TheHudson River is a 315-mile (507 km)river that flows from north to south largely through easternNew York state. It originates in theAdirondack Mountains atHenderson Lake in the town ofNewcomb, and flows south toNew York Bay, atidal estuary betweenNew York City andJersey City, before draining into theAtlantic Ocean. The river marks boundaries between severalNew York counties and the eastern border between the U.S. states of New York andNew Jersey. The lower half of the river is atidal estuary, deeper than the body of water into which it flows, occupying the HudsonFjord, an inlet that formed during the most recent period of North Americanglaciation, estimated at 26,000 to 13,300 years ago. Even as far north as the city ofTroy, the flow of the river changes direction with the tides.
The Hudson River runs through theMunsee,Lenape,Mohican,Mohawk, andHaudenosaunee homelands. Prior to European exploration, the river was known as theMahicannittuk by the Mohicans,Ka'nón:no by the Mohawks, andMuhheakantuck by the Lenape. The river was subsequently named afterHenry Hudson, an Englishman sailing for theDutch East India Company who explored it in 1609, and after whomHudson Bay in Canada is also named. It had previously been observed by Italian explorerGiovanni da Verrazzano sailing for KingFrancis I of France in 1524, as he became the first European known to have entered theUpper New York Bay, but he considered the river to be an estuary. The Dutch called the river theNorth River, and they called the present-dayDelaware River theSouth River, which formed the spine of the Dutch colony ofNew Netherland. Settlements of the colony clustered around the Hudson, and its strategic importance as the gateway to the American interior led to years of competition between the English and the Dutch over control of the river and colony.
Industrial contamination of the Hudson River grew sharply in the mid-twentienth century, particularly frompolychlorinated biphenyls, or PCBs. Pollution control regulations, enforcement actions, and restoration projects initiated in the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries have begun to improvewater quality.[5][6]Sturgeon have been seen in the Hudson in the early twenty-first century.[7]
The river was calledKa’nón:no[9] orCa-ho-ha-ta-te-a ("the river")[10] by theHaudenosaunee, and it was known asMuh-he-kun-ne-tuk ("river that flows two ways" or "waters that are never still"[11]) orMahicannittuk[12] by theMohican nation who formerly inhabited both banks of the lower portion of the river. The meaning of the Mohican name comes from the river's long tidal range. TheDelaware Tribe of Indians (Bartlesville, Oklahoma) considers the closely related Mohicans to be a part of theLenape people,[13] and so the Lenape also claim the Hudson as part of their ancestral territory, also calling itMuhheakantuck.[14]
The first known European name for the river was the Rio San Antonio as named by the Portuguese explorer in Spain's employ,Estêvão Gomes, who explored the Mid-Atlantic coast in 1525.[15] Another early name for the Hudson used by the Dutch wasRio de Montaigne.[16] Later, they generally termed it theNoortrivier, or "North River", theDelaware River being known as theZuidrivier, or "South River". Other occasional names for the Hudson includedManhattes rieviere "Manhattan River",Groote Rivier "Great River", andde grootte Mouritse reviere, or "the Great Maurits River" (afterMaurice, Prince of Orange).[17]
The translated name North River was used in theNew York metropolitan area up until the early 1900s, with limited use continuing into the present day.[18] The term persists in radio communication among commercial shipping traffic, especially below theTappan Zee.[19] The term also continues to be used in names of facilities in the river's southern portion, such as theNorth River piers,North River Tunnels, and theNorth River Wastewater Treatment Plant. It is believed that the first use of the name Hudson River in a map was in a map created by the cartographer John Carwitham in 1740.[20][disputed –discuss]
The New York City section of the Hudson river highlighted in yellow. The mouth of the Hudson at center is located between Jersey City and Manhattan
In 1939, the magazineLife described the river as "America's Rhine", comparing it to the 760-mile (1,220 km)Rhine in Central and Western Europe.[21]
The tidal Hudson is unusually straight for a river, and the earliest colonial Dutch charts of the Hudson River designated the narrow, meandering stretches asracks, or reaches.[22][23] These names included the four "lower reaches" through theHudson Highlands (Seylmakers rack, Cocks rack, Hoogh rack, and Vosserack) plus the four "upper reaches" from Inbocht Bay to Kinderhook (Backers rack, Jan Pleysiers rack, Klevers rack, and Harts rack). A ninth reach was described as "the long reach" by the Englishman Robert Juet and designated as the Langerack by the Dutch.[24] An embellished (and partly erroneous) list of "The Old Reaches" was published in a tourist guidebook for steamboat passengers in the nineteenth century.[25][26]
The source of the Hudson River isHenderson Lake, located in theAdirondack Mountains at an elevation of 4,322 ft (1,317 m).[27][28] However, the photogenicLake Tear of the Clouds is more conventionally cited in popular culture as the source of the Hudson.[29] The river is namedFeldspar Brook from where it emerges from Lake Tear of the Clouds until its confluence with theOpalescent River, after which it becomes the Opalescent until it reachesCalamity Brook flowing southward into the eastern outlet of Henderson Lake. After this point, the stream is known as the Hudson River[30][31][32] according to the cartographical definition used by theUnited States Geological Survey (USGS).[8]
The Hudson River flowing out of Henderson Lake in Tahawus
USGS maps show the longest source of the Hudson as the Opalescent on the western slopes of Little Marcy Mountain,[33][34] originating two miles north of Lake Tear of the Clouds.[34][35]
Using river names as seen on maps, Indian Pass Brook flows intoHenderson Lake. The outlet of Henderson Lake is most commonly referred to as the official start of the Hudson River, as it flows east and meets the southwest flowing Calamity Brook. Theconfluence of the two rivers however is where most maps begin to use the Hudson River name on a cartographical basis. South of the outlet of Sanford Lake, the Opalescent River flows into the Hudson.[4]
The Hudson then flows south, taking in Beaver Brook and the outlet of Lake Harris. After its confluence with the Indian River, the Hudson forms the boundary between Essex and Hamilton counties. The Hudson flows entirely into Warren County in the hamlet ofNorth River, and takes in theSchroon River atWarrensburg. Further south, the river forms the boundary between Warren and Saratoga Counties. The river then takes in theSacandaga River from theGreat Sacandaga Lake.[32]
Shortly thereafter, the river leaves the Adirondack Park, flows underInterstate 87, and throughGlens Falls, just south ofLake George although receiving no streamflow from the lake. It next goes throughHudson Falls. At this point the river forms the boundary between Washington and Saratoga Counties.[32] Here the river has an elevation of 200 feet (61 m).[27] Just south inFort Edward, the river reaches its confluence with theChamplain Canal,[32] which historically provided boat traffic between New York City andMontreal and the rest ofEastern Canada via the Hudson,Lake Champlain and theSaint Lawrence Seaway.[36]
Further south the Hudson takes in water from theBatten Kill River and Fish Creek nearSchuylerville. The river then forms the boundary between Saratoga and Rensselaer counties. The river then enters the heart of theCapital District. It takes in water from theHoosic River, which extends intoMassachusetts. Shortly thereafter the river has its confluence with theMohawk River, the largest tributary of the Hudson River, inWaterford.[27][32] The river then reaches theFederal Dam inTroy, marking an impoundment of the river.[32] At an elevation of 2 feet (0.61 m), the bottom of the dam marks thebeginning of the tidal influence in the Hudson as well as the beginning of the lower Hudson River.[27]
South of the Federal Dam, the Hudson River begins to widen considerably. The river enters theHudson Valley, flowing between the cities ofAlbany on the west bank andRensselaer on the east bank.Interstate 90 crosses the Hudson into Albany at this point in the river. The Hudson then leaves the Capital District, forming the boundary between Greene and Columbia Counties. It then meets its confluence with Schodack Creek, widening considerably at this point. After flowing byHudson, the river forms the boundary between Ulster and Columbia Counties and Ulster and Dutchess Counties, passingGermantown andKingston.[37]
The bulk carrierNord Angel breaking ice on the Hudson
The lower Hudson is a tidal estuary, with tidal influence extending as far as theFederal Dam inTroy. There are about two high tides and two low tides per day. As the tide rises, the tidal current moves northward, taking enough time that part of the river can be at high tide while another part can be at the bottom of its low tide.[7]
Strong tides make parts of New York Harbor difficult and dangerous to navigate. During the winter, ice floes may drift south or north, depending upon the tides. TheMahican name of the river represents its partially estuarine nature:muh-he-kun-ne-tuk means "the river that flows both ways."[39] Due to tidal influence from the ocean extending to Troy, NY,[7] freshwater discharge is only about 17,400 cubic feet (490 m3) per second on average.[2] The mean fresh water discharge at the river's mouth in New York is approximately 21,900 cubic feet (620 m3) per second.[1]
The Hudson River is 315 miles (507 km) long, with depths of 30 feet (9.1 m) for the stretch south of the Federal Dam, dredged to maintain the river as a shipping route. Some sections there are around 160 feet deep,[7] and the deepest part of the Hudson, known as "World's End" (between theUS Military Academy andConstitution Island) has a depth of 202 feet (62 m).[37]
The Hudson and its tributaries, notably the Mohawk River, drain an area of 13,000 square miles (34,000 km2), the Hudson River Watershed. It covers much of New York, as well as parts of Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Vermont.[7]
The City of Poughkeepsie and several adjacent communities in the mid-Hudson valley, totalling about 100,000 people, rely on the river for their drinking water.[41]
New York Harbor, between the Narrows and the George Washington Bridge, has a mix of fresh and ocean water, mixed by wind and tides to create an increasing gradient of salinity from the river's top to its bottom. This varies with season, weather, variation of water circulation, and other factors; snowmelt at winter's end increases the freshwater flow downstream.[7]
Thesalt line of the river varies from the north in Poughkeepsie to the south at Battery Park in New York City, though it usually lies near Newburgh.[42]: 11
Thomas Cole,Sunny Morning on the Hudson River, 1827
The Hudson is sometimes called, in geological terms, adrowned river. The risingsea levels after the retreat of theWisconsin glaciation, the most recentice age, have resulted in amarine incursion that drowned the coastal plain and brought salt water well above the mouth of the river. The deeply eroded old riverbed beyond the current shoreline,Hudson Canyon, is a rich fishing area. The former riverbed is clearly delineated beneath the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, extending to the edge of thecontinental shelf.[43] As a result of the glaciation and therising sea levels, the lower half of the river is now atidal estuary that occupies the Hudson Fjord. The fjord is estimated to have formed between 26,000 and 13,300 years ago.[44]
The Narrows were most likely formed about 6,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age. Previously, Staten Island andLong Island were connected, preventing the Hudson River from terminating via the Narrows. At that time, the Hudson River emptied into the Atlantic Ocean through a more westerly course through parts of present-day northern New Jersey, along the eastern side of theWatchung Mountains toBound Brook, New Jersey and then on into the Atlantic Ocean viaRaritan Bay. A buildup of water in the Upper New York Bay eventually allowed the Hudson River to break through previous land mass that was connecting Staten Island and Brooklyn to form the Narrows as it exists today. This allowed the Hudson River to find a shorter route to the Atlantic Ocean via its present course between New Jersey and New York City.[45]
Suspended sediments, mainly consisting of clays eroded from glacial deposits and organic particles, can be found in abundance in the river. The Hudson has a relatively short history of erosion, so it does not have a large depositional plain near its mouth. This lack of significant deposits near the river mouth differs from most other American estuaries. Around New York Harbor, sediment also flows into the estuary from the ocean when the current is flowing north.[7]
The area around Hudson River was inhabited by indigenous peoples ages before Europeans arrived. TheLenape,Wappinger, andMahican branches of theAlgonquians lived along the river,[46] mostly in peace with the other groups.[46][47] The Algonquians in the region mainly lived in small clans and villages throughout the area. One major settlement was called Navish, which was located atCroton Point, overlooking the Hudson River. Other settlements were located in various locations throughout theHudson Highlands. Many villagers lived in various types of houses, which the Algonquians calledwigwams, though large families often lived inlonghouses that could be a hundred feet long.[47]
At the associated villages, they grew corn, beans, and squash. They also gathered other types of plant foods, such as hickory nuts and many other wild fruits and tubers. In addition to agriculture, the Algonquians also fished in the Hudson River, focusing on various species of freshwater fish, as well as various variations ofstriped bass,American eels,sturgeon,herring, andshad. Oyster beds were also common on the river floor, which provided an extra source of nutrition. Land hunting consisted of turkey, deer, bear, and other animals.[47]
The lower Hudson River was inhabited by the Lenape,[47] while further north, the Wappingers lived from Manhattan Island up toPoughkeepsie. They traded with both the Lenape to the south and the Mahicans to the north.[46] The Mahicans lived in the northern part of the valley from present-dayKingston toLake Champlain,[47] with their capital located near present-dayAlbany.[46]
John Cabot is credited for theOld World's discovery of continental North America, with his journey in 1497 along the continent's coast. In 1524,Florentine explorerGiovanni da Verrazzano sailed north along the Atlantic seaboard and into New York Harbor,[15] however he left the harbor shortly thereafter, without navigating into the Hudson River.[48] In 1598, Dutch men employed by the Greenland Company wintered inNew York Bay.[15]
In 1609 theDutch East India Company financed English navigatorHenry Hudson in his search for theNortheast Passage, but thwarted by sea ice in that direction, he sailed westward across the Atlantic in pursuit of aNorthwest Passage.[49] During the search, Hudson sailed up the river that would later be named after him. He then sailed upriver to a point near Stuyvesant (Old Kinderhook), and the ship’s boat with five members ventured to the vicinity of present-day Albany, reaching an end to navigation.[50][51]
TheDutch subsequently began to colonize the region, establishing the colony ofNew Netherland, including three major fur-trading outposts:New Amsterdam,Wiltwyck, andFort Orange.[52][53] New Amsterdam was founded at the mouth of the Hudson River, and would later become known asNew York City. Wiltwyck was founded roughly halfway up the Hudson River, and would later become Kingston. Fort Orange was founded on the river north of Wiltwyck, and later became known as Albany.[52]
TheDutch West India Company operated a monopoly on the region for roughly twenty years before other businessmen were allowed to set up their own ventures in the colony.[52] In 1647, Director-GeneralPeter Stuyvesant took over management of the colony, and surrendered it in 1664 to the British, who had invaded the largely-defenseless New Amsterdam.[52][54] New Amsterdam and the colony of New Netherland were renamed New York, after theDuke of York.[54]
Under British colonial rule, the Hudson Valley became an agricultural hub. Manors were developed on the east side of the river, and the west side contained many smaller and independent farms.[55] In 1754, theAlbany Plan of Union was created atAlbany City Hall on the Hudson.[56][57] The plan allowed the colonies to treaty with the Iroquois and provided a framework for theContinental Congress.[58][59]
During theAmerican Revolutionary War, the British realized that the river's proximity to Lake George and Lake Champlain would allow their navy to control the water route fromMontreal to New York City.[60] British generalJohn Burgoyne planned theSaratoga campaign, to control the river and therefore cut off thepatriot hub ofNew England (to the river's east) from the South and Mid-Atlantic regions to the river's west. The action would allow the British to focus on rallying the support of loyalists in the southerly states.[61] As a result, numerous battles were fought along the river and in nearby waterways. These include theBattle of Long Island, in August 1776[62] and theBattle of Harlem Heights the following month.[63] Later that year, the British and Continental Armies were involved in skirmishes and battles in rivertowns of the Hudson in Westchester County, culminating in theBattle of White Plains.[64]
Also in late 1776, New England militias fortified the river's choke point known as theHudson Highlands, which included buildingFort Clinton andFort Montgomery on either side of the Hudson and ametal chain between the two. In 1777, Washington expected the British would attempt to control the Hudson River, however they instead conquered Philadelphia, and left a smaller force in New York City, with permission to strike the Hudson Valley at any time. The British attacked on October 5, 1777, in theBattle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery by sailing up the Hudson River, looting the village ofPeekskill and capturing the two forts.[65] In 1778, the Continentals constructed theGreat West Point Chain in order to prevent another British fleet from sailing up the Hudson.[66]
Robert Havell Jr.,View of the Hudson River from Tarrytown,c. 1866
Hudson River School paintings reflect the themes of discovery, exploration, and settlement in America in the mid-19th century.[67] The detailed and idealized paintings also typically depict apastoral setting. The works often juxtapose peaceful agriculture and the remaining wilderness, which was fast disappearing from the Hudson Valley just as it was coming to be appreciated for its qualities of ruggedness andsublimity.[68] The school characterizes the artistic body, its New York location, its landscape subject matter, and often its subject, the Hudson River.[69]
In general, Hudson River School artists believed that nature in the form of the American landscape was an ineffable manifestation of God,[70] though the artists varied in the depth of their religious conviction.[71] Their reverence for America's natural beauty was shared with contemporary American writers such asHenry David Thoreau andRalph Waldo Emerson.[72] The artistThomas Cole is generally acknowledged as the founder of theHudson River School,[73] his work first being reviewed in 1825,[74] while paintersFrederic Edwin Church andAlbert Bierstadt were the most successful painters of the school.[69]
At the beginning of the 19th century, transportation from the US east coast into the mainland was difficult. Ships were the fastest vehicles at the time, as trains were still being developed and automobiles were roughly a century away. In order to facilitate shipping throughout the country's interior, numerous canals were constructed between internal bodies of water in the 1800s.[75][76] One of the most significant canals of this era was theErie Canal. The canal was built to link the Midwest to thePort of New York, a significant seaport during that time, by way of theGreat Lakes, the canal, theMohawk River, and the Hudson River.[76]
The completion of the canal enhanced the development of the American West, allowing settlers to travel west, send goods to markets in frontier cities, and export goods via the Hudson River and New York City. The completion of the canal made New York City one of the most vital ports in the nation, surpassing thePort of Philadelphia and ports inMassachusetts.[76][77][78] After the completion of the Erie Canal, smaller canals were built to connect it with the new system. TheChamplain Canal was built to connect the Hudson River nearTroy to the southern end of Lake Champlain. This canal allowed boaters to travel from theSt. Lawrence Seaway, and then British cities such asMontreal to the Hudson River and New York City.[78]
Hudson River sloop
Another major canal was theOswego Canal, which connected the Erie Canal toOswego andLake Ontario, and could be used to bypass Niagara Falls.[78] TheCayuga-Seneca Canal connected the Erie Canal toCayuga Lake andSeneca Lake.[78] Farther south, theDelaware and Hudson Canal was built between theDelaware River atHonesdale, Pennsylvania, and the Hudson River at Kingston, New York. This canal enabled the transportation of coal, and later other goods as well, between the Delaware and Hudson River watersheds.[79] The combination of these canals made the Hudson River one of the most vital waterways for trade in the nation.[78]
During theIndustrial Revolution, the Hudson River became a major location for production, especially around Albany and Troy. The river allowed for fast and easy transport of goods from the interior of the Northeast to the coast. Hundreds of factories were built around the Hudson, in towns including Poughkeepise, Newburgh, Kingston, and Hudson. TheNorth Tarrytown Assembly (later owned byGeneral Motors), on the river in Sleepy Hollow, was a large and notable example. The River links to the Erie Canal and Great Lakes, allowing manufacturing in the Midwest, including automobiles in Detroit, to use the river for transport.[80]: 71–2 With industrialization came new technologies for transport, including steamboats for faster transport. In 1807, theNorth River Steamboat (later known as Clermont), became the first commercially successful steamboat. It carried passengers between New York City and Albany along the Hudson River.[81]
Stereoscopic views of the Hudson River Railroad and Hudson River
The Hudson River valley also proved to be a good area for railroads. TheHudson River Railroad was established in 1849 on the east side of the river as a way to bring passengers from New York City to Albany. The line was built as an alternative to theNew York and Harlem Railroad for travel to Albany, and as a way to ease the concerns of cities along the river. The railroad was also used for commuting to New York City.[82] Further north, theLivingston Avenue Bridge was opened in 1866 as a way to connect the Hudson River Railroad with theNew York Central Railroad, which goes west toBuffalo.[83][84] Smaller railroads existed north of this point.[85] On the west side of the Hudson River, theWest Shore Railroad opened to run passenger service fromWeehawken, New Jersey to Albany, and then Buffalo.[86] In 1889, thePoughkeepsie Railroad Bridge opened for rail service between Poughkeepsie and the west side of the river.[87]
Starting in the 20th century, the technological requirements needed to build large crossings across the river were met. This was especially important by New York City, as the river is fairly wide at that point. In 1927, theHolland Tunnel opened between New Jersey andLower Manhattan. The tunnel was the longest underwater tunnel in the world at the time, and used an advanced system to ventilate the tunnels and prevent the build-up of carbon monoxide.[88][89] The original upper level of theGeorge Washington Bridge and the first tube of theLincoln Tunnel followed in the 1930s. Both crossings were later expanded to accommodate extra traffic: the Lincoln Tunnel in the 1940s and 1950s, and the George Washington Bridge in the 1960s.[90] In 1955, the originalTappan Zee Bridge was built overone of the widest parts of the river, fromTarrytown toNyack.[91][92][93]
The late 20th century saw a decline in industrial production in the Hudson Valley. In 1993,IBM closed two of its plants, inEast Fishkill andKingston, due to the company's loss of $16 billion over the previous three years. The plant in East Fishkill had 16,300 workers at its peak in 1984, and had opened in 1941 originally as part of the war effort.[94] In 1996, the North Tarrytown plant ofGeneral Motors (GM) closed.[95] In response to the plant closures, towns throughout the region sought to make the region attractive for technology companies. IBM maintained amainframe unit at its Poughkeepsie plant, and newer housing and office developments were built near there as well. Commuting from Poughkeepsie to New York City also increased.[94] Developers also looked to build on the property of the old GM plant.[95]
The Hudson Valley Hot-Air Balloon Festival, 2009US Airways Flight 1549 after landing on the waters of the Hudson River in January 2009
Around the time of the last factories' closing, environmental efforts to clean up the river progressed. For example, theEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) orderedGeneral Electric (GE), which had polluted a 200-mile stretch of the river, to removePCBs from the site of its old factory inHudson Falls, as well as to remove millions of cubic yards of contaminated sediment from the river bottom. EPA's cleanup order was issued pursuant to the agency's designation of the polluted segment of the river as aSuperfund site.[6] Other conservation efforts also occurred, such as when Christopher Swain became the first person to swim all 315 miles of the Hudson River in support of cleaning it up.[96]
In conjunction with conservation efforts, the Hudson River region has seen an economic revitalization, especially in favor of green development. In 2009, theHigh Line was opened in theChelsea neighborhood of Manhattan. This linear park has views of the river throughout its length.[97] Also in 2009, the original Poughkeepsie railroad bridge, since abandoned, was converted into theWalkway Over the Hudson, a pedestrian park over the river.[87] Emblematic of the increase in green development in the region, waterfront parks in cities like Kingston, Poughkeepsie, andBeacon were built, and several festivals are held annually.[98]
The Hudson River isnavigable by large steamers up to Troy, and by ocean-faring vessels to the Port of Albany.[42]: 11 The originalErie Canal, opened in 1825 to connect the Hudson with Lake Erie, emptied into the Hudson at theAlbany Basin, just 3 miles (4.8 km) south of theFederal Dam inTroy (at mile 134). The canal enabled shipping between cities on theGreat Lakes and Europe via the Atlantic Ocean.[43] TheNew York State Canal System, the successor to the Erie Canal, runs into the Hudson River north of Troy.[103] It also uses the Federal Dam as a lock.[104]
The Hudson River's sediments contain a significant array ofpollutants, accumulated over decades from industrial waste discharges,sewage treatment plants, andurban runoff.Water quality in the river has greatly improved since implementation of the 1972Clean Water Act (CWA). A 2020 report on the health of the river states that "Water quality in the Hudson River Estuary has improved dramatically since 1972 and has remained largely stable in recent years." Ecological health trends, such as in tributaries and wetlands, are varied in condition. The concentrations of toxic pollutants in fish and crabs are lower compared to measurements taken in previous decades, but fishing restrictions and health warnings remain in effect.[5]: 5
The most significant pollution of the Hudson River was contamination of the river byGeneral Electric (GE) withpolychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) between 1947 and 1977. These chemicals caused a range of harmful effects to wildlife and people who ate fish from the river.[6][117] Other kinds of pollution, includingmercury contamination and discharges of partially treatedsewage, have also caused ecological problems in the river.[118][119]
Environmental activism in New York and across the country, and increased attention from members ofCongress led to passage of the CWA in 1972.[122][123] Extensive remediation actions on the river began in the 1970s with the issuance and enforcement of CWA wastewater discharge permits and consequent control or reduction of discharges from industrial facilities and municipal sewage treatment plants.[124]
In 1984, EPA declared a 200-mile (320 km) stretch of the river, from Hudson Falls to New York City, as aSuperfund site requiring cleanup, one of the largest such site designations in the country.[6] Sediment removal operations by GE, pursuant to the Superfund orders, have continued into the 21st century.[124]
Thebenthic zone has species capable of living in soft bottom habitats. Within freshwater regions, there are animal species including larvae ofchironomid flies,oligochaete worms, predatory fly larvae, andamphipods. In saline regions, there are abundantpolychaeteannelids, amphipods, and some mollusks such as clams. These species burrow in the sediment and accelerate the breakdown of organic matter.Atlantic blue crabs are among the larger invertebrates, at the northern limit of their range.[7]
The entire Hudson was once far more populated with native suspension-feedingbivalves. Freshwater mussels were common in the river'slimnetic zone, but populations have been decreasing for decades, probably from altered habitats and the invasive zebra mussel. Oyster beds were once pervasive in the saltwater portion, but are now reduced through pollution and exploitation.[7]
About 220 species of fish, including 173 native species, currently are found in the Hudson River.[125] Commercial fishing was once prominent in the river, although most were shut down in 1976 due to pollution; few survive today.American shad are the only finfish harvested for profit, though in limited numbers.[7]
Species includestriped bass, the most important game fish in the Hudson. Estimates of the striped bass population in the Hudson range to nearly 100 million fish.[126][127]American eels also live in the river before reaching breeding age; for much of this stage they are known asglass eels because of the transparency of their bodies. The fish are the onlycatadromous species in the Hudson's estuary.[128]
TheAtlantic tomcod is a unique species that adapted resistance to the toxic effects of the PCBs polluting the river. Scientists identified the genetic mutation that conferred the resistance, and found that the mutated form was present in 99 percent of the tomcods in the river, compared to fewer than 10 percent of the tomcods from other waters.[128][129] Thehogchokerflatfish have been historically abundant in the river, where farmers would use them for inexpensive livestock feed, giving the fish its name.[128] Other unusual fish found in the river include thenorthern pipefish, thelined seahorse, and thenorthern puffer.[128]
TheAtlantic sturgeon, a species about 120 million years old, enter the estuary during their annual migrations. The fish grow to a considerable size, up to 15 feet (4.6 m) and 800 pounds (360 kg).[128] The fish are the symbol of the Hudson River Estuary. Their smoked flesh was commonly eaten in the river valley since 1779, and it was sometimes known as "Albany beef". The city of Albany was called "Sturgeondom" or "Sturgeontown" in the 1850s and 1860s, with its residents known as "Sturgeonites". The "Sturgeondom" name lost popularity around 1900.[130] The fish have been off limits from fishing since 1998. The river's population ofshortnose sturgeon have quadrupled since the 1970s, and are also off limits to all fishing as they are a federally endangered species.[7]
Marine life is known to exist in the estuary, with seals, crabs, and some whales reported. On March 29, 1647, a white whale swam up the river to theRensselaerswyck (near Albany).Herman Melville, author ofMoby-Dick, lived in and near Albany from 1830 to 1847, and was known to have ancestry fromNew Netherland, leading some to believe stories of the whale sighting inspired his novel.[136]
Non-native species often originate in New York Harbor, a center of long-distance commerce. Over 100 foreign species reside in the river and its banks. Many of these have had significant effects on the ecosystem and natural habitats. Thewater chestnut produces a vegetative mat that reduces oxygen content in the water below, enhances sedimentation, impedes small vessel navigation, and is a hazard to swimmers and walkers. The zebra mussel arrived in the Hudson in 1989 and has spread through the river's freshwater region, reducing photoplankton and river oxygen levels. Positively, the mussel clears suspended particles, allowing for more light to aquatic vegetation. In saltwater areas, thegreen crab spread in the early 20th century and theJapanese shore crab has become dominant in recent years.[7]
The Hudson has a diverse array of habitat types. Most of the river consists of deep water habitats, though its tidal wetlands of freshwater and salt marshes are among the most ecologically important. There is strong biological diversity, including intertidal vegetation like freshwatercattails and saltwatercordgrasses. Shallow coves and bays are often covered with submarine vegetation; shallower areas harbor diversebenthic fauna. Abundance of food varies over location and time, stemming from seasonal flows of nutrients. The Hudson's large volume of suspended sediments reduces light penetration in the area's water column, which reduces photoplankton photosynthesis and prevents sub-aquatic vegetation from growing beyond shallow depths. The oxygen-producing phytoplankton have also been inhibited by the relatively recent invasion of thezebra mussel species.[7]
The Hudson River estuary is the site of wetlands from New York City all the way up to Troy. It has one of the largest concentrations of freshwater wetlands in the Northeast. Even though the river can be considered brackish further south, 80 percent of the wetlands are outside the influence of the saltwater coming from the Atlantic Ocean. Currently, the river has about 7,000 acres (28 km2) acres of wetlands, and rising sea levels due toclimate change are expected to lead to an expansion of that area. Wetlands are expected to migrate upland as sea level (and thus the level of the river) rises. This is different from the rest of the world, where rising sea levels usually leads to a reduction in wetland areas. The expansion of the wetlands are expected to provide more habitat to the fish and birds of the region.[137]
TheNew Tappan Zee Bridge between Westchester and Rockland counties has a pedestrian and bicycling path covering a distance of about 3.6 miles. Another pedestrian and bike path exists further north, between Dutchess and Ulster Counties:Walkway Over the Hudson, which has a one-way length of 1.2 miles.
Fishing is allowed in the river, although the state Department of Health recommends eating no fish caught from theSouth Glens Falls Dam to theFederal Dam at Troy. Women under 50 and children under 15 are not advised to eat any fish caught south of the Palmer Falls Dam inCorinth, while others are advised to eat anywhere from one to four meals per month of Hudson River fish, depending on species and location caught. The Department of Health cites mercury, PCBs,dioxin, andcadmium as the chemicals impacting fish in these areas.[145][146]
The Hudson River can be canoed and kayaked for its entire length from Henderson Lake (GPS 44.091974, -74.057768) to the Atlantic Ocean at New York City. The upper section includes the Hudson River Gorge, a spectacular 17-mile Class IV whitewater run. The Hudson River Greenway Water Trail runs for much of the river, from Saratoga County in the Adirondack Park to Battery Park in Manhattan.[citation needed]
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^abcd"Hudson River Cleanup".Hudson River PCBs Superfund Site. New York: US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). January 2, 2025.
^abcdefghijklmno"The Hudson River Today". The River Project.Archived from the original on January 17, 2018. RetrievedJanuary 16, 2018., fromLevinton, Jeffrey S.; Waldman, John R., eds. (2006).The Hudson River Estuary. Cambridge University Press.
^Scott, Andrea K. (December 24, 2018)."Maya Lin". Goings On About Town.The New Yorker. p. 8. Archived fromthe original on January 12, 2019.The Mohican name for the Hudson River was Mahicannituc—waters that are never still
^Miles, Lion G."Mohican Dictionary"(PDF).Archived(PDF) from the original on August 19, 2016. RetrievedAugust 24, 2021.
^"Tribes". delawaretribe.org.Archived from the original on September 12, 2017. RetrievedSeptember 30, 2017.
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^ab"George Washington Bridge". The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.Archived from the original on September 20, 2013. RetrievedDecember 30, 2014.
^"21. The Hudson as Fjord". New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC).Archived from the original on July 5, 2010. RetrievedDecember 30, 2014.
^John Waldman;Heartbeats in the Muck;ISBN1-55821-720-7 The Lyons Press; (2000)
^abcdAlfieri, J.; Berardis, A.; Smith, E.; Mackin, J.; Muller, W.; Lake, R.; Lehmkulh, P. (June 3, 1999)."The Lenapes: A study of Hudson Valley Indians". Poughkeepsie, New York: Marist College. Archived from the original on December 8, 2011. RetrievedMay 25, 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^Cleveland, Henry R."Henry Hudson Explores the Hudson River".history-world.org. International World History Project. Archived from the original on July 5, 2015. RetrievedFebruary 3, 2015.
^Rink, Oliver A. (1986).Holland on the Hudson: An Economic and Social History of Dutch New York. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 17–23,264–266.ISBN978-0801495854.
^Bielinski, Stefan."The Albany Congress".The Albany Congress. New York State Museum.Archived from the original on December 31, 2016. RetrievedJanuary 5, 2017.
^"City Hall".New York State Museum.Archived from the original on December 31, 2016. RetrievedJanuary 5, 2017.
^Harrington, Hugh T. (September 25, 2014)."he Great West Point Chain".Journal of the American Revolution.Archived from the original on March 10, 2016. RetrievedMarch 10, 2016.
^abAvery, Kevin J. (October 2004)."The Hudson River School".Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.Archived from the original on June 14, 2016. RetrievedJune 26, 2016.
^Hunter, Louis C. (1985).A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 2: Steam Power. Charlottesville, Virginia: University Press of Virginia.
^Johnson, Carl."The Livingston Avenue Bridge".All Over Albany. Uptown/Downtown Media LLC.Archived from the original on September 9, 2017. RetrievedJune 5, 2017.
^abHammonds, Keith H. (September 11, 1995)."The Town IBM Left Behind". Bloomberg L.P.Archived from the original on September 9, 2017. RetrievedJune 18, 2017.
^"Ecological Risk Assessment".Hudson River PCBs. New York, NY: EPA. August 1999.Archived from the original on January 2, 2017. RetrievedDecember 3, 2015.
^Levinton, J.S.; Ochron, S.T.P. (2008). "Temporal and geographic trends in mercury concentrations in muscle tissue in five species of hudson river, USA, fish".Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry.27 (8):1691–1697.Bibcode:2008EnvTC..27.1691L.doi:10.1897/07-438.1.PMID18266478.S2CID86320742.
^Kraft, Michael E. (2000). "U.S. Environmental Policy and Politics: From the 1960s to the 1990s".Journal of Policy History.12 (1). Cambridge University Press: 23.doi:10.1353/jph.2000.0006.S2CID154099488.
^Antonucci, Claire; Higgins, Rosemary; Yuhas, Cathy."Atlantic Striped Bass"(PDF). New Jersey Sea Grant Consortium Extension Program.Archived(PDF) from the original on May 1, 2017. RetrievedSeptember 26, 2017.
^"Bear Mountain State Park". New York State Office of Parks and Historic Preservation.Archived from the original on April 21, 2018. RetrievedMarch 24, 2018.
^"Moreau Lake State Park". New York State Office of Parks and Historic Preservation.Archived from the original on March 25, 2018. RetrievedMarch 24, 2018.
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