InGreek mythology, theHyperboreans (Ancient Greek:ὑπερβόρε(ι)οι,romanized: hyperbóre(i)oi,pronounced[hyperbóre(ː)oi̯];Latin:Hyperborei) were a mythical people who lived in the far northern part of theknown world.[1][2][3][4] Their name appears to derive from the Greekὑπέρ Βορέᾱ, "beyondBoreas" (the god of thenorth wind). Some scholars prefer a derivation fromὑπερφέρω (hyperpherō, "to carry over").[5]
Despite their location in an otherwise frigid part of the world, the Hyperboreans were believed to inhabit a sunny, temperate, and divinely blessed land. In many versions of the story, they lived north of theRiphean Mountains, which shielded them from the effects of the coldnorth wind. The oldest myths portray them as the favorites ofApollo, and some ancient Greek writers regarded the Hyperboreans as the mythical founders of Apollo's shrines atDelos andDelphi.[6]
Later writers disagreed on the existence and location of the Hyperboreans, with some regarding them as purely mythological, and others connecting them to real-world peoples and places in northern Eurasia (e.g.Britain,Scandinavia, orSiberia).[7] Inmedieval andRenaissance literature, the Hyperboreans came to signify remoteness and exoticism. Modern scholars consider the Hyperborean myth to be an amalgam of ideas from ancientutopianism, "edge of the earth" stories, the cult ofApollo, and exaggerated reports of phenomena in northern Europe (e.g. the Arctic "midnight sun").[8]
Greeks initially used the term Hyperborei Montes to denote a mythical mountain range in the far north, associated with the Hyperborea, but later ancient geographers applied it to actual mountain ranges, including theCaucasus, theUral Mountains and theRhipaei Montes.[9][10]
The earliest extant source that mentions Hyperborea in detail,Herodotus'Histories (Book IV, Chapters 32–36),[11] dates fromc. 450 BC.[12] Herodotus recorded three earlier sources that supposedly mentioned the Hyperboreans, includingHesiod andHomer, the latter purportedly having written of Hyperborea in his lost workEpigoni. Herodotus voices doubts as to the attribution of the work to Homer.[13]
Herodotus wrote that the 7th-century BC poetAristeas wrote of the Hyperboreans in a poem (now lost) calledArimaspea about a journey to theIssedones, who are estimated to have lived in theKazakh Steppe.[14] Beyond these lived the one-eyedArimaspians, further on the gold-guardinggriffins, and beyond these the Hyperboreans.[15] Herodotus assumed that Hyperborea lay somewhere inNortheast Asia.
Pindar, lyric poet from Thebes and a contemporary of Herodotus in the tenth Pythian Ode described the Hyperboreans and tells ofPerseus's journey to them.
Other 5th-century BC Greek authors, such asSimonides of Ceos andHellanicus of Lesbos, described or referenced the Hyperboreans in their works.[16]
The Hyperboreans were believed to live beyond the snowyRiphean Mountains, withPausanias describing the location as "The land of the Hyperboreans, men living beyond the home of Boreas."[17]Homer placedBoreas inThrace, and therefore Hyperborea was in his opinion north of Thrace, inDacia.[18]Sophocles (Antigone, 980–987), Aeschylus (Agamemnon, 193; 651),Simonides of Ceos (Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius, 1. 121) andCallimachus (Delian, [IV] 65) also placed Boreas inThrace.[19]
Other ancient writers believed the home of Boreas or the Riphean Mountains were in a different location. For example,Hecataeus of Miletus believed that the Riphean Mountains were adjacent to the Black Sea.[18] Alternatively,Pindar placed the home of Boreas, the Riphean Mountains and Hyperborea all near theDanube.[20]
Heraclides Ponticus andAntimachus in contrast identified the Riphean Mountains with theAlps, and the Hyperboreans as a Celtic tribe (perhaps theHelvetii) who lived just beyond them.[21] Aristotle placed the Riphean mountains on the borders of Scythia, and Hyperborea further north.[22]Hecataeus of Abdera and others believed Hyperborea was Britain.
Later Roman and Greek sources continued to change the location of the Riphean mountains, the home of Boreas, as well as Hyperborea, supposedly located beyond them. However, all these sources agreed these were all in the far north of Greece or southern Europe.[23] The ancient grammarianSimmias of Rhodes in the 3rd century BC connected the Hyperboreans to theMassagetae[24] and Posidonius in the 1st century BC to the Western Celts, butPomponius Mela placed them even further north in the vicinity of the Arctic.[25]
In maps based on reference points and descriptions given byStrabo,[26] Hyperborea, shown variously as apeninsula or island, is located beyond what is now France, and stretches further north–south than east–west.[27] Other descriptions put it in the general area of theUral Mountains.
Plutarch, writing in the 1st century AD, mentions Heraclides of Ponticus, who connected the Hyperboreans with theGauls who had sacked Rome in the 4th century BC (seeBattle of the Allia).[28]
Aelian,Diodorus Siculus andStephen of Byzantium all recorded important ancient Greek sources on Hyperborea, but added no new descriptions.[29]
The 2nd-century AD Stoic philosopherHierocles equated the Hyperboreans with the Scythians, and the Riphean Mountains with theUral Mountains.[30]Clement of Alexandria and other early Christian writers also made this same Scythian equation.[31][32]
Hyperborea was identified with Britain first byHecataeus of Abdera in the 4th century BC, as in a preserved fragment byDiodorus Siculus:
In the regions beyond the land of the Celts there lies in the ocean an island no smaller thanSicily. This island, the account continues, is situated in the north and is inhabited by the Hyperboreans, who are called by that name because their home is beyond the point whence the north wind (Boreas) blows; and the island is both fertile and productive of every crop, and has an unusually temperate climate.[33]
Hecateaus of Abdera also wrote that the Hyperboreans had on their island "a magnificent sacred precinct of Apollo and a notable temple which is adorned with many votive offerings and is spherical in shape". Some scholars have identified this temple withStonehenge.[29][34][a][35] Diodorus, however, does not identify Hyperborea with Britain, and his description of Britain (5.21–23) makes no mention of the Hyperboreans or their spherical temple.
Pseudo-Scymnus, around 90 BC, wrote that Boreas dwelled at the extremity of Gaulish territory, and that he had a pillar erected in his name on the edge of the sea (Periegesis, 183). Some have claimed this is a geographical reference to northern France, and Hyperborea as the British Isles which lay just beyond theEnglish Channel.[36]
Ptolemy (Geographia, 2. 21) andMarcian of Heraclea (Periplus, 2. 42) both placed Hyperborea in theNorth Sea which they called the "Hyperborean Ocean".[37]
In his 1726 work on thedruids,John Toland specifically identified Diodorus' Hyperborea with theIsle of Lewis, and the spherical temple with theCallanish Stones.[38]
Along withThule, Hyperborea was one of severalterrae incognitae to the Greeks andRomans, wherePliny,Pindar andHerodotus, as well asVirgil andCicero, reported that people lived to the age of one thousand and enjoyed lives of complete happiness.Hecataeus of Abdera collated all the stories about the Hyperboreans current in the 4th century BC and published a lengthy, now-lost treatise on them that was noted byDiodorus Siculus (ii.47.1–2).[39] Legend told that the sun was supposed to rise and set only once a year in Hyperborea, which would place it above or upon theArctic Circle, or, more generally, in thearcticpolar regions.
The ancient Greek writerTheopompus, in his workPhilippica, claimed Hyperborea was once planned to be conquered by a large race of soldiers from another island; however, this plan was apparently abandoned, as the soldiers from Meropis realized the Hyperboreans were too strong, and too blessed, for them to be conquered. This unusual tale, which some[who?] believe was satire or comedy, was preserved byAelian (Varia Historia, 3. 18).
Theseus visited the Hyperboreans and Pindar transferredPerseus' encounter with Medusa there from its traditional site in Libya, to the dissatisfaction of hisAlexandrian editors.[40]
Apollonius wrote that the Argonauts sighted Hyperborea, when they sailed throughEridanos.
Alone among theTwelve Olympians, the Greeks veneratedApollo among the Hyperboreans, and the god was thought to spend his winters there amongst them.[41]
According toHerodotus, offerings from the Hyperboreans came to Scythia packed withstraw, and they were passed from tribe to tribe until they arrived atDodona and from them to other Greek peoples until they to came to Apollo's temple onDelos. He said they used this method because the first time the gifts were brought by two maidens,Hyperoche andLaodice, with an escort of five men, but none of them returned. To prevent this, the Hyperboreans began to bring the gifts to their borders and ask their neighbours to deliver them to the next country and so on until they arrived to Delos.[42]
Herodotus also details that two other virgin maidens,Arge andOpis, had come from Hyperborea to Delos before, as a tribute to the goddessIlithyia for ease of child-bearing, accompanied by the gods themselves. The maidens received honours in Delos, where the women collected gifts from them and sang hymns to them.[42]
A particular Hyperborean legendary healer was known as "Abaris" or "Abaris the Healer" whom Herodotus first described in his works. Plato (Charmides, 158C) regarded Abaris as a physician from the far north, whileStrabo reported Abaris was Scythian like the early philosopherAnacharsis (Geographica, 7. 3. 8).
Greek legend asserts that the Boreades, who were the descendants ofBoreas andChione, founded the first theocratic monarchy on Hyperborea. This legend is found preserved in the writings ofAelian:
This god [Apollo] has as priests the sons of Boreas and Chione, three in number, brothers by birth, and six cubits in height [about 2.7 metres].[43][44]
Diodorus Siculus added to this account:
And the kings of this (Hyperborean) city and the supervisors of the sacred precinct are called Boreadae, since they are descendants of Boreas, and the succession to these positions is always kept in their family.[35]
The Boreades were thus believed to be giant kings, around 10 feet (3.0 m) tall, who ruled Hyperborea. No other physical descriptions of the Hyperboreans are provided in classical sources.[45] However,Aelius Herodianus, a grammarian in the 3rd century, wrote that the mythicalArimaspi were identical to the Hyperboreans in physical appearance (De Prosodia Catholica, 1. 114) andStephanus of Byzantium in the 6th century wrote the same (Ethnica, 118. 16). The ancient poetCallimachus described the Arimaspi as having fair hair,[46] but it is disputed whether the Arimaspi were Hyperboreans.[47] According to Herodianus, the Arimaspi were close in appearance to the Hyperboreans, making the inference that the Hyperboreans had fair hair being potentially valid.[citation needed]
Six classical Greek authors also came to identify the Hyperboreans with theirCeltic neighbours in the north:Antimachus of Colophon,Protarchus,Heraclides Ponticus,Hecataeus of Abdera,Apollonius of Rhodes andPosidonius of Apamea. The way the Greeks understood their relationship with non-Greek peoples was significantly moulded by the way myths of theGolden Age were transplanted into the contemporary scene, especially in the context of Greek colonisation and trade.[48]
As the Riphean mountains of the mythical past were identified with the Alps of northern Italy, there was at least a geographic rationale for identifying the Hyperboreans with the Celts living in and beyond the Alps, or at least the Hyperborean lands with the lands inhabited by the Celts. A reputation for feasting and a love of gold may have reinforced the connection.[48]
Northern Europeans (Scandinavians), when confronted with the classical Greco-Roman culture of the Mediterranean, identified themselves with the Hyperboreans.[citation needed] This aligns with the traditional aspect of a perpetually sunny land beyond the north, since the Northern half of Scandinavia faces long days during high summer with no hour of darkness ('midnight sun'). This idea was especially strong during the 17th century in Sweden, where the later representatives of the ideology ofGothicism declared the Scandinavian peninsula both the lostAtlantis and the Hyperborean land.
Northern regions and their inhabitants have been called "Hyperborean", without claims of descent from the mythological Hyperboreans. In this vein, the self-described "Hyperborean-Roman Company" (Hyperboreisch-römische Gesellschaft) were a group of northern European scholars who studied classical ruins in Rome, founded in 1824 byTheodor Panofka,Otto Magnus von Stackelberg,August Kestner andEduard Gerhard. In this sense,Washington Irving, in elaborating on theAstor Expedition in thePacific Northwest, described how:
While the fiery and magnificent Spaniard, inflamed with the mania for gold, has extendedhis discoveries and conquests over those brilliant countries scorched by the ardent sun of the tropics, the adroit and buoyantFrenchman, and the cool and calculatingBriton, have pursued the less splendid, but no less lucrative, traffic in furs amidst the hyperborean regions of the Canadas, until they have advanced even within the Arctic Circle.[49]
The term "Hyperborean" still sees some jocular contemporary use in reference to groups of people who live in a cold climate. Under theLibrary of Congress Classification System, the letter subclass PM includes "Hyperborean Languages", a catch-all category that refers to all the linguistically unrelated languages ofpeoples living in Arctic regions, such as theInuit.
Hyperborean has also been used in a metaphorical sense, to describe a sense of distance from the ordinary. In this way,Friedrich Nietzsche referred to his sympathetic readers as Hyperboreans inThe Antichrist (written 1888, published 1895): "Let us look each other in the face. We are Hyperboreans – we know well enough how remote our place is." He quoted Pindar and added "Beyond the North, beyond the ice, beyond death – our life, our happiness."
John G. Bennett wrote a research paper entitled "The Hyperborean Origin of the Indo-European Culture" (Journal Systematics, Vol. 1, No. 3, December 1963) in which he claimed theIndo-European homeland was in the far north, which he considered the Hyperborea of classical antiquity.[50] This idea was earlier proposed byBal Gangadhar Tilak (whom Bennett credits) in hisThe Arctic Home in the Vedas (1903) as well as the Austro-Hungarian ethnologistKarl Penka (Origins of the Aryans, 1883).[51]
Soviet IndologistNatalia R. Guseva[52] and Soviet ethnographer S. V. Zharnikova,[53] influenced by Tilak'sThe Arctic Home in the Vedas, argued for a northernUrals Arctic homeland of the Indo-Aryan and Slavic people.[54] Their ideas were popularized by Russian nationalists.[55]
According to Jason Jeffrey,H. P. Blavatsky,René Guénon andJulius Evola all shared the belief in the Hyperborean, polar origins of mankind and a subsequent solidification anddevolution.[56] Blavatsky describes the Hyperboreans as the origin of the second "root race" and as non-intelligent ethereal creatures that reproduced bybudding.[57][58][59] However, Jeffrey's account may contradict sometheosophical tenets, as according to other authors like Santucci, theosophy sees the passage from one root race to another as always evolution, never devolution, thus the Hyperborean could not be superior to modern man.[60]
According to theseesotericists,[citation needed] the Hyperborean people represented theGolden Age polar center of civilization and spirituality, with mankind, instead of evolving from a common ape ancestor, progressively devolving into an apelike state as a result of straying, both physically and spiritually, from its mystical otherworldly homeland in the Far North, succumbing to the "demonic" energies of the South Pole, the greatest point of materialization.[61]
Since Herodotus places the Hyperboreans beyond theMassagetae andIssedones, bothCentral Asian peoples, it appears that his Hyperboreans may have lived inSiberia.Heracles sought thegolden-antlered hind ofArtemis in Hyperborea. As thereindeer is the only deer species of which females bear antlers, this would suggest anarctic orsubarctic region. Following J. D. P. Bolton's location of theIssedones on the south-western slopes of theAltay Mountains,Carl P. Ruck places Hyperborea beyond theDzungarian Gate into northernXinjiang, noting that the Hyperboreans were probably Chinese.[62]
In 1974Robert Charroux first related the Hyperboreans to anancient astronaut race.[63]Miguel Serrano was influenced by Charroux's writings on the Hyperboreans.[64]
Aleksandr Dugin has "touted ancient legends about the sunken city of Atlantis and the mythical civilisation Hyperborea" in defense of his vision of a vast Russian Empire. "He believes Russia is the modern-day reincarnation of the ancient 'Hyperboreans', who need to stand at odds with the modern-day 'Atlanteans', theUnited States".[65]
The archaeologistsKristian Kristiansen and Thomas B. Larsson have argued that accounts of Hyperborea and its associated myths represent "a mythological relict" from theBronze Age:
The Delphic Apollo had strong northern links with the solar deity of the Baltic, from where amber came. He travelled on his white swans to the Hyperborean of the cold North during winter. This is a mythological relict of the economic role of the central and northern European periphery during the Bronze Age. On numerous metal items swans carried the sun, materialising the common myth of the sun-god, which according to Herodotus (IV, 32-6) was brought to Delos by Hyperborean maidens in at least two missions.[66]
The historian Timothy P. Bridgman similarly suggests that "The Hyperborean gift route may constitute a hazy memory ofMycenaean trade routes and dealings with northern peoples."[67]
Archaeological evidence for Greek contacts with the north in the Bronze Age includes amber from theBaltic, amber necklaces fromBritain, andchariot equipment from theSteppe orCarpathian Basin found in the eliteShaft Graves atMycenae,[68][69][70][71] and Baltic amber found in the sanctuaries at Delphi and on Delos.[72]
In 1924 the tombs associated with the Hyperborean maidens in Delos (Hyperoche, Laodice, Opis and Arge) were identified "in the very places described by Herodotus" and exacavated by French archaeologistsCharles Picard and Joseph Replat.[73] Both pairs of tombs were found to date from the Bronze Age and containedCycladic,Minoan andMycenaean pottery dating from the period 1875–1420 BC (equivalent toMiddle Minoan II to Late Minoan II). A 'primitive cult' was apparently attached to the tombs in the Cycladic and Mycenaean age.[74][75]
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