Ahymn is a type ofsong, and partially synonymous withdevotional song, specifically written for the purpose of adoration orprayer, and typically addressed to adeity or deities, or to a prominent figure orpersonification.[1] The wordhymn derives fromGreekὕμνος (hymnos), which means "a song of praise".[2] A writer of hymns is known as ahymnist. The singing or composition of hymns is calledhymnody. Collections of hymns are known ashymnals or hymn books. Hymns may or may not include instrumental accompaniment.Polyhymnia is the Greco/Roman goddess of hymns.[3]
Although most familiar to speakers of English in the context ofChristianity, hymns are also a fixture of otherworld religions, especially on the Indian subcontinent (stotras).[4] Hymns also survive from antiquity, especially from Egyptian and Greek cultures. Some of the oldest surviving examples of notated music are hymns with Greek texts.[5]
The Western tradition of hymnody begins with theHomeric Hymns, a collection of ancient Greek hymns, the oldest of which were written in the 7th century BC, praising deities of theancient Greek religions.[12] Surviving from the 3rd century BC is a collection of six literary hymns (Ὕμνοι) by theAlexandrian poetCallimachus.[13] TheOrphic Hymns are a collection of 87 short poems in Greek religion.[14]
Patristic writers began applying the termὕμνος, orhymnus inLatin, toChristian songs of praise, and frequently used the word as a synonym for "psalm".[15]
In Christianity, church congregations often sing hymns together as part of their worship (Pictured: worshippers atUffington Parish Church in England, 1944)
Originally modelled on theBook of Psalms and other poetic passages (commonly referred to as "canticles") in the Scriptures, Christian hymns are generally directed as praise to theChristian God. Many refer toJesus Christ either directly or indirectly.
In the New Testament,Saint Paul wrote to the Ephesian and Colossian churches, enjoining the singing of psalms and hymns for "mutual encouragement and edification."[16] This was demonstrated when he joinedSilas in singing hymns in the Phillipian jail, even during unfortunate circumstances.[16]Psalms 30:4 andRevelation 14:3, among other Scriptural verses, encourage Christians to sing hymns to praise God.[16] As such, since the earliest times, Christians have sung "psalms and hymns and spiritual songs", both in private devotions and in corporate worship.[17][18] Non-scriptural hymns (i.e. not psalms or canticles) from the Early Church still sung today include 'Phos Hilaron', 'Sub tuum praesidium', and 'Te Deum'.[19][20][21]
The hymn 'Te Deum' is sung or recited in the Liturgy of the Hours and in thanksgiving to God for a special blessing such as the election of a pope, the consecration of a bishop, the canonization of a saint,[22] on December 31st to thank the Lord for the past year.[23]
One definition of a hymn is "...a lyric poem, reverently and devotionally conceived, which is designed to be sung and which expresses the worshipper's attitude toward God or God's purposes in human life. It should be simple and metrical in form, genuinely emotional, poetic and literary in style, spiritual in quality, and in its ideas so direct and so immediately apparent as to unify a congregation while singing it."[25]
A writer of hymns is known as a hymnodist, and the practice of singing hymns is calledhymnody; the same word is used for the collectivity of hymns belonging to a particular denomination or period (e.g. "nineteenth century Methodist hymnody" would mean the body of hymns written and/or used by Methodists in the 19th century).[26] A collection of hymns is called ahymnal, hymn book orhymnary. These may or may not include music; among the hymnals without printed music, some include names of hymn tunes suggested for use with each text, in case readers already know the tunes or would like to find them elsewhere. A student of hymnody is called ahymnologist, and the scholarly study of hymns, hymnists and hymnody ishymnology. The music to which a hymn may be sung is ahymn tune.[27]
In many Evangelical churches, traditional songs are classified as hymns while more contemporary worship songs are not considered hymns. The reason for this distinction is unclear, but according to some it is due to the radical shift of style and devotional thinking that began with theJesus movement andJesus music. In recent years, Christian traditional hymnshave seen a revival in some churches, usually more Reformed orCalvinistic in nature, as modern hymn writers such asKeith & Kristyn Getty[28] andSovereign Grace Music have reset old lyrics to new melodies, revised old hymns and republished them, or simply written a song in a hymn-like fashion such as "In Christ Alone".[29]
Since there is a lack ofmusical notation in early writings,[30] the actual musical forms in the early church can only be surmised. During the Middle Ages a rich hymnody developed in the form ofGregorian chant or plainsong. This type was sung in unison, in one of eightchurch modes, and most often by monastic choirs. While they were written originally inLatin, many have been translated; a familiar example is the 4th centuryOf the Father's Heart Begotten sung to the 11th century plainsongDivinum Mysterium.[31]
Later hymnody in theWestern church introduced four-part vocalharmony as the norm, adopting major and minor keys, and came to be led byorgan and choir. It shares many elements withclassical music.[32]
Today, except for choirs, more musically inclined congregations anda cappella congregations, hymns are typically sung in unison. In some cases complementary full settings for organ are also published, in others organists and other accompanists are expected to adapt the available setting, or extemporise one, on their instrument of choice.
In traditionalAnglican practice, hymns are sung (often accompanied by an organ) during theprocessional to the altar,[33] during the receiving of communion, during therecessional, and sometimes at other points during the service. TheDoxology is also sung after the tithes and offerings are brought up to the altar.
Other groups of Christians have historically excluded instrumental accompaniment, citing the absence of instruments in worship by the church in the first several centuries of its existence, and adhere to an unaccompanieda cappella congregational singing of hymns.[34] These groups include the 'Brethren' (often both 'Open' and 'Exclusive'), theChurches of Christ,Mennonites, several Anabaptist-based denominations—such as theApostolic Christian Church of America—Primitive Baptists,[35][36] and certain Reformed churches, although during the last century or so, several of these, such as theFree Church of Scotland have abandoned this stance.[37]
Thomas Aquinas, in the introduction to his commentary on the Psalms, defined the Christian hymn thus: "Hymnus est laus Dei cum cantico; canticum autem exultatio mentis de aeternis habita, prorumpens in vocem." ("A hymn is the praise of God with song; a song is the exultation of the mind dwelling on eternal things, bursting forth in the voice.")[40]
TheProtestant Reformation resulted in two conflicting attitudes towards hymns. One approach, theregulative principle of worship, favoured by many Zwinglians, Calvinists and some radical reformers, considered anything that was not directly authorised by the Bible to be a novel and Catholic introduction to worship, which was to be rejected. All hymns that were not direct quotations from the Bible fell into this category. Such hymns were banned, along with any form of instrumental musical accompaniment, and organs were removed from churches.[41] Instead of hymns, biblical psalms were chanted, most often without accompaniment, to very basic melodies. This was known asexclusive psalmody.[42] Examples of this may still be found in various places, including in some of thePresbyterian churches of western Scotland.[43]
The other Reformation approach, thenormative principle of worship, produced a burst of hymn writing and congregational singing.[44]Martin Luther is notable not only as a reformer, but as the author of hymns including "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" ("A Mighty Fortress Is Our God"), "Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ" ("Praise be to You, Jesus Christ"), andmany others.[45] Luther and his followers often used their hymns, or chorales, to teach tenets of the faith to worshipers. The first Protestant hymnal was published in Bohemia in 1532 by theUnitas Fratrum.[46]
The earlier English writers tended to paraphrase biblical texts, particularlyPsalms;Isaac Watts followed this tradition, but is also credited as having written the first English hymn which was not a direct paraphrase of Scripture.[48] Watts (1674–1748), whose father was an Elder of a dissenter congregation, complained at age 16, that when allowed only psalms to sing, the faithful could not even sing about their Lord, Christ Jesus. His father invited him to see what he could do about it; the result was Watts' first hymn, "Behold the glories of the Lamb".[49]Found in few hymnals today, the hymn has eight stanzas in common metre and is based on Revelation 5:6, 8, 9, 10, 12.[50]
Relying heavily on Scripture, Watts wrote metered texts based on New Testament passages that brought the Christian faith into the songs of the church. Isaac Watts has been called "the father of English hymnody", but Erik Routley sees him more as "the liberator of English hymnody", because his hymns, and hymns like them, moved worshippers beyond singing only Old Testament psalms, inspiring congregations and revitalizing worship.[51]
Later writers took even more freedom, some even includingallegory andmetaphor in their texts.
Charles Wesley's hymns spread Methodisttheology, not only within Methodism, but in most Protestant churches. He developed a new focus: expressing one's personal feelings in the relationship with God as well as the simple worship seen in older hymns.[42]
Wesley's contribution, along with theSecond Great Awakening inAmerica led to a new style calledgospel, and a new explosion of sacred music writing withFanny Crosby,Lina Sandell,Philip Bliss,Ira D. Sankey, and others who produced testimonial music for revivals, camp meetings, and evangelistic crusades.[42] The tune style or form is technically designated "gospel songs" as distinct from hymns. Gospel songs generally include a refrain (or chorus) and usually (though not always) a faster tempo than the hymns. As examples of the distinction, "Amazing Grace" is a hymn (no refrain), but "How Great Thou Art" is a gospel song.[52] During the 19th century, the gospel-song genre spread rapidly in Protestantism and to a lesser but still definite extent, in Roman Catholicism;[53] the gospel-song genre is unknown in the worshipper se by Eastern Orthodox churches, which rely exclusively on traditional chants (a type of hymn).
TheMethodist Revival of the 18th century created an explosion of hymn-writing inWelsh, which continued into the first half of the 19th century. The most prominent names among Welsh hymn-writers areWilliam Williams Pantycelyn andAnn Griffiths. The second half of the 19th century witnessed an explosion of hymn tune composition and congregational four-part singing inWales.[54]
In some radical Protestant movements, their own sacred hymns completely replaced the written Bible. An example of this, theBook of Life (Russian: "Zhivotnaya kniga") is the name of all oral hymns of theDoukhobors, the Russian denomination, similar to westernQuakers.The Book of Life of the Doukhobors (1909) is firstly printed hymnal containing songs, which to have been composed as an oral piece to be sung aloud.[55]
Many churches today use contemporary worship music which includes a range of styles often influenced bypopular music. This often leads to some conflict between older and younger congregants (seecontemporary worship).[56][57] This is not new; the Christianpop music style began in the late 1960s and became very popular during the 1970s, as young hymnists sought ways in which to make the music of their religion relevant for their generation.[58]
This long tradition has resulted in a wide variety of hymns. Some modern churches include within hymnody the traditional hymn (usually describing God), contemporary worship music (often directed to God) andgospel music (expressions of one's personal experience of God). This distinction is not perfectly clear; and purists remove the second two types from the classification as hymns. It is a matter of debate, even sometimes within a single congregation, often between revivalist and traditionalist movements.
Swedish composer and musicologistElisabet Wentz-Janacek mapped 20,000 melody variants for Swedish hymns and helped create the Swedish Choral Registrar, which displays the wide variety of hymns today.[59]
In modern times, hymn use has not been limited to strictly religious settings, including secular occasions such asRemembrance Day, and this "secularization" also includes use as sources of musical entertainment or even vehicles for mass emotion.[60]
Hymn writing, composition, performance and the publishing of Christian hymnals were prolific in the 19th-century and were often linked to the abolitionist movement by many hymn writers.[61][62]Stephen Foster wrote a number of hymns that were used during church services during this era of publishing.[63]
Thomas Symmes, a clergyman of the third generation ofPuritans in New England, spread throughout churches a new idea of how to sing hymns, in which anyone could sing a hymn any way they felt led to;[64] this idea was opposed by a writer of the time, Rev. Thomas Walter, who felt it was "like Five Hundred different Tunes roared out at the same time".[65]William Billings, asinging school teacher, created the first tune book with only American born compositions. Within his books, Billings did not put as much emphasis on "common measure" - aquatrain that rhymes ABAB and alternates four-stress and three-stress iambic lines[66] - which was the typical way hymns were sung. Noting in his preface the fondness of other compilers for tunes in common measure, Billings promised his subscribers a well-balanced collection, with "a Sufficiency in eachmeasure".[67] And indeedThe Singing Master's Assistant has many tunes whose declamation is based on thedactyl induple time.[68] Boston'sHandel and Haydn Society aimed at raising the level of church music in America, publishing their "Collection of Church Music" in 1822.[69] In the late 19th centuryIra D. Sankey andDwight L. Moody developed the relatively new subcategory ofgospel hymns.[70]
Earlier in the 19th century, the use of musical notation, especiallyshape notes, exploded in America, and professional singing masters went from town to town teaching the population how tosing from sight,[71] instead of the more commonlining out that had been used before that.[72] During this period hundreds of tune books were published, includingB.F. White'sSacred Harp, and earlier works like theMissouri Harmony,Kentucky Harmony,Hesperian Harp, D.H. Mansfield'sThe American Vocalist,The Social Harp, theSouthern Harmony,William Walker'sChristian Harmony,Jeremiah Ingalls'Christian Harmony, and literally many dozens of others. Shape notes were important in the spread of (then) more modern singing styles, with tenor-led 4-part harmony (based on older EnglishWest Gallery music),fuging sections,anthems and other more complex features. During this period, hymns were incredibly popular in the United States, and one or more of the above-mentioned tunebooks could be found in almost every household. It is not uncommon to hear accounts of young people and teenagers gathering together to spend an afternoon singing hymns and anthems from tune books, which was considered great fun, and there are surviving accounts ofAbraham Lincoln and his sweetheart singing together from theMissouri Harmony during his youth.[73]
By the 1860s musical reformers likeLowell Mason (the so-called "better music boys") were actively campaigning for the introduction of more "refined" and modern singing styles,[74][page needed] and eventually these American tune books were replaced in many churches, starting in the Northeast and urban areas, and spreading out into the countryside as people adopted the gentler, more soothing tones ofVictorian hymnody, and even adopted dedicated, trainedchoirs to do their church's singing, rather than having the entire congregation participate. But in many rural areas the old traditions lived on, not in churches, but in weekly, monthly or annual conventions were people would meet to sing from their favorite tunebooks. The most popular one, and the only one that survived continuously in print, was theSacred Harp, which could be found in the typical rural Southern home right up until the living tradition was "re-discovered" byAlan Lomax in the 1960s (although it had been well-documented bymusicologistGeorge Pullen Jackson prior to this). Since then there has been a renaissance in "Sacred Harp singing", with annual conventions popping up inall 50 states and in a number of European countries recently, including theUK,Germany,Ireland andPoland, as well as inAustralia.[75][76][77]
African-Americans developed a rich hymnody fromspirituals during times of slavery to the modern, lively black gospel style. The first influences ofAfrican-American culture into hymns came from the collectionSlave Songs of the United States, compiled byWilliam Francis Allen, who had difficulty pinning them down from the oral tradition, and though he succeeded, he points out the awe-inspiring effect of the hymns when sung in by their originators.[78] Some of the first hymns in theblack church were renderings of Isaac Watts hymns written in the African-American vernacular English of the time.[79]
The meter indicates the number of syllables for the lines in eachstanza of a hymn.[80] This provides a means of marrying the hymn's text with an appropriatehymn tune for singing. In practice many hymns conform to one of a relatively small number of meters (syllable count and stress patterns). Care must be taken, however, to ensure that not only the metre of words and tune match, but also the stresses on the words in each line.[81] Technically speaking an iambic tune, for instance, cannot be used with words of, say, trochaic metre.
The meter is often denoted by a row of figures besides the name of the tune, such as "87.87.87", which would inform the reader that each verse has six lines, and that the first line has eight syllables, the second has seven, the third line eight, etc. The meter can also be described by initials; L.M. indicates long meter, which is 88.88 (four lines, each eight syllables long); S.M. is short meter (66.86); C.M. is common metre (86.86), while D.L.M., D.S.M. and D.C.M. (the "D" stands for double) are similar to their respective single meters except that they have eight lines in a verse instead of four.[82]
Also, if the number of syllables in one verse differ from another verse in the same hymn (e.g., the hymn "I Sing a Song of the Saints of God"), the meter is called Irregular.[83]
TheSikh holy book, theGuru Granth Sahib (Punjabi:ਗੁਰੂ ਗ੍ਰੰਥ ਸਾਹਿਬPunjabi pronunciation:[ɡʊɾuɡɾəntʰsɑhɪb]), is a collection of hymns (Shabad) orGurbani describing the qualities of God[87] and why one should meditate on God's name. TheGuru Granth Sahib is divided by their musical setting in differentragas[88] into fourteen hundred and thirty pages known asAngs (limbs) in Sikh tradition.Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708), the tenth guru, after addingGuru Tegh Bahadur'sbani to theAdi Granth[89][90] affirmed the sacred text as his successor, elevating it toGuru Granth Sahib.[91] The text remains the holy scripture of the Sikhs, regarded as the teachings of the Ten Gurus.[92] The role of Guru Granth Sahib, as a source or guide of prayer,[93] is pivotal inSikh worship.
Sutra chanting is a religious action recommended forShin Buddhist followers to carry out in their daily lives. Temple service chanting may include: dedications to the Three Treasures (Buddha,Dharma,Sangha) common to all Buddhist traditions; selections fromThe Three Pure Land Sutras, which record the teachings of the Buddha; compositions of Pure Land Buddhist teachers such asNagarjuna andShandao.[94]
Stotras areSanskrit hymns or eulogies sung in praise of the divine and the transcendent. Usually associated with theHindu andJain traditions, stotras are melodic expressions of devotion and inspiration found in other Sanskrit religious movements as well.[95]
In theBuddhist world, the practice of singing these hymns is still alive today inNepal. Min Bahadur Shakya, former director of the Nagarjuna Institute of Exact Methods in Lalitpur, Nepal, writes:[95]
In prosperity or distress, the Nepalese people worship and pray to the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas for protection, good health, prosperity, and family welfare and also for liberation from cyclic existence. The stotras or hymns throw light on various aspects of Buddhist doctrines. The stotras are sung by sadhakas during their meditation or act of devotion. The contents of these strotras are of varied nature ranging from simple act of confession, qualities of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, praises of deities of both mundane and supra-mundane [nature], iconographic data of various tantric deities and also explanation of Buddha’s teachings themselves in the form of verses. These stotras can be sung with melodious music and can imprint the devotees significantly even in this modern world through the multimedia device.
The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection ofChinese poetry, theClassic of Poetry (Shijing), were initiallylyrics.[96] TheShijing, with its collection of poems and folk songs, was heavily valued by the philosopherConfucius and is considered to be one of the officialConfucian classics. His remarks on the subject have become an invaluable source inancient music theory.[97]
During the time of the Prophet Mohammed,Islamic music was originally defined by what it didn't contain: no strings, brass, or wind instruments and no female vocals. The only instrument initially allowed was minimal percussion by an Arabic drum called thedaf.[98] This minimal form remains widely practiced in the Gulf and some other parts of theArab world.[99]
However, in places such as Turkey and Southeast Asia, several new styles of spiritual songs have developed. In Turkey,Sufi adherents incorporate music into worship. The most popular are services undertaken by Mevlevi Sufis, which include chanting and thewhirling dervishes.[100]
In Pakistan and Southeast Asia, the most recognized form of devotional music isqawwali.[101] Performed by up to nine men, aqawwali group would often use instruments such as theharmonium (a type of keyboard) and percussion instruments including atabla anddholak.[102] The songs often run from 15 to 30 minutes and include instrumental preludes, repeated refrains and vocal improvisation. In recent times,nasheed artists from the Gulf have found innovative ways to overcome the no-instrument rule.[99]
Albums by Sharjah'sAhmed Bukhatir and Kuwait'sMishary Rashid Al Afasy use studio trickery and manipulate backing vocals to sound like a synth piano or string section. In the West, groups such as America'sNative Deen and Australia's The Brothahood use hip-hop music to get their spiritual message across to a new generation of young Muslims.[103] The nasheeds in English by South Africa's Zain Bhikha secured him a large following in Europe and the Middle East.[99]
Known asstavan or, inHindi,bhajan,Jain hymns are composed and performed to praise the Jinas. Written in every language Jains have used, the predominant pada form reflects Jain involvement in Indian poetics and in thebhakti devotional movement more commonly associated withHinduism.[104]
Musically, Jain hymns can be grouped into the folk genres of devotional music in western India, such as Gujarāti rās-garbā andRājasthāni folk music.
There are six obligatory acts that are expected to be performed by Jains sequentially as a single act twice daily. The second one of these is showing reverence to theford-makers, which is done by reciting a twenty-four-verse hymn of praise to theTirthankaras.[105]
One of the most popular devotional hymns of the Jains is theBhaktāmara-stotra –Devoted Gods hymn. Both main sects ofŚvetāmbaras andDigambaras accept it, counting 44 and 48 stanzas respectively. It is dedicated to the first Jina, Ṛṣabhanātha or Lord Ṛṣabha, frequently known asĀdinātha, meaning ‘First Lord’. The title comes from the first verse, which says that ‘his feet enhance the lustre of the jewels set in the crowns lowered by the devoted gods’.[106]
TheHebrew wordZemirot means literally 'songs' or 'hymns' but is used to refer to two specific repertories: The first, according to the Sephardic tradition, refers to the preliminary section of psalms and biblical verses recited during theShacharit (morning) prayers: theAshkenazic terminology refers to these Psalms asPsukeydezimra. The second repertory is well defined in Neil Levin's Overview of hisZ'mirot Anthology.[107]
In Ashkenazic tradition the term refers toz'mirot shel Shabbat (Sabbath hymns) translated variously as table songs, domestic songs and home songs. These are a specific set of religious poems in Hebrew or Aramaic written mostly between the 10th and 17th centuries, which are sung during and directly after Sabbath meals. The musical versions are numerous and heterogeneous reflecting a wealth of different styles and geographic origins, and comprising an ever expanding body of folk material.
Over many centuries the Jews of Spain and Portugal–the originalSephardim– developed their own form of religious worship. Their services were enhanced by the addition of poetry for special occasions such as the major festivals (Shalosh r’galim) and theYamim nora’im (High Holidays). Most of these poetic insertions are rhymed, metrical hymns (piyyutim) and were the products of great literary figures during theGolden Age of the Jews in Spain (c. 950–1150). Among these were Solomon ibn Gabriol, Judah Halevi and the two Ibn Ezras—Abraham and Moshe.[109]
One of the main features of devotional music and hymns in Judaism, especially when utilized in synagogue ritual on theSabbath and other holy days, is that it is almost entirely vocal. Though today, accompanying instruments such as the organ might be utilized in worship, the emphasis on congregational song and the art of theHazzan has always been, and still is, paramount.[110]
The one salient exception to this is an instrument called theShofar, a ram's horn which is sounded on the High Holidays (theJewish New Year andDay of Atonement - Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, respectively), as a special call to prayer andrepentance.[110]
According to Japanese mythology, Shinto music stems from the time of the gods when there was no earth and sea. InShintoism, sacral music is calledMi-kagura. The wordkagura means "the gods' delight". The prefix "Mi" raises the value of the subject intensely. It should be translated "the sublime greatest of great gods". In praxis there are two kinds ofkagura,Mi-kagura and ruralkagura.Mi-kagura is strictly reserved and dedicated to the Imperial house and the highest nobility and clergy; ruralkagura is a most colourful and vivid presentation of the popular feats of supramortal and mortal heroes.[111]
The sacred songs attributed to Zoroaster (Zarathustra), the poet-priest and founder of Zoroastrianism, are calledGathas. The Gathas, consist of seventeen hymns composed by the great poet-prophetZarathushtra around 1200 BC. They are arranged into five groups based on their meter:[112]
Ahunavaiti Gatha (Y28 - Y34)
Ushtavaiti Gatha (Y43 - Y46)
Spentamainyush Gatha (Y47 - Y50)
Vohukhshathra Gatha (Y51)
Vahishtoishti Gatha (Y53)
The Gathas are also filled with word plays and deliberate ambiguities, and they were likely intended to be used by initiates as meditative instruments to enlightenment.[112] Only occasionally do the Gathas give an exact and clear picture of Zoroaster's actual teachings, but in general they reflect them in a modified and elaborated form, many times marked by complexity and ornateness of style, the prophet demonstrating his poetical skill in order to stimulate Ahura Mazdā to fulfil his requests or to answer his questions.[113]
According toNissim Ezekiel, views on hymns can be divided:
...poets who have mystical experiences and project them in verse have occasionally been successful but mystics who write poetry do it badly. Religious hymns, however notable the religious sentiment they express are not notably poetic. Great religious poetry undoubtedly exists but the greatness is unequally divided between the poetry and religion, while perfect integration between the two is rare.[114]
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Weddle, Franklyn S.How to Use the Hymnal. Independence, Mo.: Herald House, 1956.
Wren, Brian. "Praying Twice: The Music and Words of Congregational Song". Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000.ISBN0-664-25670-8
H. A. Hodges (ed. E. Wyn James),Flame in the Mountains: Williams Pantycelyn, Ann Griffiths and the Welsh Hymn (Tal-y-bont: Y Lolfa, 2017), 320 pp.ISBN978-1-78461-454-6.
The links below are restricted to either material that is historical or resources that are non-denominational or inter-denominational. Denomination-specific resources are mentioned from the relevant denomination-specific articles.
"Hymnary.org". Archived fromthe original on 2 March 2013. Retrieved19 January 2020.—Extensive database of hymns and hymnology resources; incorporates the Dictionary of North American Hymnology
