Niger Delta (1988)92f.ISBN978-3871188480
^Holl, Augustin F. C. (6 November 2009). "Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy".Journal of World Prehistory.22 (4):415–438.doi:10.1007/s10963-009-9030-6.S2CID161611760.
^Njoku, Onwuka N. (2002).Pre-colonial economic history of Nigeria. Ethiope Publishing Corporation, Benin City, Nigeria.ISBN978-978-2979-36-0.
^Onwuejeogwu, M. Angulu (1981).An Igbo civilization: Nri kingdom & hegemony. Ethnographica.ISBN978-978-123-105-6.
^Aguwa, Jude C. U. (1995).The Agwu deity in Igbo religion. Fourth Dimension Publishing Co., Ltd. p. 29.ISBN978-978-156-399-7.
^Hammer, Jill (2006).The Jewish book of days: a companion for all seasons. Jewish Publication Society. p. 224.ISBN978-0-8276-0831-3.
^Carlson, Amanda (2004). "Nsibidi: An Indigenous Writing System". In Peek, Philip M.; Yankah, Kwesi (eds.).African Folklore: An Encyclopedia (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 599.ISBN978-0-415-93933-1.Scholars believe that nsibidi originated among the Ejagham, who use it more extensively than any other group in the region. The spread ofnsibidi may have been a result of Ejagham migrations or their practice of selling the secrets of the Ejagham men's Leopard Society (Ngbe) to their neighbors (the Igbo, Efik, Ibibio, Efut, Banyang, and others).
^Slogar, Christopher (2007). "Early Ceramics from Calabar, Nigeria: Towards a History of Nsibidi".African Arts.40 (1):18–19.doi:10.1162/afar.2007.40.1.18.ISSN0001-9933.Nsibidi is generally thought to have originated among the Ejagham peoples of the northern Cross River region, in large part because colonial investigators found the greatest number and variety of signs among them.
^Thompson, Robert Farris (1984).Flash of the Spirit: African and Afro-American Art and Philosophy. New York: Vintage Books. pp. 227, 244.ISBN978-0-394-72369-3.The Ejagham developed a unique form of ideographic writing, signs representing ideas and callednsibidi, signs embodying many powers, including the essence of all that is valiant, just, and ordered ... The late king of Oban in southern Ejagham told me in the summer of 1978 thatnsibidi emerged in the dreams of certain men who thus received its secrets and later 'presented it outside'.
^Talbot, Percy Amaury; Mulhall, H. (1962).The physical anthropology of Southern Nigeria. Cambridge University Press. p. 5.
^Lovejoy, Paul E. (2003).Trans-Atlantic Dimensions of Ethnicity in the African Diaspora. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 92–93.ISBN978-0-8264-4907-8.
^Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (2002).Voices of the Poor in Africa. Boydell & Brewer. p. 81.
^Rucker, Walter C. (2006).The River Flows on: Black Resistance, Culture, and Identity Formation in Early America. LSU Press. p. 52.ISBN978-0-8071-3109-1.
^Berlin, Ira."African Immigration to Colonial America". History Now. Archived fromthe original on 19 September 2008.(paragraph 11) Preferences on both side of the Atlantic determined, to a considerable degree, which enslaved Africans went where and when, populating the mainland with unique combinations of African peoples and creating distinctive regional variations in the Americas.
^Robotham, Don (13 January 2008)."Jamaica and Africa (Part II)".Gleaner Company. Archived fromthe original on 26 December 2008. Retrieved23 November 2008....It is not possible to declare that the Eastern Nigerian influence in Jamaica – apparent in expressions such as 'red ibo' – is Igbo.
^"John Lennon". Rock and Roll Hall of Fame + Museum. 2007. Retrieved24 November 2008.September 1, 1969: John Lennon returns his MBE. He says it is to protest the British government's involvement in Biafra, its support of the U.S. in Vietnam and the poor chart performance of his latest single, 'Cold Turkey'.
^"Nsibidi".National Museum of African Art.Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved25 February 2010.Nsibidi is an ancient system of graphic communication indigenous to the Ejagham peoples of southeastern Nigeria and the southwestern Cameroon in the Cross River region. It is also used by neighboring Ibibio, Efik and Igbo peoples.
^Oraka, L. N. (1983).The foundations of Igbo studies. University Publishing Co. pp. 17, 13.ISBN978-978-160-264-1.
^Uchendu, Egodi (1 January 2010). "Being Igbo and Muslim: The Igbo of South-Eastern Nigeria and Conversions to Islam, 1930s to Recent Times".The Journal of African History.51 (1):63–87.doi:10.1017/s0021853709990764.JSTOR40985002.S2CID162414965.
^Bruder, Edith (2008).The Black Jews of Africa: History, Religion, Identity. Oxford University Press. p. 143.ISBN978-0-19-533356-5.
^OKONJO, KAMENE (1992). "Aspects of Continuity and Change in Mate-Selection Among the Igbo West of the River Niger".Journal of Comparative Family Studies.23 (3):339–360.doi:10.3138/jcfs.23.3.339.ISSN0047-2328.JSTOR41602232.
^Uchendu, Patrick Kenechukwu (1995).Education and the Changing Economic Role of Nigerian Women. Fourth Dimension Publishing. p. 114.ISBN978-978-156-403-1.Formerly, there were many polygamous marriages because of the need for many hands to work in the farm.
^Nwogu, Nneoma V. (2007).Shaping truth, reshaping justice: sectarian politics and the Nigerian truth commission. Lexington Books.ISBN978-0-7391-2249-5.
Chidi Leonard Ilechukwu:Igbo: Indigenous Economy and the Search for Sustainable Development in Post Colonial African Society. Cidjap Press, Enugu, Nigeria 2008,ISBN978-978-087-181-9.
Njaka, Elechukwu Nnadibuagha (1974).Igbo political culture. Northwestern University Press.ISBN978-0-8101-0428-0.
Society
Rwomire, Apollo (2001).Social Problems in Africa: New Visions. Praeger/Greenwood.ISBN978-0-275-96343-9.
Emenyonu, Ernest, ed. (2003).Emerging Perspectives on Chinua Achebe. Africa World Press.ISBN978-0-86543-876-7.
Smith, David Jordan (2004). "Igbo".Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures. Volume I: Topics and Cultures A–K. Springer.ISBN978-0-306-47770-6.
Okpala, Benneth (2003).Toasting the Bride: Memoirs of Milestones to Manhood (2nd ed.). Trafford Publishing.ISBN978-1-4120-0777-1.
P.E. Aligwekwe, The Continuity of Traditional Values in the African Societies (the Igbo of Nigeria), Xlibris Publishing Company, IN, USA, 2008.
Diaspora
Chambers, Douglas B. (2005).Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia. Univ. Press of Mississippi.ISBN978-1-57806-706-0.
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