TheIberian language is the language or family of languages of an indigenous western European people (theIberians), identified byGreek andRoman sources, who lived in the eastern and southeastern regions of theIberian Peninsula in the pre-Migration Era (before about AD 375). An ancient Iberian culture can be identified as existing between the 7th and 1st centuries BC, at least.
Iberian inscriptions are found along theMediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula, reaching up to the riverHérault in the south of France. Important written remains have been found inEnsérune, betweenNarbonne andBéziers in France, in anoppidum with mixed Iberian andCeltic elements. The southern limit would bePorcuna, inJaén (Spain), where splendid sculptures of Iberian riders have been found. Further inland, the exact distribution of the Iberian language inscriptions is uncertain. It seems that the culture reached the interior through theEbro river (Iberus in Latin) as far asSalduie, but no further.[citation needed]
For some scholars, such asVelaza (2006), Iberian could have been the language spoken by the autochthonous population of these territories, while for others, such asDe Hoz (1993), Iberian could have been more of alingua franca.
The origin of the language is unknown. Although Iberian ceased to be written in the 1st century AD, it may have survived in some areas until theVisigothic period (ca. 500s to 700s), according toRamón Menéndez Pidal.[2]
There are several theories about the geographical origin of Iberian. According to theCatalan theory,[3] the Iberian language originated in northern Catalonia, where the earliest Iberian inscriptions are documented (600 BC inUllastret). Its expansion towards the north and south would have been due to broad population movements in times shortly before the first written documents, from the 11th to the 10th century BC, given that the Iberian language appears homogeneous in Iberian texts and, if it were of greater antiquity, the development ofdialects should be evident. The presence of non-interpretable elements, such as Iberiananthroponyms amongst inscriptions in this area has not been considered statistically significant.[citation needed]
The oldest Iberian inscriptions date to the 6th century BC or maybe the 5th century BC and the latest ones date from the end of the 1st century BC or maybe the beginning of the 1st century AD. More than two thousand Iberian inscriptions are currently known. Most are short texts onceramic with personal names, which are usually interpreted as ownership marks. Manycoins minted by Iberian communities during the Roman Republic have legends in Iberian. The longest Iberian texts were made onlead plaques; the most extensive is fromYátova (Valencia) with more than six hundred signs.
Three different scripts have remained for the Iberian language:
Lead plaque from La Bastida de les Alcuses (Mogente) using thesoutheastern Iberian scriptLead plaque from Castellet de Bernabè, Valencia
Thenortheastern Iberian script is also known as the Iberian script, because it is theIberian script most frequently used (95% of the extant texts (Untermann 1990)). The northeastern Iberian inscriptions have been found mainly in the northeastern quadrant of theIberian Peninsula: chiefly on the coast fromLanguedoc-Roussillon toAlicante, but with a deep penetration into theEbro valley. This script is almost completely deciphered.
All thepaleohispanic scripts, with the exception of theGreco-Iberian alphabet, share a common distinctive typological characteristic: they use signs with syllabic value for theocclusives and signs with monophonematic value for the remainingconsonants and forvowels. From awriting systems point of view, they are neitheralphabets norsyllabaries; rather, they are "mixed" scripts that are normally identified assemi-syllabaries. Regarding their origin, there is no agreement among researchers; for some linguists, they are linked only to thePhoenician alphabet, while others see theGreek alphabet as playing a part.
The Greco-Iberianalphabet is a direct adaptation of anIonic variant of aGreek alphabet to the specificities of the Iberian language. The inscriptions that use the Greco-Iberian alphabet have been found mainly inAlicante andMurcia.
Very little is known for certain about Iberian. The investigation of the language is past its initial phase of transcription and compiling material, and is currently in the phase of identifying grammatical elements in the texts. The hypotheses currently proposed are unconfirmed, and are likely to remain so unless the discovery of abilingual text allows linguists to confirm their deductions.
Iberian appears to have five vowels commonly transcribed asa e i o u. Some other languages on the peninsula such asBasque and modernSpanish also have such systems. Although five-vowel systems are extremely common all over the world, it has been suggested that this may point to aSprachbund amongst the ancient languages of the Iberian peninsula.[4]
The unrounded vowels (in frequency order:a, i, e) appear more frequently than the rounded vowels (u, o). Although there are indications of a nasal vowel (ḿ), this is thought to be anallophone. Judging by Greek transcriptions, it seems that there were no vowel length distinctions; if this is correct then Iberian uses the longē (Greek:ἦτα,romanized: êta) as opposed to the short epsilonGreek:ἒ ψιλόν,romanized: è psilón.
It seems that the second element ofdiphthongs was always a closed vowel, as inai (śaitabi),ei (neitin), andau (lauŕ). Untermann observed that the diphthongui could only be found in the first cluster.
It is possible that Iberian had thesemivowels/j/ (in words such asaiun oriunstir) and/w/ (only in loanwords such asdiuiś fromGaulish). The fact that/w/ is lacking in native words casts doubt on whether semivowels really existed in Iberian outside of foreign borrowings and diphthongs.
^abcd⟨s⟩ and ⟨r⟩ are sometimes alternatively transcribed as ⟨z⟩ and ⟨rr⟩ respectively, in which case ⟨ś⟩ and ⟨ŕ⟩ are transcribed as ⟨s⟩ and ⟨r⟩ instead.
Rhotics: There are two rhoticsr andŕ. Iberian specialists do not agree about the phonetic values assigned to either rhotic. Correa (1994) hypothesized thatŕ was analveolar flap/ɾ/ andr was a "compound vibrant", that is, atrill/r/. Later, Rodríguez Ramos (2004) suggested thatŕ was an alveolar flap/ɾ/ andr is aretroflex flap/ɽ/ in line with Ballester (2001) who thought thatr represents auvularfricative/ʁ/. However, Ballester (2005) later changed his hypothesis and tookr for an alveolar flap/ɾ/ andŕ for the alveolar trill/r/. Neitherr norŕ occurs word-initially, which is also the case inBasque.
Sibilants: There are two sibilantss andś. The distinction is unclear, and there are multiple proposals. Ballester (2001) theorizes thats was an alveolar/s/ andś was analveolo-palatal/ɕ/. Rodríguez Ramos (2004) proposes thatś was alveolar/s/ ands was an affricate, either dental/alveolar/t͡s/ or palatal/t͡ʃ/ (like English "ch"). This proposal coincides with the observation by Correa on adaptations of Gallic names in Iberian texts.
Laterals: The laterall is normally interpreted as/l/. It is extremely rare in final position and it could be that the distribution is on occasion complementary withŕ:aŕikal-er ~aŕikaŕ-bi.
m: Researchers studying Iberian do not agree on the kind of nasal represented by this letter. The letterm rarely occurs word-initially. Velaza (1996) hypothesizes it could be an allophone of medialn, as shown in the example ofiumstir/iunstir. José A. Correa (1999) suggests it may be ageminate or strong nasal. Ballester (2001) considers it to be alabialized nasal in Iberian and in Celtiberian. Rodríguez Ramos (2004) mentions that it could be an allophone ofn where it nasalizes the preceding vowel.
There is some controversy over the sign transcribed asḿ. While it is thought to be some type of nasal, there is no certainty as to its phonetic value. Several linguists agree on the value[na], based on similarities with texts written in the Greek alphabet, as there are similarities between the suffixes-ḿi /-nai, and in theonomastic elements-ḿbar- /-nabar-. Another part of this theory seems to contradict itself with the transcription ofḿbar-beleś into Latin asVMARBELES. Correa (1999) proposes that it was alabialized nasal. It is not even clear that the sign is always pronounced in the same form. Rodríguez Ramos (2004) considers it a nasalized vowel, produced by progressive nasalization.
While some scripts appear to distinguish between/d/ and/t/, as well as/ɡ/ and/k/, others don't. This could be due to several factors: it's possible there was a degree of allophony between voiced and unvoiced plosives; or perhaps there wasn't, and the lack of orthographic distinction was an idiosyncrasy, possibly resulting from the Iberians having adapted their writing system from a language that did not have voicing distinctions (such asEtruscan, or the as-of-yet undecipheredTartessian language).
The evidence indicates the non-existence of a phonemep as it is not documented either in the Greek alphabet or in the dual Iberian systems. It is only found in Latin inscriptions naming native Iberians and is thought to be an allophone ofb.
It has been suggested that the phonemeb would on occasions have been pronounced similar tow (this would be explained by the frequency of the signbu), and as such it could have had a nasalized pronunciation.
There are a number of knownaffixes, especially applied to last names. For the Iberian language these seem to bepostpositional, and apparently moreagglutinative thanfusional.
The best-known are the following:
-ar: applied to proper names to mark possession.
-en: of a similar or identical use to-ar.
-ka: seems to indicate the person who receives something.
-te: seems to indicate the ergative.
-ku: seems to indicate the ablative.[6] Possibly related to the Basque local genitive-ko.
-ken /-sken: usually understood as genitive plural because of its use on coins in ethnical names (with parallels on Latin and Greek coins).
-k: has been proposed on occasions to mark the plural.-k is a plural marker in Basque.
There are some words for which there has been surmised a more or less probable meaning:[7]
aŕe take as akin to the Latin formulahic est situs ("here he is") (Untermann 1990, 194) because of a bilingual inscription fromTarragona C.18.6
eban andebanen as equivalent to the Latincoeravit ("he cared [to be done]") in tombstones (Untermann 1990, 194), because of a bilingual inscription fromSagunto F.11.8
iltiŕ andiltun as typical Iberian toponyms for city names, meaning something like "city" / "town"[8]
ekiar: verb or verbal noun with a meaning like "to do" / "to make" compared with the Basque verbegin (Beltrán 1942;[9] Correa 1994, 284).Likine-te ekiar Usekerte-ku with a meaning akin to "made by Likinos of Osicerda" (Correa 1994, 282)
seltar andsiltar as meaning something like "tomb" on tombstones (Untermann 1990, 194).[10]
śalir as meaning something like "money" / "coin", because of its use in coins (asiltiŕta-śalir-ban) and its use in lead plaque inscriptions adjacent to numbers and quantities (Untermann 1990, 191).[11]
Villamor (2020)[12] created a dictionary of about 500 Iberian words based on existing records of the language. This dictionary includes words such as
bilos meaning "people", "tribe", compared to Basquebildu, "to gather".
kas meaning "knowledge", "experience", possibly connected to Basqueikasi, "to learn", "to study".
lagun meaning "friend", "companion", compared to Basquelagun, "friend", "colleague".
beri meaning "new", "recent" or "first-time", compared to Basqueberri or Aquitanian*berri, "new".
luŕa meaning "land", "ground", most likely connected to Basquelur, "earth", "soil".
an meaning "big", "great", possibly connected to Basquehandi, "big", "large".
Villamor also included examples of the use of some words from the original Iberian texts with their further translation, including
baŕkarbaŕkaike →baŕ kar baŕ ka ik e → Outstanding authority, the result of outstanding self-control.
koŕasiŕen. neŕseoŕtinika. kaisuŕanaŕika. →koŕ as iŕ en. neŕse oŕdin iga. kais uŕ an aŕi (i)ga. → For satiating us with favors. For the arrival of a fertile husband. For the arrival of steady mild rains.
tautintibaś.sani.giŕśdo.uŕketigeś →tautin tibaś sani giŕś do uŕke tigeś → Offering in recognition of the total victory over the enemy.
Thanks to the Latin Inscription of the plaque of Ascoli, which includes a list of Iberian cavalry soldiers in the Roman army (theTurma Salluitana attested in theBronze of Ascoli), the forms of Iberian proper names have been unraveled. Iberian names are formed mainly by two interchangeable elements, each usually formed of two syllables, which are written together (Untermann 1998). For example, the element "iltiŕ" can be found in the following names:iltiŕaŕker,iltiŕbaś,iltiŕtikeŕ,tursiltiŕ,baiseiltiŕ orbekoniltiŕ. This discovery was a giant step: from this moment it was possible to identify with some kind of confidence the names of persons in the texts. Nevertheless, the list of components of Iberian names varies between researchers. The basic list comes from Untermann (1990) and was recently updated by Rodríguez Ramos (2002b); complementary data and criteria can be found in the Faria papers (the last two: 2007a and 2007b).
The following list includes some of the elements proposed as components of Iberian names:abaŕ,aibe,aile,ain,aitu,aiun,aker,albe,aloŕ,an,anaŕ,aŕbi,aŕki,aŕs,asai,aster,ata,atin,atun,aunin,auŕ,austin,baiser,balaŕ,balke,bartaś,baś,bastok,bekon,belauŕ,beleś,bels,bene,beŕ,beri,beŕon,betan,betin,bikir,bilos,bin,bir,bitu,biuŕ,bolai,boŕ,boś,boton,ekes,ekaŕ,eler,ena,esto,eten,eter,iar,iaun,ibeś,ibeis,ike,ikoŕ,iltiŕ,iltur,inte,iskeŕ,istan,iunstir,iur,kaisur,kakeŕ,kaltuŕ,kani,kaŕes,kaŕko,katu,keŕe,kibaś,kine,kitaŕ,kon,koŕo,koŕś,kuleś,kurtar,lako,lauŕ,leis,lor,lusban,nalbe,neitin,neŕse,nes,niś,nios,oŕtin,sakaŕ,sakin,saltu,śani,śar,seken,selki,sike,sili,sine,sir,situ,soket,sor,sosin,suise,taker,talsku,tan,tanek,taneś,taŕ,tarban,taŕtin,taś,tautin,teita,tekeŕ,tibaś,tikeŕ,tikirs,tikis,tileis,tolor,tuitui,tumar,tuŕś,turkir,tortin,ulti,unin,uŕke,ustain,ḿbaŕ,nḿkei.
In some cases, linguists have encountered simple names, with only one element for a suffix:BELES,AGER-DO andBIVR-NO are in the plaque of Ascoli,neitin inUllastret andlauŕ-to,bartas-ko orśani-ko in other Iberian texts. More rarely there have been indications of a linking element, which can be-i-,-ke- or-ta- (Untermann usedoto-iltiŕ in front ofoto-ke-iltiŕ or withAEN-I-BELES). In rare cases Untermann also encountered an elementis- oro- prefacing a proper name (is-betartiker;o-tikiŕtekeŕ;O-ASAI).
In the elements that formed Iberian names it is common to encounter patterns of variation, as ineter/eten/ete with the same variations as iniltur/iltun/iltu;kere/keres aslako/lakos; oralos/alor/alo andbikis/bikir/biki).
Some Iberianonomastic elements have look-alikes inAquitanian orBasque. This has been explained by Vascologists like Mitxelena[13] as an "onomastic pool". However, since the meaning of most Iberian words remains opaque to date, the connection remains speculative except in a very small number of cases.[14] An ancientsprachbund involving these two languages is deemed likely by some linguists.[4] But as Trask notes,[15] Basque has been of no help in translating Iberian inscriptions.
Whether Iberian and Basque are two languages of the same language family is still a much-debated question. Many experts on Iberian suspect that there is a relationship of some sort between Iberian andAquitanian, a precursor of theBasque language. But there is not enough evidence to date to ascertain whether the two languages belong to the same language family or whether the relationship is due tolinguistic borrowing.[16] Lexical and onomastic coincidences could be due to borrowing, while the similarities in the phonological structures of the two languages could be due to linguistic areal phenomena (cf. the similarities between Basque andOld Spanish in spite of being languages of two different families). More scientific studies on the Iberian language are needed to shed light on this question.
From a historical perspective, the first features where a relationship between Basque and Iberian was claimed were:
the suffixes-sken /-ken on Iberian coins (which were compared to the genitive plural on similar ancient coins) with the Basque plural (-k) and genitive (-en) endings[17]
Iberian town names containingili (particularlyiliberri), where parallels were drawn with Basquehiri ("town") andberri ("new").[18]
Although other pairs have been proposed (such aseban,ars,-ka,-te), the meanings of these Iberian morphs are still controversial. The main arguments today which relate to coinciding surface forms between Basque and Iberian are:
Phonetics:Proto-Basque phonology, first proposed byMichelena, appears to be very similar to what is known about the Iberian phonological system. It has been claimed that the lack of /m/, common to both Proto-Basque and Iberian, is especially significant[19]).
Onomastics: Aquitanian-Latin inscriptions contain personal and deity names which can clearly be related to modern Basque words, but also show structural and lexical resemblances with Iberian personal names.[20] But Iberian influence on the Aquitanian name system, rather than a genetic link, cannot be dismissed either.
In Iberianiltiŕ andiltur,ili is read "city".[21] Modern Basquehiri, "city", is derived from the very similar Proto-Basque root *ili.[22]
The Iberian genitive ending-en and maybe the genitive plural-(s)ken, compared to the Basque genitive-en and the Basque genitive plural *ag-en as reconstructed by Michelena.[23] But Michelena himself was sceptical about this comparison.
An Iberian formula which frequently appears on tombstones,aŕe take, with variants such asaŕe teike, which on a bilingual inscription from Tarragona may be equivalent to the Latinhic situs est ("here is"), as proposed byHübner.[24] This was compared bySchuchardt (1907)[25] with Basque(h)ara dago "there is/stays".
The Iberian wordekiar, explained as something akin to "he made",[26] proposed to be linked with the Basque verbegin "make"[27]
The Iberian wordśalir explained as "money", "coin" or "value", proposed to be linked to Basque wordsari (probably Proto-Basque *sali) meaning "value", "payment", "reward".[28]
Villamor (2020)[12] claimed that the close relationship between Iberian and Basque can be confirmed through his article, where he collected about 500 Iberian words, a third part of which has similarities with Basque. Among these words we can name:
Iberianbilos, "tribe", "people" compared to Basquebildu, "to gather".
Iberianbin, "to unite" compared to Basquebinatu, "match".
Iberianbiŕ, "to multiply" compared to Basquebirrindu, "to grind".
Iberianbi, "very much", "many" compared to Basquebi, "two".
All these words share the same root "bi-", which has very similar meanings in both languages. Although Villamor's claims can be named fair, the question about the relationship of Iberian and Basque is still open.
Theorized numerals (in red): "borste-abaŕkeborste", in the text of Ullastret.
In 2005Eduardo Orduña published a study showing some Iberian compounds that according to contextual data would appear to be Iberian numerals and show striking similarities with Basque numerals. The study was expanded upon by Joan Ferrer (2007 and 2009) based on terms found on coins, stating their value, and with new combinatorial and contextual data. The comparison proposes the following:
bat "one" (but cf-n final compound forms such asbana "one each")
bi / bin
"two"
biga
bi (olderbiga) "two" (also cf-n final compound forms such asbina "two each")
irur
"three"
hirur
hiru(r) "three"
laur
"four"
laur
lau(r) "four"
borste / bors
"five"
bortz / *bortzV?
bost (olderbortz) "five"
śei
"six"
sei
sei "six"
sisbi
"seven"
zazpi "seven"
sorse
"eight"
zortzi
*zortzi "eight"
abaŕ / baŕ
"ten"
*[h]anbar ?
hamar "ten"
oŕkei
"twenty"
*(h)ogei
hogei "twenty"
The basis of this theory is better understood if we compare some of the attested Iberian compounds with Basque complex numbers (the dots denote morpheme boundaries and are not normally written in Basque; also note that the final-r in numbers 3 and 4 also occurs in bound forms in Basque i.e.hirur- andlaur-):
Iberian word
Basque comparison
Basque Meaning
Basque analysis
abaŕ-ke-bi
hama.bi
"twelve"
"10-2"
abaŕ-ke-borste
hama.bost
"fifteen"
"10-5"
abaŕ-śei
hama.sei
"sixteen"
"10-6"
oŕkei-irur
hogei.ta.hiru
"twenty three"
"20 and 3"
oŕkei-ke-laur
hogei.ta.lau
"twenty four"
"20 and 4"
oŕkei-abaŕ
hogei.ta.(ha)mar
"thirty"
"20 and 10"
oŕkei-(a)baŕ-ban
hogei.ta.(ha)maika
"thirty one"
"20 and 11"
Even so, Orduña does not claim this comparison to be a proof of a family relation between Iberian and Basque, but rather owing to Iberian loanwords in the Basque language. In contrast, Ferrer believes that the similarities could be caused due to both the genetic relationship or the loan, but indicates that the loan of the entire system of numerals is rare (but has been known to occur such as the case ofMiddle Chinese numerals being borrowed wholesale intoVietnamese,Japanese,Korean andThai).
Joseba Lakarra (2010) has rejected both hypotheses: loan and genetic relationship. Lakarra's arguments focus almost exclusively on the field of Basque historical grammar, but also argue, following de Hoz's (1993) hypothesis, that the hypothesis of the borrowing has already turned out to be implausible[according to whom?] due to the limited and remote extension of the territory where Iberian was spoken as first language in South-East Spain.[citation needed]
Javier de Hoz (2011, pp. 196–198) considers plausible the internal contextual and combinatorial arguments that would support the hypothesis that these Iberian elements could be interpreted as numerals. In fact, concerning the specific values, he considers valid the proposed equivalences between Iberianban with 'one' and between Iberianerder with 'half', according to the marks of value found in coins, while he considers that the rest of the proposed equivalences are a working hypothesis. Regarding the equivalence between the possible Iberian numerals and the Basque numerals, he agrees with Lakarra (2010) that the shape of the documented Iberian forms does not fit the expected Proto-Basque forms. Finally, he considers that the greatest difficulty in accepting this hypothesis is, paradoxically, its extent and systematic nature, because if it was correct, it would result in a close relationship between Iberian and Basque, which should allow the identification of other relationships between Iberian and Basque subsystems, as clearly as this one, relationships that no investigator using reasonable linguistic arguments has been able to identify.
Eduardo Orduña (2011) insists that the Iberian elements proposed as numerals are not only similar to the Basque numerals, but also combine as numerals and appear in contexts where numerals are expected. He observes Lakarra (2010) does not dispute these arguments [neither does de Hoz (2010)]. As regards the de Hoz hypothesis about considering the Iberian language as alingua franca, Orduña notes its hypothetical character, although Lakarra presents that hypothesis as an established fact. The problems with this hypothesis have been collected by Ferrer (2013) in a later work. Regarding the phonetic difficulties indicated by Lakarra, Orduña argues that its proposals are compatible with the Proto-Basque reconstructed by Michelena, which is for chronology and security the reconstruction that an iberist has to consider, while the hypothesis of internal Basque reconstruction of Lakarra has a vague chronology and a much lower degree of security. Finally, contrary to his first opinion in favor of the loan, concludes that the most economical hypothesis to explain the similarities between the Iberian numeral system and the Basque numeral system is the genetic relationship.
Francisco Villar (2014, 259) notes that the similarities between Iberian numerals and Basque numerals are of the same order as those documented among Indo-European languages and consequently argues that the only sustainable hypothesis at this point is the genetic relationship between Iberian and Basque. Villar also believes that if the reconstruction of Proto-Basque proposed by Lakarra (2010) is incompatible with the evidence derived from the numerals, the reconstruction must be corrected as it is, like all reconstructions, hypothetical and perfectible.
^Velaza, Javier (2006)Lengua vs. cultura material: el (viejo) problema de la lengua indígena de Cataluña, Actes de la III Reunió Internacional d'Arqueologia de Calafell (Calafell, 25 to 27 November 2004), Arqueo Mediterrània 9, pp. 273-280
^"Partiendo de resultados suficientemente seguros de esta índole se ofrece la identificación de un cierto número de sufijos con funciones morfológicas: -en, -ar y -ḿi, que indican pertenencia y posesividad, -te como señal de ergativo, -ku junto con topónimos como sufijo de ablativo" Jürgen Untermann (2005) "La lengua ibérica en el País Valenciano" in XIII Col·loqui Internacional d'Arqueologia de Puigcerdà. Món Ibèric als Països CatalansISBN84-933111-2-X pp. 1135–1150, Puigcerdà, p. 1148.
^see also Jürgen Untermann (2005) "La lengua ibérica en el País Valenciano" in XIII Col·loqui Internacional d'Arqueologia de Puigcerdà. Món Ibèric als Països CatalansISBN84-933111-2-X pp. 1135–1150, Puigcerdà, p. 1148: "hay que mencionar los monumentos bilingües, muy pocos y muy breves"..."los únicos que aseguran la traducción exacta de dos palabras ibéricas:tebanen "curavit" yaretake "hic situs est". La aparición de ciertas palabras en ciertos tipos de soportes nos permite contar con significados por cierto poco precisos, pero no del todo imposibles: por ejemplo de las palabrasseltar, tal vez "tumba",śalir, tal vez "dinero (de plata)",iltir ybiur, tal vez "ciudad, comunidad",ekiar "ha fabricado" o "es obra de (un artesano)"."
^'Stadt' / 'Burg' / 'Gemeinde' (Untermann 1990 p. 187ff)
^abVillamor, Fernando (2020)A basic dictionary and grammar of the Iberian language
^Michelena, Luis (1977), pp. 547–548: "[...] cada vez soy más escéptico en cuanto a un parentesco lingüístico ibero-vasco. En el terreno de la onomástica, y en particular de la antroponimia, hay, sin embargo, coincidencias innegables entre ibérico y aquitano y, por consiguiente, entre ibérico y vasco. Como ya he señalado en otros lugares, parece haber habido una especie depool onomástico, del que varias lenguas, desde el aquitano hasta el idioma de las inscripciones hispánicas en escritura meridional, podían tomar componentes de nombre propios."
^Trask, R.L. (1995): «Origin and relatives of the Basque Language: Review of the evidence»,Towards a History of the Basque Language, p. 388.
^Correa, J.A. (1994) pp. 284ff;Untermann, J. (1996) concludes:ya está fuera de duda el que la lengua ibérica tiene algo que ver con la lengua vasca, y aumentan cada vez más los indicios positivos en favor de ello, pero todavía no son suficientes para permitirnos aplicar los métodos acreditados de la lingüística comparativa e histórica (quoted in Rodríguez 2002, p. 197)
^Untermann, J. (1998) pp. 82f:por su forma exterior muestran un grado tan alto de semejanza con los elementos de la toponimia y antroponimia ibérica que es imposible imputarla a la casualidad
(2001)Hacia una tipología del ibérico, Religión, lengua y cultura preromanas de Hispania, pp. 335–362.
(2011)Historia lingüística de la Península Ibérica en la Antigüedad II. El mundo ibérico prerromano y la indoeuropeización, Madrid,ISBN978-84-00-09405-8.
Panosa Domingo, Mª. Isabel (1999)La escritura ibérica en Cataluña y su contexto socioeconómico (siglos V-I a. C.), Argitalpen Zerbitzua, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Vitoria-Gasteiz,ISBN84-8373-160-6.
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