Althoughphylogenetically closer tofelines andviverrids, hyenas arebehaviourally andmorphologically similar tocanids in several elements due toconvergent evolution: both hyenas and canines are non-arboreal,cursorial hunters that catch prey with their teeth rather than claws. Both eat food quickly and may store it, and their calloused feet with large, blunt, nonretractable claws are adapted for running and making sharp turns. However, hyenas' grooming,scent marking, defecation habits, mating, and parental behavior are consistent with the behavior of other feliforms.[4]
Hyenas feature prominently in the folklore and mythology of human cultures that live alongside them. Hyenas are commonly viewed as frightening and worthy of contempt. In some cultures, hyenas are thought to influence people's spirits, rob graves, and steal livestock and children.[5] Other cultures associate them with witchcraft, using their body parts intraditional medicine.[6]
Hyenas originated in the jungles ofMiocene Eurasia 22 million years ago, when most early feliform species were still largelyarboreal. The first ancestral hyenas were likely similar to the modernAfrican civet; one of the earliest hyena species described,Plioviverrops, was a lithe, civet-like animal that inhabited Eurasia 20–22 million years ago, and is identifiable as a hyaenid by the structure of themiddle ear and dentition. The lineage ofPlioviverrops prospered and gave rise to descendants with longer legs and more pointed jaws, a direction similar to that taken by canids inNorth America.[7]
Hyenas then diversified into two distinct types: lightly built dog-like hyenas and robust bone-crushing hyenas. Although the dog-like hyenas thrived 15 million years ago (with onetaxon having colonised North America), most became extinct after a change in climate, along with the arrival of canids into Eurasia. Of the dog-like hyena lineage, only the insectivorousaardwolf survived, while the bone-crushing hyenas (including theextant spotted,brown, and striped hyenas) became the undisputed top scavengers of Eurasia and Africa.[7]
The descendants ofPlioviverrops reached their peak 15 million years ago, with more than 30 species having been identified. Unlike most modern hyena species, which are specialised bone-crushers, these dog-like hyenas were nimble-bodied, wolfish animals; one species among them wasIctitherium viverrinum, which was similar to ajackal. The dog-like hyenas were numerous; in some Miocene fossil sites, the remains ofIctitherium and other dog-like hyenas outnumber those of all other carnivores combined. The decline of the dog-like hyenas began 5–7 million years ago during a period of climate change, exacerbated bycanids crossing theBering land bridge to Eurasia. One species,Chasmaporthetes ossifragus, managed to cross the land bridge into North America, being the only hyena to do so.Chasmaporthetes managed to survive for some time in North America by deviating from the endurance-running and bone-crushing niches monopolized by canids and developing into acheetah-like sprinter. Most of the dog-like hyenas had died off by 1.5 million years ago.[7]
By 10–14 million years ago, the hyena family had split into two distinct groups: dog-like hyenas and bone-crushing hyenas. The arrival of the ancestral bone-crushing hyenas coincided with the decline of the similarly built familyPercrocutidae. The bone-crushing hyenas survived the changes in climate and the arrival of canids, which wiped out the dog-like hyenas, though they never crossed into North America, as their niche there had already been taken by the dog subfamilyBorophaginae. By 5 million years ago, the bone-crushing hyenas had become the dominant scavengers of Eurasia, primarily feeding on large herbivore carcasses felled bysabre-toothed cats. One genus,Pachycrocuta, was a 110 kg (240 lb) mega-scavenger that could splinter the bones ofelephants.[8][7] Starting in the earlyMiddle Pleistocene,Pachycrocuta was replaced by the smallerCrocuta andHyena, which corresponds to a general faunal change, perhaps in connection to theMid-Pleistocene transition.[9]
Skeletons of astriped hyena (left) and aspotted hyena (right), two species of the "bone-crushing" hyenas
The four extant species are the striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), the brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea), the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), and the aardwolf (Proteles cristata).
Theaardwolf can trace its lineage directly back toPlioviverrops 15 million years ago, and is the only survivor of the dog-like hyena lineage. Its success is partly attributed to its insectivorous diet, for which it faced no competition from canids crossing from North America. It is likely that its unrivaled ability to digest theterpene excretions from soldiertermites is a modification of the strong digestive system its ancestors used to consume fetid carrion.[7]
Thestriped hyena may have evolved fromHyaenictitherium namaquensis ofPlioceneAfrica. Striped hyena fossils are common in Africa, with records going back as far as theVillafranchian. As fossil striped hyenas are absent from theMediterranean region, it is likely that the species is a relatively late invader to Eurasia, having likely spread outside Africa only after the extinction ofspotted hyenas in Asia at the end of theIce Age. The striped hyena occurred for some time inEurope during the Pleistocene, having been particularly widespread inFrance andGermany. It also occurred inMontmaurin,Hollabrunn inAustria, theFurninha Cave inPortugal and the Genista Caves inGibraltar. The European form was similar in appearance to modern populations, but was larger, being comparable in size to thebrown hyena.[10]
Thespotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) diverged from the striped and brown hyena 10 million years ago.[11] Its direct ancestor was the IndianCrocuta sivalensis, which lived during the Villafranchian.[12] Ancestral spotted hyenas probably developed social behaviours in response to increased pressure from rivals on carcasses, thus forcing them to operate in teams. Spotted hyenas evolved sharpcarnassials behind their crushing premolars, therefore they did not need to wait for their prey to die, and thus became pack hunters as well as scavengers. They began forming increasingly largerterritories, necessitated by the fact that their prey was often migratory, and long chases in a small territory would have caused them to encroach into anotherclan's turf.[7] Spotted hyenas spread from their original homeland during theMiddle Pleistocene, and quickly colonised a very wide area from Europe, to southern Africa andChina.[12]
The eventual disappearance of the spotted hyena from Europe has traditionally been attributed to the end of thelast glacial period and a subsequent displacement of open grassland by closed forests, which favoured wolves and humans instead.[13] However, analyses have shown thatclimate change alone is insufficient to explain the spotted hyena's disappearance from Europe, suggesting that other factors – such as human pressure – must have played a role.[14] This suggests that the events must be seen within the broader context oflate-Quaternary extinctions, as the late Pleistocene and early Holocene saw the disappearance of many primarily large mammals from Europe and the world.
Expansion orduplication of theolfatory receptor gene family has been found in all 4 extant species, which would have led to the evolution of the more specialised feeding habits of hyenas.[15]
Expansion in immune-related gene families was also found in the spotted hyena, striped hyena and brown hyena, which would have led to the evolution of thescavenging in these species. Mutations and variants were also found in digestion-related genes (ASH1L,PTPN5,PKP3,AQP10). One of these digestion-related genes has variants also related to enhanced bone mineralisation (PTPN5), while other have also a role in inflammatory skin responses (PKP3).[15]
In aardwolves, expansion of genes related to toxin response were found (Lipocalin andUDP Glucuronosyltransferase gene families), which would have led to the evolution of the feeding of termitesTrinervitermes in this species. Mutations and variants in genes related to craniofacial shape were also found (GARS,GMPR,STIP1,SMO andPAPSS2). Another gene is related to protective epidermis function (DSC1).[15]
The list follows McKenna and Bell'sClassification of Mammals for prehistoric genera (1997)[16] and Wozencraft (2005) in Wilson and ReedersMammal Species of the World for extant genera.[17] The percrocutids are, in contrast to McKenna and Bell's classification, not included as a subfamily into the Hyaenidae, but as the separate familyPercrocutidae, although they are generally grouped as sister-taxa to hyenas.[18] However, as of 2024[update] many experts consider them members of Hyaenidae.[19][20][21][22] Furthermore, the living brown hyena and its closest extinct relatives are not included in the genusPachycrocuta, but in the genusParahyaena. However, some research has suggestedParahyaena may be synonymous withPachycrocuta, making the brown hyena the only extant member of this genus.[23]
Hyaena (=Euhyaena,=Parahyaena; includingstriped hyena,Pliohyaena,Pliocrocuta,Anomalopithecus) Early Pliocene (?Middle Miocene) to Recent of Africa, Late Pliocene (?Late Miocene) to Late Pleistocene of Europe, Late Pliocene to recent in Asia
†Hyaenictis[29] (Late Miocene of Asia?, Late Miocene of Europe, Early Pliocene (?Early Pleistocene) of Africa)
†Leecyaena[27] (Late Miocene and/or Early Pliocene of Asia)
†Chasmaporthetes (=Ailuriaena; includingLycaenops,Euryboas; Late Miocene to Early Pleistocene of Eurasia, Early Pliocene to Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene of Africa, Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene of North America)
†Pachycrocuta (Pliocene and Pleistocene of Eurasia and Africa)
The following cladogram illustrates the phylogenetic relationships between extant and extinct hyaenids based on the morphological analysis by Werdelin & Solounias (1991),[31] as updated by Turner et al. (2008).[32]
Striped hyena skull. Note the disproportionately large carnassials and premolars adapted for bone consumption.Aardwolf skull. Note the greatly reduced molars and carnassials, rendered redundant from insectivory.
Hyenas have relatively short torsos and are fairly massive andwolf-like in build, but have lower hind quarters, high withers and their backs slope noticeably downward towards their rumps. The forelegs are high, while the hind legs are very short and their necks are thick and short. Their skulls superficially resemble those of large canids, but are much larger and heavier, with shorter facial portions. Hyenas aredigitigrade, with the fore and hind paws having four digits each and sporting bulging pawpads.[34] Like canids, hyenas have short, blunt, non-retractable claws.[35] Theirpelage is sparse and coarse with poorly developed or absent underfur. Most species have a rich mane of long hair running from the withers or from the head.[34] With the exception of the spotted hyena, hyaenids have striped coats, which they likely inherited from theirviverrid ancestors.[7] Their ears are large and have simple basal ridges and no marginal bursa.[35] Theirvertebral columns, including thecervical region, are of limited mobility. Hyenas have nobaculum.[36] Hyenas have one more pair of ribs than canids do, and their tongues are rough like those of felids and viverrids.[37] Males in most hyena species are larger than females,[38] though the spotted hyena is an exception, as it is the female of the species that outweighs and dominates the male. Also, unlike other hyenas, thefemale spotted hyena's external genitalia closely resembles that of the male.[39]
Theirdentition is similar to that of thecanid, but is more specialised for consuming coarse food and crushing bones. Thecarnassials, especially the upper, are very powerful and are shifted far back to the point of exertion of peak pressure on the jaws. The other teeth, save for the underdeveloped uppermolars, are powerful, with broad bases and cutting edges. Thecanines are short, but thick and robust.[36]Labiolingually, theirmandibles are much stronger at the canine teeth than in canids, reflecting the fact that hyenas crack bones with both their anterior dentition andpremolars, unlike canids, which do so with their post-carnassial molars.[40] The strength of their jaws is such that both striped and spotted hyenas have been recorded to kill dogs with a single bite to the neck without breaking the skin.[41][42] The spotted hyena is renowned for its strong bite proportional to its size, but a number of other animals (including theTasmanian devil) are proportionately stronger.[43][44] The aardwolf has greatly reduced cheek teeth, sometimes absent in the adult, but otherwise has the same dental formula as the other three species.[45] Thedental formula for all hyena species is:3.1.4.13.1.3.1
Although hyenas lackperineal scent glands, they have a large pouch of naked skin located at the anal opening. Largeanal glands above the anus open into this pouch. Severalsebaceous glands are present between the openings of the anal glands and above them.[35] These glands produce a white, creamy secretion that the hyenas paste onto grass stalks. The odor ofthis secretion is very strong, smelling of boiling cheapsoap or burning, and can be detected by humans several meters downwind.[46] The secretions are primarily used forterritorial marking, though both the aardwolf[7] and the striped hyena[47] willspray them when attacked.
Brown hyena marking its territory with its anal glandsSpotted hyena cubs at their den
Hyenasgroom themselves often likefelids andviverrids, and their way of licking their genitals is very cat-like (sitting on the lower back, legs spread with one leg pointing vertically upward). They defecate in the same manner as other Carnivora, though they neverraise their legs as canids do when urinating, as urination serves no territorial function for them. Instead, hyenasmark their territories using their anal glands, a trait found also in viverrids andmustelids, but not canids andfelids.[48] When attacked by lions or dogs, striped[49] and brown hyenas[50] willfeign death, though the spotted hyena will defend itself ferociously.[42] The spotted hyena is very vocal, producing a number of different sounds consisting of whoops, grunts, groans, lows, giggles, yells, growls, laughs and whines.[51] The striped hyena is comparatively silent, its vocalizations being limited to a chattering laugh and howling.[52]
Whoop of a spotted hyena in Umfolosi Game Park, South Africa.
Mating between hyenas involves a number of short copulations with brief intervals, unlike canids, who generallyengage in a single, drawn out copulation.[48] Spotted hyena cubs are born almost fully developed, with their eyes open and erupting incisors and canines, though lacking adult markings.[53] In contrast, striped hyena cubs are born with adult markings, closed eyes and small ears.[54] Hyenas do notregurgitate food for their young and male spotted hyenas play no part in raising their cubs,[48] though male striped hyenas do so.[55]
The striped hyena is primarily a scavenger, though it will also attack and kill any animals it can overcome,[49] and will supplement its diet with fruit.[56] The spotted hyena, though it also scavenges occasionally, is an active pack hunter of medium to large sizedungulates, which it catches by wearing them down in long chases and dismembering them in a canid-like manner. Spotted hyenas may kill as many as 95% of the animals they eat.[57]
The aardwolf is primarily an insectivore, specialised for feeding ontermites of the genusTrinervitermes andHodotermes, which it consumes by licking them up with its long, broad tongue. An aardwolf can eat 300,000Trinervitermes on a single outing.[7]
Except for the aardwolf, hyenas are known to drive off larger predators, like lions, from their kills, despite having a reputation in popular culture for being cowardly.[49] Hyenas are primarily nocturnal animals, but sometimes venture from their lairs in the early-morning hours. With the exception of the highly social spotted hyena, hyenas are generally not gregarious animals, though the striped and brown hyenas may live in family groups and congregate at kills.[58]
Spotted hyenas are one of the few mammals other than bats known to survive infection with rabies virus[59] and have shown little or no disease-induced mortality during outbreaks in sympatric carnivores, in part due to the high concentration ofantibodies present in their saliva.[60] Despite this perceived unique disease resistance, little is known about the immune system of spotted hyenas,[61][62][63] and even less is known about other Hyaenidae species.
Spotted hyenas vary in their folkloric and mythological depictions, depending on the ethnic group from which the tales originate. It is often difficult to know whether spotted hyenas are the specific hyena species featured in such stories, particularly in West Africa, as both spotted and striped hyenas are often given the same names. In West African tales, spotted hyenas are sometimes depicted as badMuslims who challenge the localanimism that exists among theBeng inCôte d'Ivoire.[64]
InEast Africa,Tabwa mythology portrays the spotted hyena as a solar animal that first brought the sun to warm the cold earth, while West African folklore generally shows the hyena as symbolizing immorality, dirty habits, the reversal of normal activities, and other negative traits. InTanzania, there is a belief thatwitches use spotted hyenas asmounts.[64] In theMtwara Region of Tanzania, it is believed that a child born at night while a hyena is crying will likely grow up to be a thief. In the same area, hyena feces are believed to enable a child to walk at an early age, thus it is not uncommon in that area to see children with hyena dung wrapped in their clothes.[65] TheKaguru of Tanzania and theKujamaat of southernSenegal view hyenas asinedible and greedy hermaphrodites. A mythical African tribe called theBouda is reputed to have members able to transform into hyenas.[66] A similar myth occurs inMansôa. These "werehyenas" are killed when discovered, and do not revert to human form once dead.[65]
Striped hyenas are often referred to inMiddle Eastern literature and folklore, typically as symbols of treachery and stupidity.[67] In the Near and Middle East, striped hyenas are generally regarded as physical incarnations ofjinns.[64] Arab writeral-Qazwīnī (1204–1283) spoke of a tribe of people calledal-Ḍabyūn meaning "hyena people". In his book'Ajā'ib Al-Makhlūqāt he wrote that should one of this tribe be in a group of 1,000 people, a hyena could pick him out and eat him.[67] APersian medical treatise written in 1376 tells how to cure cannibalistic people known askaftar, who are said to be "half-man, half-hyena".[64]al-Damīrī in his writings inḤawayān al-Kubrā (1406) wrote that striped hyenas werevampiric creatures that attacked people at night and sucked the blood from their necks. He also wrote that hyenas only attacked brave people. Arab folklore tells of how hyenas can mesmerise victims with their eyes or sometimes with their pheromones.[67]
In a similar vein to al-Damīrī, theGreeks until the end of the 19th century believed that the bodies of werewolves, if not destroyed, would haunt battlefields as vampiric hyenas that drank the blood of dying soldiers.[68] The image of striped hyenas inAfghanistan, India andPalestine is more varied. Though feared, striped hyenas were also symbolic of love and fertility, leading to numerous varieties of love medicine derived from hyena body parts. Among theBaluch and innorthern India, witches or magicians are said to ride striped hyenas at night.[64]
The striped hyena is mentioned in theBible. TheArabic word for the hyena,ḍab` orḍabu` (pluralḍibā`), is alluded to in a valley inIsrael known as Shaqq-ud-Diba` (meaning "cleft of the hyenas") and Wadi-Abu-Diba` (meaning "valley of the hyenas"). Both places have been interpreted by some scholars as being the Biblical Valley ofTsebo`im mentioned in 1Samuel 13:18. In modernHebrew, the word for hyena and hypocrite are both the same:tsavua. Though theAuthorized King James Version of the Bible interprets the term "`ayit tsavua`" (found inJeremiah 12:9) as "speckled bird",Henry Baker Tristram argued that it was most likely a hyena being mentioned.[69]
The vocalization of the spotted hyena resembling hysterical humanlaughter has been alluded to in numerous works of literature: "to laugh like a hyæna" or a "hyen" was a commonsimile, and is featured inThe Cobbler's Prophecy (1594), Webster'sDuchess of Malfi (1623) andShakespeare'sAs You Like It, Act IV. Sc.1.[70][71][72]
Ordinarily, striped hyenas are extremely timid around humans, though they may show bold behaviors towards people at night.[74] On rare occasions, striped hyenas have preyed on humans.
Among hyenas, only the spotted and striped hyenas have been known to becomeman-eaters. Hyenas are known to have preyed on humans in prehistory: human hair has been found in fossilized hyena dung dating back 195,000 to 257,000 years.[75] Some paleontologists believe that competition and predation bycave hyenas (Crocuta crocuta spelaea) inSiberia was a significant factor in delaying human colonization ofAlaska. Hyenas may have occasionally stolen human kills, or entered campsites to drag off the young and weak, much as modern spotted hyenas do in Africa. The oldest Alaskan human remains coincide with roughly the same time cave hyenas became extinct, leading some paleontologists to infer that hyena predation prevented humans from crossing theBering Strait earlier.[76]
Hyenas readily scavenge from human corpses; in Ethiopia, hyenas were reported to feed extensively on the corpses of victims of the1960 attempted coup[77] and theRed Terror.[78] Hyenas habituated to scavenging on human corpses may develop bold behaviors towards living people: hyena attacks on people in southern Sudan increased during theSecond Sudanese Civil War, when human corpses were readily available to them.[79]
Spotted hyenas have been known to prey on humans in modern times, but such incidents are rare. However, attacks on humans by spotted hyenas are likely to be underreported.[80] Man-eating spotted hyenas tend to be very large specimens; a pair of man-eating hyenas, responsible for killing 27 people inMulanje,Malawi in 1962, weighed in at 72 kg (159 lb) and 77 kg (170 lb) after being shot.[81] A 1903 report describes spotted hyenas in theMzimba district ofAngoniland waiting at dawn outside people's huts to attack them when they opened their doors.[82] Victims of spotted hyenas tend to be women, children and sick or infirm men;Theodore Roosevelt wrote in 1908–1909 inUganda that spotted hyenas regularly killed sufferers ofAfrican sleeping sickness as they slept outside in camps.[83]
Spotted hyenas are widely feared in Malawi, where they have been known to attack people at night, particularly during the hot season when people sleep outside. A spate of hyena attacks was reported in Malawi'sPhalombe plain, with five deaths recorded in 1956, five in 1957 and six in 1958. This pattern continued until 1961, when eight people were killed. Attacks occurred most commonly in September, when people slept outdoors and bush fires made the hunting of wild game difficult for the hyenas.[80][82] A 2004 news report stated that 35 people were killed by spotted hyenas in a 12-month period inMozambique along a 20-km stretch of road near theTanzanian border.[80]
In the 1880s, a hyena was reported to have attacked humans, especially sleeping children, over a three-year period in theIğdır Province of Turkey, with 25 children and 3 adults being wounded in one year. The attacks provoked local authorities into announcing a reward of 100rubles for every hyena killed. Further attacks were reported later in some parts of theSouth Caucasus, particularly in 1908. Instances are known inAzerbaijan of striped hyenas killing children sleeping in courtyards during the 1930s and 1940s. In 1942, a sleeping guard was mauled in his hut by a hyena inQalıncaq (Golyndzhakh). Cases of children being taken by hyenas by night are known in southeast Turkmenistan'sBathyz Nature Reserve. A further attack on a child was reported aroundSerakhs in 1948.[84] Several attacks have occurred in India; in 1962, 9 children were thought to have been taken by hyenas in the town ofBhagalpur in theBihar State in a six-week period,[69] and 19 children up to the age of four were killed by hyenas inKarnataka in 1974.[85] A survey of wild animal attacks during a five-year period in the Indian state ofMadhya Pradesh reported that hyenas had attacked three people, causing fewer deaths thanwolves,gaur,boar,elephants,tigers,leopards andsloth bears.[86]
Hyenas have occasionally been used for food and medicinal purposes inSomalia.[87] Some Muslims consider ithalal inIslam[88][89][90] although this is disputed by other Muslims.[91][92] This practice dates back to the times of theAncient Greeks andRomans, who believed that different parts of the hyena's body were effective means to ward off evil and to ensure love and fertility.[64]
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