Hpone (Burmese:ဘုန်း, pronounced[pʰóʊɴ]; also speltphone orhpoun) is a complex and deeply ingrained concept in traditionalBurmese culture, primarily associated withTheravada Buddhism. It refers to an inherent, mystical spiritual power, glory, or charisma that onlymen are believed to possess. This power is seen as essential for spiritual advancement, particularly for achievingBuddhahood, and traditionally underpins a societal hierarchy that places men in a position of spiritual and social superiority over women.
Hpone is often described as an accumulation ofmerit (kutho in Burmese) or "karmic power," built up over countlessrebirths, and is closely intertwined with the Buddhist concept ofparami ('perfection').[1][2][3] TheMyanmar-English Dictionary defines it as "power, glory, influence" or the "cumulative result of past meritorious deeds.[3][4] The term is likely derived from the Pali wordpuñña (ပုည, 'merit'),[5] although theMyanmar Language Commission traces the etymology to the Pali termbhaga (ဘဂ, 'luck, fortune').[4][3]The word is commonly used in thenames of Burmese males. Hpone is comparable to the Thai concept ofbarami (บารมี).[6]
While theoretically, any individual can accumulate merit through good deeds, hpone is uniquely attributed to men in its fullest and most potent form.[3] Hpone influences Burmese relationships, as afatalistic explanation for unequal relationships between men and women, rich and poor, rulers and the ruled, dominant and marginalised ethnic groups.[7] The concept of hpone also self-legitimises one's status without questions of moral fitness.[7]
A key characteristic of hpone includes male exclusivity, the belief holds that only a cisgender man can achieve fullBuddhahood, a core tenet often justified by the idea that only men possess the necessary hpone. This belief reinforces the traditional roles of men as spiritual leaders and authority figures. Another crucial aspect of hpone is its perceived susceptibility to being diminished or "polluted." This vulnerability is particularly associated with women and their lower body garments, such as sarongs (htamein) andunderwear. Contact with these items, or even passing beneath them, is believed to sap a man's hpone.[8] This fear often stems from traditional notions of ritual purity and the association of women's lower bodies withmenstruation andchildbirth, deemed "unclean" in certain contexts.[8]
The concept of hpone has had profound implications for social norms and practices in Myanmar, impacting daily life, family dynamics, and politics.[7] The husband's pre-eminent role in a household may be attributed to his innate hpone.[7] Many Burmese households maintain separate laundry practices for men's and women's clothes, avoiding washing them together or hanging them on the same line to prevent the men's hpone from being diminished.[8] In manypagodas and sacred sites, women are forbidden from entering certain areas or touchingBuddha statues, based on the belief that their presence could diminish the hpone of the sacred objects or the men performing rituals.[8] The idea of hpone reinforces a gendered hierarchy, influencing perceptions of authority, leadership, and even physical space.[8]
Hpone has been used to justify male dominance in political, religious, and social spheres.[7] For example, some argue that the concept of hpone contributed to the historical suppression of women's leadership roles and participation in public life. The inherent nature of hpone causes women to accept or to feel powerless in their circumstances, making them reluctant to pursue political careers.[9]
The origins of the concept of hpone are deeply intertwined with the development of Theravada Buddhism in Myanmar and the evolution of its social structures.Burmese chronicles and religious texts often emphasise the spiritual prowess of male leaders, both monastic and lay. Buddhist monks are known ashpone-gyi (ဘုန်း, 'great hpone') inBurmese, and are believed to possess more hpone than laymen.[5] The idea of royal charisma, often linked to the accumulation of merit and past lives, may have contributed to the broader concept of hpone as an innate quality of powerful men.[7] In the pre-colonial era, rulers sought to demonstrate their hpone to legitimise their governance and garner support.[6][10]
These pre-colonial ideas of classical Buddhist kingship have endured in the modern era.[10] In recent decades, Burmese military leaders likeThan Shwe andMin Aung Hlaing have employed the discovery ofwhite elephants and rare gems to display their hpone.[7][2][11]
In 2021, the Burmese military staged the2021 Myanmar coup d'état. In response,Burmese protesters cast hexes on military leaders at sacred sites like pagodas, shrines, and cemeteries in order to deplete their hpone.[6] Female activists strategically employed the "Htamein Revolution" by hanging clotheslines adorned with women's sarongs and underwear in public spaces.[12][8] This act was designed to deter or slow down military and police personnel, who, due to their belief in hpone, would often pause to remove the garments rather than walk beneath them.[8] This demonstrated how a deeply embedded cultural belief, intended to assert male spiritual power, could be subverted and used as a form ofnon-violent protest.[8] In response, the Burmese military has engaged in ritual merit-making practices like the construction ofMaravijaya Buddha in Naypyidaw, to replenish their hpone.[6]
In contemporary Myanmar, the concept of hpone is increasingly debated and challenged, particularly bywomen's rights andgender equality activists as a driver ofsexism. The ongoing discourse around hpone highlights the tension between traditional cultural values and modern aspirations for a more equitable society in Myanmar. While the concept's influence remains significant, there is a growing awareness of its discriminatory aspects and a movement towards challenging the gendered norms it perpetuates.
Political observers have noted that hpone legitimises hierarchical attitudes and patron-client relationships, making unequal relations seem "natural."[7] It encourages passive acceptance of one's fate rather than seeking justice or fundamental structural change.[7] While many Burmese value hpone as a life goal, this deeply ingrained cultural concept presents a significant challenge to democratic evolution.[7]
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