| Northern storm petrels | |
|---|---|
 | |
| European storm petrels | |
Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Procellariiformes |
| Family: | Hydrobatidae Mathews, 1912 |
| Genus: | Hydrobates F. Boie, 1822 |
| Type species | |
| Procellaria pelagica (European storm petrel) Linnaeus, 1758 | |
| Species | |
See text | |
| Synonyms | |
OceanodromaReichenbach, 1853 ThalassidromaVigors, 1825 ZalochelidonBillberg, 1828 CymochoreaCoues, 1864 HalocyptenaCoues, 1864 PacificodromaBianchi, 1913 BannermaniaMathews & Iredale, 1915 TethysiaMathews, 1933 LoomelaniaMathews, 1934 BianchomaMathews, 1943 StonowaMathews, 1943 ThalobataMathews, 1943 Hydrobatinae(Mathews, 1912) | |
Northern storm petrels areseabirds in the genusHydrobates in thefamilyHydrobatidae, part of the orderProcellariiformes. The family was oncelumped with the similaraustral storm petrels in the combined storm petrels, but have been split, as they were not closely related. These smallest of seabirds feed onplanktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. Their flight is fluttering and sometimesbat-like.
The northern storm petrels are found in the Northern Hemisphere, although some species around the Equator dip into the south. They are strictlypelagic, coming to land only when breeding. In the case of most species, little is known of their behaviour and distribution at sea, where they can be hard to find and harder to identify. They arecolonial nesters, displaying strongphilopatry to their natal colonies and nesting sites. Most species nest in crevices or burrows, and all but one species attend the breeding coloniesnocturnally. Pairs form long-term,monogamous bonds and share incubation and chick-feeding duties. Like many species of seabirds, nesting is highly protracted, withincubation taking up to 50 days andfledging another 70 days after that.
Several species of storm petrel arethreatened by human activities. One species, theGuadalupe storm petrel, is thought to have goneextinct. The principal threats to storm petrels areintroduced species, particularly mammals, in their breeding colonies; many storm petrels habitually nest on isolated mammal-free islands and areunable to cope with predators such asrats andferal cats.
Up and down! - up and down!
From the base of the wave to the billow’s crown,
And amidst the flashing and feathery foam
The stormy petrel finds a home, -
A home, if such a place may be
For her who lives on the wide, wide sea.
O’er the deep! - o’er the deep!
Where the whale and the shark and the sword-fish sleep, -
Outflying the blast and the driving rain,
The petrel telleth her tale — in vain;
Yet he ne’er falters, - so, petrel, spring
Once more o’er the waves on thy stormy wing!
The family Hydrobatidae was introduced withHydrobates as thetype genus by the Australian born ornithologistGregory Mathews in 1912.[2] The background is complicated as the family Hydrobatidae had originally been introduced in 1849 withHydrobata as the type genus by the French zoologistCôme-Damien Degland.[3]Hydrobata had been erected in 1816 for species in the dipper familyCinclidae by the French ornithologistLouis Pierre Vieillot.[4] In 1992 theInternational Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) suppressed the genusHydrobata Vieillot, 1816. Under the rules of the ICZN the family Hydrobatidae Degland, 1849 thus became unavailable as the type genus had been suppressed. This cleared the way for the family Hydrobatidae introduced in 1912 by Mathews.[5]
The genusHydrobates was erected in 1822 by the German zoologistFriedrich Boie.[6] He listed two species but did not specify atype. In 1884Spencer Baird,Thomas Brewer andRobert Ridgway designated theEuropean storm petrel as the type species.[7][8] The genus name combines theAncient Greek hudro- meaning "water-" withbatēs meaning "walker".[9]
In the past two subfamilies, the Hydrobatinae and Oceanitinae, were recognized within a single large family Hydrobatidae, but this has since been split with the elevation of the Oceanitidae to family status.[10] TheOceanitidae, or austral storm petrels, are mostly found in southern waters (thoughWilson's storm petrel regularly migrates into the Northern Hemisphere). The Hydrobatidae, or northern storm petrels, are largely restricted to the Northern Hemisphere, although a few visit or breed a short distance south of the equator. The family Hydrobatidae originally included two generaHydrobates andOceanodroma.CytochromebDNA sequence analysis suggested that the family wasparaphyletic and more accurately treated as two distinct families.[11] A few fossil species have been found, with the earliest being from the UpperMiocene.[10] In 2021, theIOC mergedHydrobates andOceanodroma into the single genusHydrobates, as the family was paraphyletic as previously defined.[12]
The following cladogram shows the results of the phylogenetic analysis by Wallace et al. (2017).[13]
| Hydrobates |
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| Common name | Scientific name | Status |
|---|---|---|
| European storm petrel | Hydrobates pelagicus | extant |
| Fork-tailed storm petrel | Hydrobates furcatus | extant |
| Ringed storm petrel | Hydrobates hornbyi | extant |
| Swinhoe's storm petrel | Hydrobates monorhis | extant |
| Matsudaira's storm petrel | Hydrobates matsudairae | extant |
| Leach's storm petrel | Hydrobates leucorhous | extant |
| Townsend's storm petrel | Hydrobates socorroensis | extant |
| Ainley's storm petrel | Hydrobates cheimomnestes | extant |
| Ashy storm petrel | Hydrobates homochroa | extant |
| Band-rumped storm petrel | Hydrobates castro | extant |
| Monteiro's storm petrel | Hydrobates monteiroi | extant |
| Cape Verde storm petrel | Hydrobates jabejabe | extant |
| Wedge-rumped storm petrel | Hydrobates tethys | extant |
| Black storm petrel | Hydrobates melania | extant |
| Guadalupe storm petrel | Hydrobates macrodactylus | possibly extinct |
| Markham's storm petrel | Hydrobates markhami | extant |
| Tristram's storm petrel | Hydrobates tristrami | extant |
| Least storm petrel | Hydrobates microsoma | extant |
One species, theGuadalupe storm petrel (O. macrodactyla), ispossibly extinct.
In 2010, theInternational Ornithological Congress (IOC) added theCape Verde storm petrel (O. jabejabe) to their list of accepted species (AS) splits, following Bolton et al. 2007.[14] This species was split from theband-rumped storm petrel (O. castro). In 2016, the IOC addedTownsend's storm petrel (O. socorroensis) andAinley's storm petrel (O. cheimomnestes) to their list of AS splits, following Howell 2012. These species were split fromLeach's storm petrel (O. leucorhoa).[12]
Northern storm petrels are the smallest of all theseabirds, ranging in size from 13 to 25 cm in length. The Hydrobatidae have longer wings than the austral storm petrels, forked or wedge-shaped tails, and shorter legs. The legs of all storm petrels are proportionally longer than those of other Procellariiformes, but they are very weak and unable to support the bird's weight for more than a few steps.[10]
All but two of the Hydrobatidae are mostly dark in colour with varying amounts of white on the rump. Two species have different plumage entirely, theringed storm petrel, which has white undersides and facial markings, and thefork-tailed storm petrel, which has pale grey plumage.[15] This is a notoriously difficult group to identify at sea. Onley and Scofield (2007) state that much published information is incorrect, and that photographs in the major seabird books and websites are frequently incorrectly ascribed as to species. They also consider that several national bird lists include species that have been incorrectly identified or have been accepted on inadequate evidence.[16]
Storm petrels use a variety of techniques to aidflight. Most species occasionally feed by surface pattering, holding and moving their feet on the water's surface while holding steady above the water. They remain stationary by hovering with rapid fluttering or using the wind to anchor themselves in place.[17] This method of feeding flight is more commonly used by Oceanitidae storm petrels, however. Northern storm petrels also usedynamic soaring, gliding across wave fronts gainingenergy from the verticalwind gradient.[18][19]
The diet of many storm petrels species is poorly known owing to difficulties in researching; overall, the family is thought to concentrate oncrustaceans.[20] Smallfish, oil droplets, and molluscs are also taken by many species. Some species are known to be rather more specialised; thegrey-backed storm petrel is known to concentrate on the larvae ofgoose barnacles.
Almost all species forage in thepelagic zone. Although storm petrels are capable of swimming well and often form rafts on the water's surface, they do not feed on the water. Instead, feeding usually takes place on the wing, with birds hovering above or "walking" on the surface (see morphology) and snatching small morsels. Rarely, prey is obtained by making shallow dives under the surface.[10]
Like manyseabirds, storm petrels associate with other species of seabirds and marine mammal species to help obtain food. They may benefit from the actions of diving predators such asseals andpenguins, which push prey up towards the surface while hunting, allowing the surface-feeding storm petrels to reach them.[21]
The Hydrobatidae are mostly found in the Northern Hemisphere.[20]
Several species of northern storm petrel undertakemigrations after the breeding season, of differing lengths; long ones, such asSwinhoe's storm petrel, which breeds in the west Pacific and migrates to the west Indian Ocean;[22] or shorter ones, such as theblack storm petrel, which nests in southernCalifornia and migrates down the coast ofCentral America as far south asColombia.[23] Some species, likeTristram's storm petrel, are thought to be essentially sedentary and do not undertake any migrations away from their breeding islands.
Storm petrels nestcolonially, for the most part on islands, although a few species breed on the mainland, particularlyAntarctica. Nesting sites are attendedat night to avoid predators;[24] thewedge-rumped storm petrels nesting in theGalapagos Islands are the exception to this rule and attend their nesting sitesduring the day.[25] Storm petrels display high levels ofphilopatry, returning to their natal colonies to breed. In one instance, aband-rumped storm petrel was caught as an adult 2 m from its natal burrow.[26] Storm petrels nest either in burrows dug into soil or sand, or in small crevices in rocks and scree. Competition for nesting sites is intense in colonies where storm petrels compete with other burrowing petrels, withshearwaters having been recorded killing storm petrels to occupy their burrows.[27] Colonies can be extremely large and dense, with densities as high as 8 pairs/m2 for band-rumped storm petrels in theGalapagos and colonies 3.6 million strong forLeach's storm petrel have been recorded.[28]
Storm petrels aremonogamous and form long-term pair bonds that last a number of years. Studies of paternity using DNA fingerprinting have shown that, unlike many other monogamous birds, infidelity (extra-pair mating) is very rare.[29] As with the other Procellariiformes, a single egg is laid by a pair in a breeding season; if the egg fails, then usually no attempt is made to lay again (although it happens rarely). Both sexes incubate in shifts of up to six days. The egg hatches after 40 or 50 days; the young is brooded continuously for another 7 days or so before being left alone in the nest during the day and fed by regurgitation at night. Meals fed to the chick weigh around 10–20% of the parent's body weight, and consist of both prey items andstomach oil. Stomach oil is an energy-rich (its calorific value is around 9.6 kcal/g) oil created by partly digested prey in a part of the fore gut known as the proventriculus.[30] By partly converting prey items into stomach oil, storm petrels can maximise the amount of energy chicks receive during feeding, an advantage for small seabirds that can only make a single visit to the chick during a 24-hour period (at night).[31] The typical age at which chicksfledge depends on the species, taking between 50 and 70 days. The time taken to hatch and raise the young is long for the bird's size, but is typical of seabirds, which in general areK-selected, living much longer, delaying breeding for longer, and investing more effort into fewer young.[32] The young leave their burrows around 62 days. They are independent almost at once and quickly disperse into the ocean. They return to their original colony after 2 or 3 years, but will not breed until at least 4 years old. Storm petrels have been recorded living as long as 30 years.[33]
Several species of storm petrel are threatened by human activities.[34] The Guadalupe storm petrel has not been observed since 1906 and most authorities consider it extinct. One species (theashy storm petrel) is listed as endangered by the IUCN due to a 42% decline over 20 years.[35] For theringed storm petrel, even the sites of their breeding colonies remain a mystery.
Storm petrels face the same threats as otherseabirds; in particular, they are threatened byintroduced species. The Guadalupe storm petrel was driven to extinction byferal cats,[36] and introduced predators have also been responsible for declines in other species. Habitat degradation, which limits nesting opportunities, caused by introduced goats and pigs is also a problem, especially if it increases competition from more aggressive burrowing petrels.
"Petrel" is a diminutive form of "Peter", a reference toSaint Peter; it was given to these birds because they sometimes appear to walk across the water's surface. The more specific "storm petrel" or "stormy petrel" is a reference to their habit of hiding in the lee of ships during storms.[37] Early sailors named these birds "Mother Carey's chickens" because they were thought to warn of oncoming storms; this name is based on a corrupted form ofMater Cara, a name for theBlessed Virgin Mary.[38]
Up and down! - up and down!
From the base of the wave to the billow’s crown...
Outflying the blast and the driving rain,
The petrel telleth her tale — in vain!
Breton folklore holds that storm petrels are the spirits of sea-captains who mistreated their crew, doomed to spend eternity flying over the sea, and they are also held to be the souls of drowned sailors.A sailing superstition holds that the appearance of a storm petrel foretells bad weather.[40] Sinister names from Britain and France include waterwitch, satanite, satanique, andoiseau du diable.[41]
The association of the storm petrel with turbulent weather has led to its use as a metaphor for revolutionary views,[42] theepithet "stormy petrel" being applied by various authors to characters as disparate as aRoman tribune,[43]aPresbyterian minister in the early Carolinas,[44]an Afghan governor,[45]or anArkansas politician.[46] Russian revolutionary writerMaxim Gorky bore the epithet "the Stormy Petrel of the Revolution" (Буревестник Революции),[47][48] presumably due to his authorship of the famous 1901 poem "Song of the Stormy Petrel".
In "Song of the Stormy Petrel", Gorki turned to the imagery of subantarctic avifauna to describe Russian society's attitudes tothe coming revolution. The storm petrel was depicted as unafraid of the coming storm –the revolution. This poem was called "the battle anthem of the revolution", and earned Gorky himself the title of the "Storm Petrel of the Revolution".[49][50] While this English translation of the bird's name may not be a very ornithologically accurate translation of the Russianburevestnik (буревестник),[51] it is poetically appropriate, asburevestnik literally means "the announcer of the storm". To honour Gorky and his work, the nameBurevestnik was bestowed on a variety of institutions, locations, and products in theUSSR.[42]
The motif of the stormy petrel has a long association withrevolutionary anarchism. Various groups adopted the bird's name, either as a group identifier, as in theSpanish Civil War,[52] or for their publications. "Stormy Petrel" was the title of aGerman anarchist paper of the late 19th century; it was also the name of a Russian exileanarchist communist group operating in Switzerland in the early 20th century.The Stormy Petrel (Burevestnik) was the title of the magazine of theAnarchist Communist Federation in Russia around the time of the1905 revolution,[53] and is still an imprint of the London group of theAnarchist Federation of Britain and Ireland.[54] Writing in 1936,Emma Goldman referred toBuenaventura Durruti as "this stormy petrel of the anarchist and revolutionary movement".
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