Formerly, ISRO was known as theIndian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR), which was set up in 1962 by then-Prime MinisterJawaharlal Nehru on the recommendation of scientistVikram Sarabhai. It was renamed as ISRO in 1969 and was subsumed into theDepartment of Atomic Energy (DAE).[4] The establishment of ISRO institutionalised space research activities in India.[5][6] In 1972, the Government set up a space commission and the DoS bringing ISRO under its purview. It has since then been managed by the DoS, which also governs various other institutions in the domain of astronomy andspace technology.[7]
ISRO's programmes have played a significant role in socio-economic development. It has supported both civilian and military domains in various aspects such asdisaster management,telemedicine, navigation and reconnaissance.ISRO's spin-off technologies have also aided in new innovations in engineering and other allied domains.[12]
Modern space research in India can be traced to the 1920s, when scientistS. K. Mitra conducted a series of experiments sounding theionosphere through ground-based radio inKolkata.[13] Later, Indian scientists likeC. V. Raman andMeghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences.[13] After 1945, important developments were made in coordinated space research in India[13] by two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai, founder of thePhysical Research Laboratory atAhmedabad, andHomi Bhabha, who established theTata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945.[13] Initial experiments in space sciences included the study ofcosmic radiation, high-altitude and airborne testing, deep underground experimentation at theKolar mines—one of the deepest mining sites in the world—and studies of theupper atmosphere.[14] These studies were done at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations.[14][15]
In 1950, the DAE was founded with Bhabha as itssecretary.[15] It provided funding for space research throughout India.[16] During this time, tests continued on aspects ofmeteorology and theEarth's magnetic field, a topic that had been studied in India since the establishment of theColaba Observatory in 1823. In 1954, theAryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES) was established in the foothills of the Himalayas.[15] The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 atOsmania University,Hyderabad. Space research was further encouraged by the government of India.[16] In 1957, the Soviet Union launchedSputnik 1 and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch.[16]
INCOSPAR was set up in 1962 by the Government of India on the suggestion of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai.[6] Initially there was no dedicated ministry for the space programme and all activities of INCOSPAR relating to space technology continued to function within the DAE.[17][5]IOFS officers were drawn from theIndian Ordnance Factories to harness their knowledge of propellants and advanced light materials used to build rockets.[18]H. G. S. Murthy, an IOFS officer, was appointed the first director of the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station,[19] wheresounding rockets were fired, marking the start of upper atmospheric research in India.[20] An indigenous series of sounding rockets namedRohini was subsequently developed and started undergoing launches from 1967 onwards.[21]Waman Dattatreya Patwardhan, another IOFS officer, developed the propellant for the rockets.
Under the government ofIndira Gandhi, INCOSPAR was superseded by ISRO. Later in 1972, a space commission and Department of Space (DoS) were set up to oversee space technology development in India specifically. ISRO was brought under DoS, institutionalising space research in India and forging the Indian space programme into its existing form.[5][7] India joined the Soviet Interkosmos programme for space cooperation[22] and got its first satellite Aryabhata in orbit through a Soviet rocket.[8]
Efforts to develop an orbital launch vehicle began after mastering sounding rocket technology. The concept was to develop a launcher capable of providing sufficient velocity for a mass of 35 kg (77 lb) to enterlow Earth orbit. It took 7 years for ISRO to developSatellite Launch Vehicle capable of putting 40 kg (88 lb) into a 400-kilometre (250 mi) orbit. An SLV Launch Pad,ground stations, tracking networks, radars and other communications were set up for a launch campaign. The SLV's first launch in 1979 carried aRohini technology payload but could not inject the satellite into its desired orbit. It was followed by a successful launch in 1980 carrying a Rohini Series-I satellite, making India the seventh country to reach Earth's orbit after the USSR, the US, France, theUK, China and Japan. RS-1 was the third Indian satellite to reach orbit asBhaskara had been launched from the USSR in 1979. Efforts to develop amedium-lift launch vehicle capable of putting 600-kilogram (1,300 lb) class spacecrafts into 1,000-kilometre (620 mi)Sun-synchronous orbit had already begun in 1978.[23] They would later lead to the development of thePolar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV).[24] The SLV-3 later had two more launches before discontinuation in 1983.[25] ISRO'sLiquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) was set up in 1985 and started working on a more powerful engine,Vikas, based upon the FrenchViking.[26] Two years later, facilities to test liquid-fuelled rocket engines were established and development and testing of various rocket enginesthrusters began.[27]
At the same time, another solid-fuelled rocket, theAugmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), whose design was based upon SLV-3 was being developed, with technologies to launch satellites intogeostationary orbit (GTO). The ASLV had limited success and multiple launch failures; it was soon discontinued.[28] Alongside these developments, communication satellite technologies for theIndian National Satellite System[29] and theIndian Remote Sensing Programme for earth observation satellites[30] were developed and launches from overseas were initiated. The number of satellites eventually grew and the systems were established as among the largest satellite constellations in the world, with multi-band communication, radar imaging, optical imaging and meteorological satellites.[31]
The arrival of the PSLV in 1990s was a major boost for the Indian space programme. With the exception of its first flight in 1994 and two partial failures later, the PSLV had a streak of more than 50 successful flights. The PSLV enabled India to launch all of its low Earth orbit satellites, small payloads to GTO and hundreds offoreign satellites.[32] Along with the PSLV flights, development of a new rocket, aGeosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) was going on. India tried to obtain upper-stage cryogenic engines from Russia'sGlavkosmos but was blocked by the US from doing so. As a result,KVD-1 engines were imported from Russia under a new agreement which had limited success[33] and a project to develop indigenous cryogenic technology was launched in 1994, taking two decades to reach fulfillment.[34] A new agreement was signed with Russia for seven KVD-1 cryogenic stages and a ground mock-up stage with no technology transfer, instead of five cryogenic stages along with the technology and design in the earlier agreement.[35] These engines were used for the initial flights and were named GSLV Mk.1.[36] ISRO was under US government sanctions between 6 May 1992 to 6 May 1994.[37] After the United States refused to help India withGlobal Positioning System (GPS) technology during theKargil War, ISRO was prompted to develop its own satellite navigation systemIRNSS (now NaVIC i.e. Navigation with Indian Constellation) which it is now expanding further.[38]
In 2003, Prime MinisterAtal Bihari Vajpayee urged scientists to develop technologies to land humans on the Moon[39] and programmes for lunar, planetary and crewed missions were started. ISRO launchedChandrayaan-1 aboard PSLV in 2008, purportedly the first probe to verify the presence of water on the Moon.[40]
ISRO launched theMars Orbiter Mission (or Mangalyaan) aboard PSLV in 2013, which later became the first Asian spacecraft to enter Martian orbit, making India the first country to succeed at this on its first attempt.[41]
Subsequently, the cryogenic upper stage for GSLV rocket became operational, making India the sixth country to have full launch capabilities.[42] A new heavier-lift launcherLVM3 was introduced in 2014 for heavier satellites and future human space missions.[43]
In September 2019,Project NETRA was publicly announced to help counter problems associated with space debris and near-earth objects.[44]
On 23 August 2023, India achieved its first soft landing on an extraterrestrial body and became the first nation to successfully land a spacecraft near thelunar south pole and fourth nation to successfully land a spacecraft on the Moon with ISRO'sChandrayaan-3, the third Moon mission.[45] Indian moon mission, Chandrayaan-3 (lit. "Mooncraft"), saw the successful soft landing of itsVikram lander at 6.04 pm IST (12:34 pm GMT) near the little-explored southern pole of the Moon in a world's first for any space programme.[46]
India then successfully launched its first solar probe, theAditya-L1, aboard PSLV on 2 September 2023.[47][48]
On 30 December 2024, ISRO successfully launched theSpaDeX mission, pioneeringspacecraft rendezvous,docking, and undocking using two small satellites.[49][50] On 16 January 2025, theISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network's Mission Operations Complex verified that the docking process was successful. India became the 4th country — after USA, Russia and China — to achieve successful Space Docking.[51][52][53] ISRO also successfully managed to control two satellites as a single entity after docking.[54]
In May 2025, ISRO completed the final abort test for theGaganyaan human spaceflight mission, scheduled for launch in early 2027.[55] In August 2025, ISRO successfully completed the first integrated air drop test for the Gaganyaan human spaceflight programme, hailed byDefence MinisterRajnath Singh as a step toward self-reliant India.[56]
On 2 November 2025, ISRO successfully launched its heaviestcommunication satelliteCMS-03 aboard the LVM3-M5 rocket from Sriharikota, marking a milestone in India's space capabilities with all eight LVM3 missions achieving 100% success.[57]
ISRO has an official logo since 2002. It consists of an orange arrow shooting upwards attached with two blue coloured satellite panels with the name of ISRO written in two sets of text, orange-colouredDevanagari on the left and blue-coloured English in thePrakrit typeface on the right.[58][59]
As the national space agency of India, ISRO's purpose is the pursuit of all space-based applications such as research, reconnaissance, and communications. It undertakes the design and development of space rockets and satellites, and undertakes explores upper atmosphere and deep space exploration missions. ISRO has also incubated technologies in India's private space sector, boosting its growth.[60][61]
On the topic of the importance of a space programme to India as a developing nation, Vikram Sarabhai as INCOSPAR chairman said in 1969:[62][63][64]
To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the Moon or the planets or manned space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society, which we find in our country. And we should note that the application of sophisticated technologies and methods of analysis to our problems is not to be confused with embarking on grandiose schemes, whose primary impact is for show rather than for progress measured in hard economic and social terms.
Very many individuals with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space activities in a newly independent nation which was finding it difficult to feed its population. But neither Prime Minister Nehru nor Prof. Sarabhai had any ambiguity of purpose. Their vision was very clear: if Indians were to play a meaningful role in the community of nations, they must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They had no intention of using it merely as a means of displaying our might.
India's economic progress has made its space programme more visible and active as the country aims for greaterself-reliance in space technology.[66] In 2008, India launched as many as 11satellites, including nine from other countries, and went on to become the first nation to launch 10satellites on onerocket.[66] ISRO has put into operation two major satellite systems: the Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) for communication services, and the Indian Remote Sensing Programme (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources.[29][31]
ISRO is managed by the DoS, which itself falls under the authority of the Space Commission and manages the following agencies and institutes:[67][68][69]
The largest ISRO base is also the main technical centre and the venue for development of theSLV-3,ASLV, andPSLV series.[71] The base supports TERLS and theRohini Sounding Rocket programme.[71] It is also developing theGSLV series.[71]
The LPSC handles design, development, testing and implementation of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid stages and liquid engines for launch vehicles and satellites.[71] The testing of these systems is largely conducted atIPRC atMahendragiri.[71] The LPSC, Bengaluru also produces precision transducers.[72]
Solar planetary physics, infrared astronomy, geo-cosmo physics, plasma physics,astrophysics,archaeology, andhydrology are some of the branches of study at this institute.;[71] it also operates the observatory atUdaipur.[71]
The SAC deals with the various aspects of the practical use of space technology.[71] Among the fields of research at the SAC aregeodesy,satellite based telecommunications,surveying,remote sensing,meteorology, environment monitoring etc.[71] The SAC also operates the Delhi Earth Station, which is located in Delhi and is used for demonstration of various SATCOM experiments in addition to normal SATCOM operations.[74]
Providing developmental support to North East by undertaking specific application projects using remote sensing, GIS, satellite communication and conducting space science research.[75]
Formerly called LPSC-Mahendragiri, was declared a separate centre. It handles testing and assembly of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid engines, and stages for launch vehicles and satellites.[71]
The venue of eight successful spacecraft projects is also one of the main satellite technology bases of ISRO. The facility serves as a venue for implementing indigenous spacecraft in India.[71] The satellitesAaryabhata,Bhaskara,APPLE, andIRS-1A were built at this site, and the IRS and INSAT satellite series are presently under development here. This centre was formerly known as ISRO Satellite Centre.[72]
The Unit of ISRO responsible for the development of altitude sensors for all satellites. The high precision optics for all cameras and payloads in all ISRO satellites are developed at this laboratory, located at Peenya Industrial Estate, Bengaluru.
With multiple sub-sites the Sriharikota island facility acts as a launching site for India's satellites.[71] The Sriharikota facility is also the main launch base for India's sounding rockets.[72] The centre is also home to India's largest Solid Propellant Space Booster Plant (SPROB) and houses the Static Test and Evaluation Complex (STEX).[72] The Second Vehicle Assembly Building (SVAB) at Sriharikota is being realised as an additional integration facility, with suitable interfacing to a second launch pad.[76][77]
This network receives, processes, archives and distributes the spacecraft health data and payload data in real-time. It can track and monitor satellites up to very large distances, even beyond theMoon.[79]
Bengaluru (headquarters) and a number of ground stations throughout India and the world.[74]
Software development, ground operations, Tracking Telemetry and Command (TTC), and support is provided by this institution.[71] ISTRAC has Tracking stations throughout the country and all over the world inPort Louis (Mauritius), Bearslake (Russia),Biak (Indonesia) andBrunei.[80]
Geostationary satellite orbit raising, payload testing, and in-orbit operations are performed at this facility.[81] The MCF has Earth stations and the Satellite Control Centre (SCC) for controlling satellites.[81] A second MCF-like facility named 'MCF-B' is being constructed at Bhopal.[81]
A network of telescopes and radars are being set up under the Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management to monitor space debris and to safeguard space-based assets. The new facility will end ISRO's dependence onNORAD. The sophisticated multi-object tracking radar installed in Nellore, a radar inNortheast India and telescopes inThiruvananthapuram,Mount Abu and North India will be part of this network.[82][83]
The Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) is a premier training and educational institute set up for developing trained professionals (P.G. and PhD level) in the field of remote sensing, geoinformatics and GPS technology for natural resources, environmental and disaster management. IIRS is also executing many R&D projects on remote sensing and GIS for societal applications. IIRS also runs various outreach programmes (Live & Interactive and e-learning) to build trained skilled human resources in the field of remote sensing and geospatial technologies.[84]
The institute offers undergraduate and graduate courses in Aerospace Engineering, Electronics and Communication Engineering (Avionics), and Engineering Physics. The students of the first threebatches of IIST were inducted into different ISRO centres.[85]
The centre works for education, research, and training, mainly in conjunction with theINSAT programme.[71] The main activities carried out at DECU include GRAMSAT andEDUSAT projects.[72] The Training and Development Communication Channel (TDCC) also falls under the operational control of the DECU.[74]
The S-TICs opened at premier technical universities in India to promote startups to build applications and products in tandem with the industry and would be used for future space missions. The S-TIC will bring the industry, academia and ISRO under one umbrella to contribute towards research and development (R&D) initiatives relevant to the Indian Space Programme.[88]
In line with its ongoing effort to promote R&D in space technology through industry as well as academia, ISRO in collaboration with Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology (VSSUT), Burla, Sambalpur, Odisha, has set up Veer Surendra Sai Space Innovation Centre (VSSSIC) within its campus at Sambalpur. The objective of its Space Innovation Research Lab is to promote and encourage the students in research and development in the area of space science and technology at VSSUT and other institutes within this region.[89][90]
All these centres are set up in tier-2 cities to create awareness, strengthen academic collaboration and act as incubators for space technology, space science and space applications. The activities of RAC-S will maximise the use of research potential, infrastructure, expertise, experience and facilitate capacity building.
ISRO has opened Space Technology Incubation Centres (S-TIC) at premier technical universities in India which will incubate startups to build applications and products in tandem with the industry and for use in future space missions. The S-TIC will bring the industry, academia and ISRO under one umbrella to contribute towards research and development (R&D) initiatives relevant to the Indian Space Programme. S-TICs are at theNational Institute of Technology, Agartala serving for east region,National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar for the north region, and theNational Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli for the south region of India.[88]
Similar to NASA'sCalifornia Institute of Technology-operatedJet Propulsion Laboratory, ISRO and the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) implemented a joint working framework in 2021, wherein ISRO will approve all short-, medium- and long-term space research projects of common interest between the two. In return, an Advanced Space Research Group (ASRG) formed at IIST under the guidance of the EOC will have full access to ISRO facilities. This was done with the aim of "transforming" the IIST into a premier space research and engineering institute with the capability of leading future space exploration missions for ISRO.[95][96]
Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management
To reduce dependency onNorth American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) for space situational awareness and protect the civilian and military assets, ISRO is setting up telescopes and radars in four locations to cover each direction.Leh,Mount Abu andPonmudi were selected to station the telescopes and radars that will cover North, West and South of Indian territory. The last one will be inNortheast India to cover the entire eastern region.Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota already supports Multi-Object Tracking Radar (MOTR).[97] All the telescopes and radars will come under Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management (DSSAM) in Bengaluru. It will collect tracking data on inactive satellites and will also perform research on active debris removal, space debris modelling and mitigation.[98]
India signed amemorandum of understanding on the Space Situational Awareness Data Sharing Pact with the US in April 2022.[100][101] It will enable DoS to collaborate with theCombined Space Operation Center (CSpOC) to protect the space-based assets of both nations from natural and man-made threats.[102] On 11 July 2022, ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management (IS4OM) at Space Situational Awareness Control Centre, in Peenya was inaugurated byJitendra Singh. It will help provide information on on-orbit collision, fragmentation, atmospheric re-entry risk, space-based strategic information, hazardous asteroids, and space weather forecast. IS4OM will safeguard all the operational space assets, identify and monitor other operational spacecraft with close approaches which have overpasses overIndian subcontinent and those which conduct intentional manoeuvres with suspicious motives or seek re-entry withinSouth Asia.[103]
ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management
On 7 March 2023, ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management (IS4OM) conducted successful controlled re-entry of decommissioned satelliteMegha-Tropiques after firing four on-board 11 Newton thrusters for 20 minutes each. A series of 20 manoeuvres were performed since August 2022 by spending 120 kg fuel. The final telemetry data confirmed disintegtration over Pacific Ocean. It was part of a compliance effort following international guidelines on space debris mitigation.[104]
Speaking at the 42nd annual meeting of the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) in Bengaluru,S. Somanath stated that the long-term goal is for all Indian space actors—both governmental and non-governmental—to accomplish debris-free space missions by 2030.[105]
Since the launch of Aryabhata in 1975,[8] a number of satellite series and constellations have been deployed by Indian and foreign launchers. At present, ISRO operates one of the largest constellations of active communication and earth imaging satellites for military and civilian uses.[31]
TheIndian Remote Sensing Programme (IRSP) are India's earth observation satellites. They are the largest collection of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today, providing remote sensing services.[31] All the satellites are placed in polarSun-synchronous orbit (exceptGISATs) and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to enable several programs to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial versions are composed of the 1 (A,B,C,D) nomenclature while the later versions were divided into sub-classes named based on their functioning and uses includingOceansat,Cartosat,HySIS,EMISAT and ResourceSat etc. Their names were unified under the prefix "EOS" regardless of functioning in 2020.[106] They support a wide range of applications including optical, radar and electronicreconnaissance for Indian agencies, city planning, oceanography and environmental studies.[31]
Render ofCartosat-3 satellite in deployed configuration.
INSAT-1B satellite: The broadcasting sector in India is highly dependent on INSAT system.
TheIndian National Satellite System (INSAT) is the country's telecommunication system. It is a series of multipurposegeostationary satellites built and launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-rescue needs. Since the introduction of the first one in 1983, INSAT has become the largest domestic communication system in theAsia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of DOS, theDepartment of Telecommunications,India Meteorological Department,All India Radio andDoordarshan. The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee.[29] The nomenclature of the series was changed to "GSAT" from "INSAT", then further changed to "CMS" from 2020 onwards.[107] These satellites have been used by theIndian Armed Forces as well.[108][109]GSAT-9 or "SAARC Satellite" provides communication services for India's smaller neighbors.[110]
The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-Based Regional GPS Augmentation System also known asSpace-Based Augmentation System as part of the Satellite-Based Communications, Navigation, Surveillance and Air Traffic Management plan for civil aviation. The Indian SBAS system has been given the acronym GAGAN – GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. A national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of a Technology Demonstration System (TDS) over Indian airspace as aproof of concept has been prepared jointly byAirports Authority of India and ISRO. The TDS was completed during 2007 with the installation of eight Indian Reference Stations at different airports linked to the Master Control Centre located near Bengaluru.[111]
IRNSS with an operational name NavIC is an independent regional navigation satellite system developed by India. It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India as well as the region extending up to 1,500 km (930 mi) from its borders, which is its primary service area. IRNSS provides two types of services, namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Restricted Service (RS), providing a position accuracy of better than 20 m (66 ft) in the primary service area.[112]
This is adynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help byediting the page to add missing items, with references toreliable sources.
Kalpana-1 (MetSat-1) was ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite.[113][114] Indo-French satelliteSARAL on 25 February 2013. SARAL (or "Satellite with ARgos and AltiKa") is a cooperative altimetry technology mission, used for monitoring the oceans' surface and sea levels. AltiKa measures ocean surface topography with an accuracy of 8 mm (0.31 in), compared to 2.5 cm (0.98 in) on average using altimeters, and with a spatial resolution of 2 km (1.2 mi).[115][116]
During the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its ownlaunch vehicles owing to geopolitical and economic considerations. In the 1960s–1970s, the country developed a sounding rocket, and by the 1980s, research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 (SLV-3) and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure.[117]
Stamp depicting SLV-3 D1 carryingRS-D1 satellite to orbit
Status:Retired
The Satellite Launch Vehicle (known as SLV-3) was the first space rocket to be developed by India. The initial launch in 1979 was a failure followed by a successful launch in 1980 making India the sixth country in world with orbital launch capability. The development of bigger rockets began afterwards.[24]
The Augmented or Advanced Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) was another small launch vehicle released in 1980s to develop technologies required to place satellites intogeostationary orbit. ISRO did not have adequate funds to develop ASLV and PSLV at once. Since ASLV suffered repeated failures, it was dropped in favour of a new project.[118][28]
PSLV-C11 lifts off carryingChandrayaan-1, first Indian mission to the moon.
Status:Active
The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle or PSLV is the firstmedium-lift launch vehicle from India which enabled India to launch all its remote-sensing satellites into Sun-synchronous orbit. PSLV had a failure in its maiden launch in 1993. Besides two other partial failures, PSLV has become the primary workhorse for ISRO with more than 50 launches placing hundreds of Indian and foreign satellites into orbit.[32]
The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle is a medium-lift launch vehicle which was envisaged in 1990s to transfer significant payloads to geostationary orbit. ISRO initially had a great problem realising GSLV as the development ofCE-7.5 in India took a decade. The US had blocked India from obtaining cryogenic technology from Russia, leading India to develop its own cryogenic engines.[33]
The Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3), previously known as the GSLV Mk III, is a medium-lift launch vehicle and the heaviest rocket in operational service with ISRO. Equipped with a more powerful cryogenic engine and boosters than GSLV, it has significantly higher payload capacity and allows India to launch all its communication satellites.[119] LVM3 is expected to carryIndia's first crewed mission to space[120] and will be the testbed forSE-2000 engine which will power India'sheavy-lift rockets in the future.[121]
The Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is asmall-lift launch vehicle developed by the ISRO with payload capacity to deliver 500 kg (1,100 lb) to low Earth orbit (500 km (310 mi)) or 300 kg (660 lb) to Sun-synchronous orbit (500 km (310 mi))[122] for launching small satellites, with the capability to support multiple orbital drop-offs.[123][124][125]
Rohini is a series of sounding rockets developed by ISRO formeteorological and atmospheric study.[126] These sounding rockets are capable of carryingpayloads of 2 to 200 kilograms (4.4 to 440.9 lb) between altitudes of 100 to 500 kilometres (62 to 311 mi).[127] The ISRO currently uses RH-200, RH-300,Mk-II, RH-560 Mk-II and RH-560 Mk-III rockets, which are launched from theThumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) inThumba and the SDSC inSriharikota.
The Advanced Technology Vehicle is a modified Indian sounding rocket developed by ISRO.[128] It is based on the Rohini-560 sounding rocket. The ATV programme was created to test the development of a native dual-mode air-breathingscramjet engine. As of 2016[update], ISRO has flown two test missions.[129]
The first proposal to send humans into space was discussed by ISRO in 2006, leading to work on the required infrastructure and spacecraft.[130][131] The trials for crewed space missions began in 2007 with the 600-kilogram (1,300 lb)Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE), launched using the PSLV rocket, and safely returned to earth 12 days later.[132]
In 2009, ISRO proposed a budget of₹124billion (equivalent to₹310 billion or US$3.7 billion in 2023) for its human spaceflight programme. An unmanned demonstration flight was expected after seven years from the final approval and a crewed mission was to be launched after seven years of funding.[133] A crewed mission initially was not a priority and left on the backburner for several years.[134] Aspace capsule recovery experiment in 2014[135][136] and a pad abort test in 2018[137] were followed by Prime MinisterNarendra Modi's announcement in his 2018Independence Day address that India will send astronauts into space by 2022 on the new Gaganyaan spacecraft.[138] To date, ISRO has developed most of the technologies needed, such as the crew module and crew escape system, space food, and life support systems. The project would cost less than₹100 billion (US$1.3 billion) and would include sending two or three Indians to space, at an altitude of 300–400 km (190–250 mi), for at least seven days, using a GSLV Mk-III launch vehicle.[139][140]
The newly establishedHuman Space Flight Centre (HSFC) will coordinate the IHSF campaign.[141][69] ISRO will set up an astronaut training centre in Bengaluru to prepare personnel for flights in the crewed vehicle. It will use simulation facilities to train the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery operations and survival inmicrogravity, and will undertake studies of the radiation environment of space. ISRO had to buildcentrifuges to prepare astronauts for the acceleration phase of the launch. Existing launch facilities at SDSC will have to be upgraded for the Indian human spaceflight campaign.[142] HSFC and Glavkosmos signed an agreement on 1 July 2019 for the selection, support, medical examination and space training of Indian astronauts.[143] An ISRO Technical Liaison Unit (ITLU) was to be set up inMoscow to facilitate the development of some key technologies and establishment of special facilities which are essential to support life in space.[144] FourIndian Air Force personnel finished training atYuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in March 2021.[145]
Shukla spent approximately two weeks aboard the ISS conducting around 60 experiments. At least seven of these were developed by ISRO or Indian academic institutions, covering areas such as cognitive effects of screen exposure, microbial adaptation, muscle atrophy, and crop resilience in microgravity.[146][151] According to ISRO Chairman V. Narayanan, Shukla's in-flight activities and research will also advance India's Gaganyaan human spaceflight programme.[152]
Media reports estimate that the Government of India spent approximately₹548crore (US$65 million) on the mission seat. The cost drew scrutiny, particularly in the context of India's parallel efforts to develop its own indigenous human spaceflight capability. ISRO and Axiom Space officials defended the expenditure, citing the mission's value in astronaut training, operational readiness, and scientific return.[153][154][155][156]
ISRO is working towards anorbital crewed spacecraft that can operate for seven days inlow Earth orbit. The spacecraft, called Gaganyaan, will be the basis of theIndian Human Spaceflight Programme (IHSP). The spacecraft is being developed to carry up to three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its first crewed mission, ISRO's largely autonomous spacecraft would have a mass of approximately 3 tonnes (6,600 lb) and be placed in low Earth orbit at an altitude of around 400 kilometres (250 mi). It would be capable of supporting a crew of two for up to seven days.[157]
India plans to develop a modularspace station as a follow-up to theGaganyaan human spaceflight programme. The proposedBharatiya Antariksh Station would have a mass of approximately 20 tonnes (44,000 lb) and be placed in low Earth orbit at an altitude of around 400 kilometres (250 mi). It is intended to initially support a crew of up to three astronauts for missions lasting 15 to 20 days.[158][159][160] The ISRO aims to launch the station five to seven years after the completion ofGaganyaan.[161][162] The station is planned to be expanded in phases over several years and is envisioned as a platform for international collaboration in research related to interplanetary exploration, microgravity science, space biology, and space medicine.[163]
ISRO played a role in the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an altitude between 20–40 km (12–25 mi). The bacteria, highly resistant toultra-violet radiation, are not found elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are extraterrestrial in origin.[166] They are consideredextremophiles, and named asBacillus isronensis in recognition of ISRO's contribution in the balloon experiments, which led to its discovery,Bacillus aryabhata after India's celebrated ancient astronomerAryabhata andJanibacter hoylei after the distinguished astrophysicistFred Hoyle.[167]
TheX-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) is a satellite for studying black holes andpolarisation.[169][170] The spacecraft carries the Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays (POLIX) payload which will study the degree and angle of polarisation of bright astronomicalX-ray sources in the energy range 5–30 keV.[171] It launched on 1 January 2024 on aPSLV-DL rocket,[172] and it has an expected operational lifespan of at least five years.[170][173]
Chandrayaan-1 was India's first mission to the Moon. The robotic lunar exploration mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor called theMoon Impact Probe. ISRO launched it using a modified version of the PSLV on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre. It entered lunar orbit on 8 November 2008, carrying high-resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. During its 312-day operational period (two years were planned), it surveyed the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and three-dimensional topography. The polar regions were of special interest, as they had possibleice deposits. Chandrayaan-1 carried 11 instruments: five Indian and six from foreign institutes and space agencies (includingNASA,ESA, theBulgarian Academy of Sciences,Brown University and other European and North American institutions and companies), which were carried for free. The mission team was awarded theAmerican Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics SPACE 2009 award,[175] theInternational Lunar Exploration Working Group's International Co-operation award in 2008,[176] and theNational Space Society's 2009Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category.[177][178]
Vikram lander mounted on top of the orbiter of Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft
Chandrayaan-2, the second mission to the Moon, included an orbiter, a lander and a rover. It was launched on a GSLV Mk III on 22 July 2019, consisting of a lunar orbiter, the Vikram lander, and the Pragyan lunar rover, all developed in India.[179][180] It was the first mission meant to explore the little-exploredlunar south pole region.[181] The objective of the Chandrayaan-2 mission was to land a robotic rover to conduct various studies on the lunar surface.[182]
TheVikram lander, carrying thePragyan rover, was scheduled to land on the near side of the Moon, in the south polar region at a latitude of about 70° S at approximately 1:50 am(IST) on 7 September 2019. However, the lander deviated from its intended trajectory starting from an altitude of 2.1 km (1.3 mi), andtelemetry was lost seconds before touchdown was expected.[183] A review board concluded that the crash-landing was caused by asoftware glitch.[184] The lunar orbiter was efficiently positioned in an optimal lunar orbit, extending its expected service time from one year to seven.[185] It was planned that there will be another attempt to soft-land on the Moon in 2023, without an orbiter.[186]
Chandryaan-3 is India's second attempt to soft-land on the Moon after the partial failure of Chandrayaan-2. The mission only included a lander-rover set and communicated with the orbiter from the previous mission.
On 23 August 2023, ISRO became the first space agency to successfully land a spacecraft near the lunar south pole. ISRO is the fourth space agency ever to land on the Moon.[187] Recognizing this achievement, Prime Minister Narendra Modi proclaimed August 23 asNational Space Day in India.[188][189][190]
The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), informally known asMangalyaan (eng: "MarsCraft") was launched into Earthorbit on 5 November 2013 by ISRO and has entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014.[191] India thus became the first country to have a space probe enter Mars orbit on its first attempt. It was completed at a record low cost of $74 million.[192]
MOM was placed into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. The spacecraft had a launch mass of 1,337 kg (2,948 lb), with 15 kg (33 lb) of five scientific instruments as payload.[193][194]
The National Space Society awarded the Mars Orbiter Mission team the 2015 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category.[195][196]
Researchers from theBirbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP) andIndian Institute of Science (IISc) have determined thatLadakh is the best site for India's first Mars and Moon analogue research station, for planning and conducting Mars and Moon mission-related exercises. The study project is being conducted by BSIP's Binita Phartiyal, IISc's Aloke Kumar who pioneered the idea of building space-bricks from biologically solidified lunar and martianregolith, and Gaganyaan astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla. The projected research station would be used for geological andastrobiological research, human studies, crew training, advancing Technology Readiness Levels (TRL), testing space technologies, and engineering integration.[197]
In Ladakh, Aaka Space Studio and ISRO will be leading a 21-day Mars and Moon analog mission. An important step forward in India's efforts to develop human spaceflight and analog research in support of the Gaganyaan program and future missions like Bharatiya Antariksh Station. It will replicate the harsh conditions of extraterrestrial environments. The expedition will test human health and endurance in isolation, acquire biometric data, simulate extraterrestrial landscape, investigate circadian lighting, and test life support technologies. The startup has experimented with technology, human endurance, and habitat design inRann of Kutch in 2023, simulating lunar conditions.[198][199]
On 2 September 2023, ISRO launched the 400 kg (880 lb)Aditya-L1 mission to study thesolar corona.[200][201][202] It is the first Indian space-based solarcoronagraph to study the corona in visible and near-infrared bands. The main objective of the mission is to studycoronal mass ejections (CMEs), their properties (the structure and evolution of their magnetic fields for example), and consequently constrain parameters that affectspace weather.[203] On 6 January 2024, Aditya-L1 spacecraft, India's first solar mission, has successfully entered its final orbit around the first Sun-EarthLagrange point (L1), approximately 1.5 million kilometers from Earth.[204]
ISRO is developing and operationalising more powerful and less pollutive rocket engines so it can eventually develop much heavier rockets. It has also planned to deploy a space station above earth where astronauts can stay for 15–20 days. The time frame is 5–7 years after Gaganyaan mission,[160] to develop electric and nuclear propulsion for satellites and spacecraft to reduce their weight and extend their service lives.[205] Long-term plans may include crewed landings on the Moon and other planets as well.[206]
SE-2000 is a rocket-gradeRP-1 kerosene (dubbed "ISROsene") andliquid oxygen (LOX)-based semi-cryogenic rocket engine inspired byRD-120. The engine will be less polluting and far more powerful than the existingVikas engine. When combined with the LVM3, it will boost its payload capacity; it will be clustered in future to power India's heavy rockets.[207]
On 28 March 2025, ISRO announced significant progress in the design and development of a semi-cryogenic engine with a high thrust of 2,000 kN that will power the semi-cryogenic booster stage of the LVM3.[208]
Reusablemethane and LOX-based engines are under development. Methane is less pollutive, leaves no residue and hence the engine needs very littlerefurbishment.[209] TheLPSC began cold flow tests of engine prototypes in 2020.[27]
ISRO's current launch vehicles lack the capacity for launching very heavy satellites to thegeostationary orbit beyond 4 ton class, a problem that is planned to be fixed with the introduction of theNGLV.[210][211]ISRO is studyingheavy (HLV) andsuper heavy-lift launch vehicle (SHLV). Modular launchers are being designed, with interchangeable parts, to reduce production time. A 10-tonne (11-short-ton; 9.8-long-ton) capacity HLV and an SHLV capable of delivering 50–100 tonnes (55–110 short tons; 49–98 long tons) into orbit have been mentioned in statements and presentations from ISRO officials.[212][213]
The agency intends to develop a launcher in the 2020s which can carry nearly 16 t (18 short tons; 16 long tons) togeostationary transfer orbit, nearly four times the capacity of the existing LVM3.[209] A rocket family of five medium to heavy-lift class modular rockets described as "Next Generation Launch Vehicle or NGLV"[214] (initially planned asUnified Modular Launch Vehicle orUnified Launch Vehicle) are being planned which will share parts and will replace ISRO's existing PSLV and GSLV rockets completely. The rocket family will be powered by LOX-Methane engine and will have a capacity of lifting from 4.9 t (5.4 short tons; 4.8 long tons) to 16 t (18 short tons; 16 long tons) to geostationary transfer orbit.[215]
There have been two reusable launcher projects ongoing at ISRO. One is the ADMIRE test vehicle, conceived as aVTVL system and another is RLV-TD programme, being run to develop an autonomous spacecraft which will belaunched vertically but land like a plane.[216]
To realise a fully re-usabletwo-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) launch vehicle, a series of technology demonstration missions have been conceived. For this purpose, the winged Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been configured. The RLV-TD acts as a flyingtestbed to evaluate various technologies such as hypersonic flight, autonomous landing, powered cruise flight, and hypersonic flight using air-breathing propulsion. First in the series of demonstration trials was the Hypersonic Flight Experiment (HEX).
ISRO launched the prototype's test flight, RLV-TD, from the Sriharikota spaceport in February 2016. It weighs around 1.5 t (1.7 short tons; 1.5 long tons) and flew up to a height of 70 km (43 mi).[217] HEX was completed five months later. A scaled-up version of it could serve as fly-back booster stage for the winged TSTO concept.[218] HEX will be followed by a landing experiment (LEX) and return flight experiment (REX).[219]
On 28 March 2025, ISRO reported that its 300mN xenon-based Stationary Plasma Thruster had successfully completed a 1,000-hour life test under 5.4kW full power in a vacuum chamber. The electric propulsion system, which is intended to replace the chemical propulsion system in future satellites fororbit raising andorbital station-keeping, is designed to incorporate SPT. It will enablesatellite buses to carry more transponders because of their reduced weight. Compared to the chemical propulsion system, the specific impulse of SPT is at least six times greater. The EPS will be utilized for orbit raising to the geostationary orbit and is intended to be introduced and validated in the next Technology Demonstration Satellite (TDS-01) mission.[223][224]
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), also called alpha source thermoelectric technology by ISRO, is a type ofatomic battery which uses nucleardecay heat from radioactive material to power the spacecraft.[225] In January 2021, theU. R. Rao Satellite Centre issued an Expression of Interest (EoI) for design and development of a 100-watt RTG. RTGs ensure much longer spacecraft life and have less mass than solar panels on satellites. Development of RTGs will allow ISRO to undertake long-duration deep space missions to the outer planets.[226][227]
ISRO included two radioisotope heater units developed by the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in the propulsion module ofChandrayaan-3 on a trial basis which worked flawlessly.[163]
At theIndian Mobile Congress 2023, ISRO presented its satellite-based quantum communication on quantum key distribution technology. According to ISRO, it is creating technologies to thwartquantum computers, which have the ability to readily breach the current generation of encrypted secure communication. A significant milestone for unconditionally secured satellite data communication was reached in September 2023 when ISRO demonstrated free-space quantum communication across a 300-meter distance, including live video conferencing using quantum-key encrypted signals.[231]
Chandrayaan-4 is a planned lunar sample return mission of ISRO and the fourth iteration in itsChandrayaan programme.[233][234] As of January 2025, the conceptualisation phase has been completed, and the design phase is nearing completion.[235] The mission is expected to launch around 2028.[236] It is planned to return up to 3 kg (6.6 lb) of lunar regolith from near Shiv Shakti point, the landing site of Chandrayaan-3.[237]
The next Mars mission, Mars Lander Mission or Mangalyaan 2, has been proposed for launch in 2030.[244][245] The new mission plan includes arover,helicopter,sky crane and a supersonic parachute.[246]
The Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM), which is intended to orbit a spacecraft in the orbit of planet Venus for a better understanding of the Venusian surface and subsurface, atmospheric processes, and influence of Sun on Venusian atmosphere, was approved by theUnion Cabinet on 18 September 2024, under the direction ofPrime MinisterNarendra Modi. Understanding the fundamental processes that have transformed Venus—which is thought to have once been habitable and very comparable to Earth—will be crucial to comprehending the development of Earth and Venus, the sister planets.[232] A total of₹1,236crore (US$150 million) has been sanctioned for the Venus Orbiter Mission, of which₹824crore (US$97 million) would go toward the spacecraft.[253][254]
Conceptual studies are underway for spacecraft destined for the asteroids andJupiter, as well, in the long term. The ideal launch window to send a spacecraft to Jupiter occurs every 33 months. If the mission to Jupiter is launched, a flyby of Venus would be required.[255] Development ofRTEG power might allow the agency to further undertake deeper space missions to the other outer planets.[226]
TheIndian Spectroscopic and Imaging Space Telescope (INSIST) will produce high-resolution deepUV-optical images, and will also have capabilities to carry out low to medium resolution spectroscopy. The INSIST proposal was recommended by ISRO for pre-project phase with seed funding in March 2019. Collaboration with theCanadian Space Agency is also being proposed.[259]: 88 [260]
DAKSHA is a proposed all-sky, high-energy transients mission, with the primary objectives of studying thegravitational waves andgamma-ray bursts in a spectral range from 1keV to about 1 MeV. To achieve these goals, Daksha will use twin Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites with Three Identical Instruments each.Seed funding has been issued to ISRO Laboratories to create a laboratory model of its Instruments.[260][259] It is led by teams fromTata Institute of Fundamental Research andIIT Bombay and will consist of a pair of satellites in LEO. Teams fromRaman Research Institute,Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics and PRL are developing Instruments for it. ISRO has stated that the mission meets all the technical requirements but has yet to approve funding for it.[261]
Facilitates continuous real-time communication betweenLow Earth orbit bound spacecraft to theground station as well as inter-satellite communication. Such a satellite in geostationary orbit can track a low altitude spacecraft up to almost half of its orbit.[263]
A family of 50artificial intelligence based satellites will be launched by ISRO between 2024 and 2028 to collectgeospatial intelligence (GEOINT) in different orbits to track military movements and photograph areas of interest. For the sake of national security, the satellites will monitor the neighboring areas and the international border. It will use thermal, optical,synthetic aperture radar (SAR), among other technologies, for GEOINT application. Each satellite using artificial intelligence will have the ability to communicate and collaborate with the remaining satellites in space at different orbits to monitor the environment for intelligence gathering operations.[267][268]
The Indian government'sSatellite-Protection Project, being developed by ISRO, is to safeguard India's space assets and orbiting satellites from potential dangers in space, particularly from rivals such as China. The initiative was started after a near-collision in the middle of 2024.[269][270][271]
SSLV Launch Complex is an under-constructionspaceport inKulasekarapattinam, a coastal village inThoothukudi district ofTamil Nadu. After completion, it would serve as the second launch facility of ISRO. This spaceport will mainly be used for launching SSLV and private companies' launch vehicles.[272] It is estimated that this facility will cater 20 to 25 launches every year. ISRO plans to commission the launch pad by December 2026.[273][274]
India uses its satellite communication network – one of the largest in the world – for applications such as land management, water resources management, natural disaster forecasting, radio networking, weather forecasting, meteorological imaging and computer communication.[275] Business, administrative services, and schemes such as theNational Informatics Centre (NIC) are direct beneficiaries of applied satellite technology.[276]
TheIntegrated Space Cell, under theIntegrated Defence Staff headquarters of theMinistry of Defence,[277] has been set up to utilise more effectively the country's space-based assets for military purposes and to look into threats to these assets.[278][279] This command will leverage space technology includingsatellites. Unlike an aerospace command, where the Air Force controls most of its activities, the Integrated Space Cell envisages cooperation and coordination between the three services as well as civilian agencies dealing with space.[277]
With 14 satellites, includingGSAT-7A for exclusive military use and the rest as dual-use satellites, India has the fourth largest number of satellites active in the sky which includes satellites for the exclusive use of itsair force (IAF) andnavy.[280] GSAT-7A, an advanced military communications satellite built exclusively for the Air Force,[241] is similar to the Navy'sGSAT-7, and GSAT-7A will enhance the IAF'snetwork-centric warfare capabilities by interlinking different ground radar stations, ground airbases andairborne early warning and control (AWACS) aircraft such as theBeriev A-50Phalcon andDRDO AEW&CS.[241][281]
GSAT-7A will also be used by theArmy's Aviation Corps for its helicopters andunmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) operations.[241][281] In 2013, ISRO launched GSAT-7 for the exclusive use of the Navy to monitor theIndian Ocean Region (IOR) with the satellite's 2,000-nautical-mile (3,700 km; 2,300 mi) 'footprint' and real-time input capabilities to Indian warships, submarines and maritime aircraft.[280] To boost the network-centric operations of the IAF, ISRO launchedGSAT-7A in December 2018.[282][280] TheRISAT series ofradar-imagingearth observation satellites is also meant for Military use.[283] ISRO launchedEMISAT on 1 April 2019. EMISAT is a 436-kilogram (961 lb) electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellite. It will improve the situational awareness of theIndian Armed Forces by providing information and the location of hostile radars.[284]
India's satellites and satellite launch vehicles have had military spin-offs. While India's 150–200-kilometre (93–124 mi) rangePrithvi missile is not derived from the Indian space programme, the intermediate rangeAgni missile is derived from the Indian space programme's SLV-3. In its early years, under Sarabhai and Dhawan, ISRO opposed military applications for its dual-use projects such as the SLV-3. Eventually, theDefence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)-based missile programme borrowed staff and technology from ISRO. Missile scientistA.P.J. Abdul Kalam (later electedpresident), who had headed the SLV-3 project at ISRO, took over as missile programme at DRDO. About a dozen scientists accompanied him, helping to design the Agni missile using the SLV-3's solid fuel first stage and a liquid-fuel (Prithvi-missile-derived) second stage. The IRS and INSAT satellites were primarily intended, and used, for civilian-economic applications, but they also offered military spin-offs. In 1996 theMinistry of Defence temporarily blocked the use ofIRS-1C by India'senvironmental andagricultural ministries in order to monitor ballistic missiles near India's borders. In 1997, the Air Force's "Airpower Doctrine" aspired to use space assets for surveillance and battle management.[285]
Institutions like theIndira Gandhi National Open University and theIndian Institutes of Technology use satellites for educational applications.[286] Between 1975 and 1976, India conducted its largest sociological programme using space technology, reaching 2,400villages through video programming in local languages aimed at educational development viaATS-6 technology developed by NASA.[287] This experiment—namedSatellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)—conducted large-scale video broadcasts resulting in significant improvement in rural education.[287]
ISRO has applied its technology fortelemedicine, directly connecting patients in rural areas to medical professionals in urban locations via satellite.[286] Since high-quality healthcare is not universally available in some of the remote areas of India, patients in those areas are diagnosed and analysed by doctors in urban centers in real time viavideo conferencing.[286] The patient is then advised on medicine and treatment,[286] and treated by the staff at one of the 'super-specialty hospitals' per instructions from those doctors.[286] Mobile telemedicine vans are also deployed to visit locations in far-flung areas and provide diagnosis and support to patients.[286]
ISRO has also helped implement India's Biodiversity Information System, completed in October 2002.[288] Nirupa Sen details the programme: "Based on intensive field sampling and mapping using satellite remote sensing and geospatial modeling tools, maps have been made of vegetation cover on a 1: 250,000 scale. This has been put together in a web-enabled database that links gene-level information of plant species with spatial information in a BIOSPEC database of the ecological hot spot regions, namelynortheastern India,Western Ghats,Western Himalayas andAndaman and Nicobar Islands. This has been made possible with collaboration between the Department of Biotechnology and ISRO."[288]
The Indian IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was equipped with high-resolution panchromatic equipment to enable it for cartographic purposes.[62] IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was followed by a more advanced model named IRS-P6 developed also for agricultural applications.[62] TheCARTOSAT-2 project, equipped with single panchromatic camera that supported scene-specific on-spot images, succeeded the CARTOSAT-1 project.[289]
ISRO's research has been diverted into spin-offs to develop various technologies for other sectors. Examples includebionic limbs for people without limbs,silica aerogel to keep Indian soldiers serving in extremely cold areas warm, distress alert transmitters for accidents,Doppler weather radar and various sensors and machines for inspection work in engineering industries.[290][291]
ISRO has signed various formal cooperative arrangements in the form of either Agreements or Memoranda of Understanding (MoU) or Framework Agreements with Afghanistan, Algeria, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Brunei, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Maldives, Mauritius, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Myanmar, the Netherlands, Nigeria, Norway, Oman, Peru, Portugal, Russia,São Tomé and Príncipe, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Spain, South Africa, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Tajikistan, Thailand, Netherlands, Tunisia, Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uzbekistan, Venezuela and Vietnam. Formal cooperative instruments have been signed with international multilateral bodies includingEuropean Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF),European Commission,European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT),European Space Agency (ESA) andSouth Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).[292]
For the Gaganyaan mission, ISRO signed a Technical Implementing Plan (TIP) with ESA to provide ground station support.[294]
Indo-French satellite missions
ISRO has two collaborative satellite missions with France'sCNES, namely the now retiredMegha-Tropiques to studywater cycle in the tropical atmosphere[295] and the presently activeSARAL foraltimetry.[116] A third mission consisting of an Earth observation satellite with athermal infrared imager,TRISHNA (Thermal infraRed Imaging Satellite for High resolution Natural resource Assessment) is being planned by the two countries.[296]
LUPEX
The Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (LUPEX) is a joint Indo-Japanese mission to study the polar surface of the Moon where India is tasked with providing soft landing technologies.[297]
ISRO operates LUT/MCC under the international COSPAS/SARSAT Programme for Search and Rescue.[299]
India has established a Centre for Space Science and Technology Education in Asia and the Pacific (CSSTE-AP) that is sponsored by the United Nations.[300]
In India,electromagnetic spectrum, a scarce resource for wireless communication, is auctioned by the Government of India to telecom companies for use. As an example of its value, in 2010, 20MHz of3G spectrum wasauctioned for₹677 billion (US$8.0 billion). This part of the spectrum is allocated for terrestrial communication (cell phones). However, in January 2005, Antrix Corporation (commercial arm of ISRO) signed an agreement with Devas Multimedia (a private company formed by former ISRO employees and venture capitalists from the US) for lease ofS band transponders (amounting to 70 MHz of spectrum) on two ISRO satellites (GSAT 6 and GSAT 6A) for a price of₹14 billion (US$170 million), to be paid over a period of 12 years. The spectrum used in these satellites (2500 MHz and above) is allocated by theInternational Telecommunication Union specifically for satellite-based communication in India. Hypothetically, if the spectrum allocation is changed for utilisation for terrestrial transmission and if this 70 MHz of spectrum were sold at the 2010 auction price of the 3G spectrum, its value would have been over₹2,000 billion (US$24 billion). This was a hypothetical situation. However, theComptroller and Auditor-General considered this hypothetical situation and estimated the difference between the prices as a loss to the Indian Government.[371][372]
There were lapses on implementing official procedures. Antrix/ISRO had allocated the capacity of the above two satellites exclusively to Devas Multimedia, while the rules said it should always be non-exclusive. TheCabinet was misinformed in November 2005 that several service providers were interested in using satellite capacity, while the Devas deal was already signed. Also, the Space Commission was not informed when approving the second satellite (its cost was diluted so that Cabinet approval was not needed). ISRO committed to spending₹7.66 billion (US$91 million) of public money on building, launching, and operating two satellites that were leased out for Devas.[373]In late 2009, some ISRO insiders exposed information about the Devas-Antrix deal,[372][374] and the ensuing investigations led to the deal's annulment.G. Madhavan Nair (ISRO Chairperson when the agreement was signed) was barred from holding any post under the Department of Space. Some former scientists were found guilty of "acts of commission" or "acts of omission". Devas and Deutsche Telekom demanded US$2 billion and US$1 billion, respectively, in damages.[375] TheDepartment of Revenue andMinistry of Corporate Affairs began an inquiry into Devas shareholding.[373]
TheCentral Bureau of Investigation registered a case against the accused in the Antrix-Devas deal under Section 120-B, besides Section 420 of IPC and Section 13(2) read with 13(1)(d) of PC Act, 1988 in March 2015 against the then executive director of Antrix Corporation, two officials of a USA-based company, a Bengaluru-based private multimedia company, and other unknown officials of the Antrix Corporation or the Department of Space.[376][377]
^CNSA (China),ESA (most of Europe), ISRO, (India),JAXA (Japan),NASA (United States) andRoscosmos (Russia) are the six space agencies with full launch capabilities.
^The Soviet Union (Interkosmos), The United States (NASA), China (CNSA) and India (ISRO) are the four nations to have successfully achieved unmannedsoft landing.
^"India's human space programme gets a fillip".The New Indian Express. 15 November 2018.Archived from the original on 12 January 2019. Retrieved11 January 2019.Initially, the plan was the construct a new launch pad for the human space flight, but Sivan told the Express that due to paucity of time one of the two existing launch pads is being modified to meet the requirement.
^ab"Future Exploration Missions of ISRO"(PDF).Dr. M. Annadurai, director, ISAC, ISRO. UNCOPUOS 60th Session, Vienna, 2019. Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 21 September 2018. Retrieved10 December 2021.
^Choudhury, Shubhadeep (30 November 2008)."Chandrayaan-1 wins global award". Bangalore. Tribune News Service.Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved2 February 2015.
Burleson, D. (2005). "India".Space Programmes Outside the United States: All Exploration and Research Efforts, Country by Country. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. pp. 136–146.ISBN0-7864-1852-4.
Daniel, R.R. (1992). "Space Science in India".Indian Journal of History of Science.27 (4). New Delhi:Indian National Science Academy:485–499.
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