The peninsula has been known by various names.Ancient Greeks andRomans referred to it asRegio Aromatica or Regio Cinnamonifora after the aromatic plants found there, or as Regio Incognita for its poor coverage by classical Mediterranean cartography. In ancient and medieval times, the Horn of Africa was referred to as theBilad al Barbar ("Land of the Berbers").[15][16][17] It is also known as the Somali Peninsula, or in the Somali language asGeeska Afrika orJasiiradda Soomaali.[18] In other local languages it is called "Horn of Africa" or the "African Horn": inAmharic የአፍሪካ ቀንድyäafrika qänd, inArabic القرن الأفريقيal-qarn al-'afrīqī, inOromoGaanfaa Afrikaa, and inTigrinya ቀርኒ ኣፍሪቃq'ärnī afīrīqa.[19][20]
Geographically, the protruding shape that resembles a "horn" consists of most of Somalia and the easternmost part of Ethiopia, but the geopolitical "Horn of Africa region" also encompasses the rest of Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti.[23][24][25][26] Some broader definitions may includeKenya andSudan.[27] The "Greater Horn Region" (GHR) might additionally includeSouth Sudan andUganda.[28] The term "Greater Horn of Africa" is sometimes used to be inclusive of neighbouringsoutheast African countries to distinguish the broader geopolitical definition of the Horn of Africa from narrower peninsular definitions.[20][29][30]
The Greater Horn of Africa consists of more than the typical four countries, including alsoKenya andUganda.[31][page needed]
The Horn of Africa commonly is referred to simply as "the Horn", while inhabitants are sometimes colloquially termed Horn Africans or Horners.[19][20] Regional studies on the Horn of Africa are carried out in the fields ofEthiopian studies andSomali studies.
Deka rock art in Deka Arbaa,Debub region ofEritrea
Some of the earliestHomo sapiens fossils, theOmo remains (from ca. 233,000 years ago) and theHerto skull (from ca. 160,000 ago) have been found in the region, both in Ethiopia.[32]
The findings of the Earliest Stone Tipped Projectiles from theEthiopian Rift dated to more than 279,000 years ago "in combination with the existing archaeological, fossil and genetic evidence, isolate East Africa as a source of modern cultures and biology."[33][34][35]
According to theSouthern Dispersal scenario, the Southern route of the Out of Africa migration occurred in the Horn of Africa through theBab el Mandeb. Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (19 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. Shellmiddens 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea,[36] indicating the diet of early humans included seafood obtained bybeachcombing.
Ethiopian and Eritreanagriculture established the earliest known use of the seed grassteff (Poa abyssinica) between 4000 and 1000 BCE.[37] Teff is used to make the flatbreadinjera/taita.Coffee also originated in Ethiopia and has since spread to become a worldwide beverage.[38]
HistorianChristopher Ehret, cited genetic evidence which had identified the Horn of Africa as a source of a genetic marker "M35/215" Y-chromosome lineage for a significant population component which moved north from that region into Egypt and the Levant. Ehret argued that this genetic distribution paralleled the spread of theAfrasian language family with the movement of people from the Horn of Africa into Egypt and added a new demic component to the existing population of Egypt 17,000 years ago.[39]
The area comprisingSomaliland,Somalia,Djibouti, theRed Sea coast ofEritrea andSudan is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancientEgyptians asPunt (or "Ta Netjeru", meaning god's land), whose first mention dates to the 25th century BCE.[40]
Dʿmt was a kingdom located in Eritrea and northernEthiopia, which existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. With its capital probably atYeha, the kingdom developedirrigation schemes, usedplows, grewmillet, and madeiron tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BCE, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms, until the rise of one of these kingdoms during the 1st century, theAksumite Kingdom, which was able to reunite the area.[41]
TheKingdom of Aksum (also known as the Aksumite Empire) was an ancient state located in theEritrea andEthiopian highlands, which thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. A major player in the commerce between theRoman Empire andAncient India, Aksum's rulers facilitated trade by minting their owncurrency. The state also established itshegemony over the decliningKingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on theArabian Peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of theHimyarite Kingdom. UnderEzana (fl. 320–360), the kingdom of Aksum became the first major empire to adoptChristianity, and was named byMani as one of the four great powers of his time, along withPersia,Rome andChina.
Thebirth of Islam opposite the Horn's Red Sea coast meant that local merchants and sailors living on theArabian Peninsula gradually came under the influence of the new religion through their convertedArab Muslim trading partners. With the migration of Muslim families from theIslamic world to the Horn in the early centuries of Islam, and the peaceful conversion of the local population by Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into IslamicMogadishu,Berbera,Zeila,Barawa andMerka, which were part of theBarbara civilization.[45][46] The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the "City of Islam"[47] and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries.[48]
TheSultanate of Showa, established in 896, was one of the oldest localIslamic states. It was centered in the formerShewa province in central Ethiopia. The polity was succeeded by theSultanate of Ifat around 1285. Ifat was governed from its capital atZeila in Somaliland and was the easternmost district of the former Shewa Sultanate.[49]
Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, theAjuran Sultanate successfully resisted anOromo invasion from the west and aPortuguese incursion from the east during theGaal Madow and theAjuran-Portuguese wars. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods ofSomali maritime enterprise were also strengthened or re-established, and the state left behind an extensivearchitectural legacy. Many of the hundreds of ruined castles and fortresses that dot the landscape of Somalia today are attributed to Ajuran engineers,[50] including a lot of thepillar tomb fields,necropolises and ruined cities built during that era. The royal family, theHouse of Gareen, also expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare, trade linkages and alliances.[51]
TheZagwe dynasty ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. The name of the dynasty comes from theCushitic-speakingAgaw people of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 onwards for many centuries, theSolomonic dynasty ruled theEthiopian Empire.
In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. A letter from KingHenry IV of England to the Emperor of Abyssinia survives.[54] In 1428, the EmperorYeshaq sent two emissaries toAlfonso V of Aragon, who sent return emissaries who failed to complete the return trip.[55]
The first continuous relations with a European country began in 1508 with Portugal under EmperorLebna Dengel, who had just inherited the throne from his father.[56] This proved to be an important development, for when Abyssinia was subjected to the attacks of theAdal Sultanate General andImamAhmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (called "Gurey" or "Grañ", both meaning "the Left-handed"), Portugal assisted the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men, who helped his sonGelawdewos defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule.[57] ThisEthiopian–Adal War was also one of the first proxy wars in the region as theOttoman Empire, and Portugal took sides in the conflict.
When EmperorSusenyos converted toRoman Catholicism in 1624, years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths.[58] TheJesuit missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians. On 25 June 1632, Susenyos's son, EmperorFasilides, declared the state religion to again beEthiopian Orthodox Christianity, and expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans.[59][60]
During the end of 18th and the beginning of 19th century the Yejju dynasty (more specifically, the Warasek) ruled north Ethiopia changing the official language of Amhara people to Afaan Oromo, including inside the court of Gondar which was capital of the empire. Founded byAli I of Yejju several successive descendants of him andAbba Seru Gwangul ruled with their army coming from mainly their clan theYejju Oromo tribe as well as Wollo and Raya Oromo.[61]
TheSultanate of the Geledi was a Somali kingdom administered by the Gobroon dynasty, which ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was established by the Ajuran soldierIbrahim Adeer, who had defeated variousvassals of the Ajuran Empire and established theHouse of Gobroon. Thedynasty reached its apex under the successive reigns of SultanYusuf Mahamud Ibrahim, who successfully consolidated Gobroon power during theBardera wars, and SultanAhmed Yusuf, who forced regional powers such as theOmani Empire to submittribute.
TheIsaaq Sultanate was aSomali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It spanned the territories of theIsaaq clan, descendants of theBanu Hashim clan,[62] in modern-daySomaliland andEthiopia. The sultanate was governed by theReer Guled branch of theEidagale sub-clan established by the first sultan, SultanGuled Abdi. The sultanate is the pre-colonial predecessor to the modernSomaliland.[63][64][65]
According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty theIsaaq clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son ofSheikh Ishaaq'sHarari wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun (Somali:Boqor Haaruun) who ruled the Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century.[66][67] The last Tolje'lo rulerGarad Dhuh Barar (Somali:Dhuux Baraar) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst theHabr Awal with whom they still mostly live.[68][69]
TheMajeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia) was another prominent Somali sultanate based in the Horn region. Ruled byKingOsman Mahamuud during its golden age, it controlled much of northeastern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity had all of the organs of an integrated modern state and maintained a robust trading network. It also entered into treaties with foreign powers and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front.[70][71] Much of the Sultanate's former domain is today coextensive with the autonomousPuntland region in northern Somalia.[72]
TheSultanate of Hobyo was a 19th-century Somali kingdom founded by SultanYusuf Ali Kenadid. Initially, Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and was eventually forced into exile inYemen. A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from theArabian Peninsula with a band ofHadhramimusketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to establish the kingdom of Hobyo, which would rule much of northern and central Somalia during the early modern period.[73]
The Horn of Africa before the Scramble for Africa (c.1880)A 1909 map of Africa; the Horn of Africa is the easternmost projection of the African continent.
In the period following the opening of theSuez Canal in 1869, when European powersscrambled for territory in Africa and tried to establishcoaling stations for their ships, Italy invaded and occupiedEritrea. On 1 January 1890, Eritrea officially became a colony ofItaly. In 1896 further Italian incursion into the horn was decisively halted by Ethiopian forces. By 1936 however, Eritrea became aprovince ofItalian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana), along withEthiopia andItalian Somaliland. By 1941, Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians.[74] The Commonwealth armed forces, along with the Ethiopian patriotic resistance, expelled those of Italy in 1941,[75] and took over the area's administration. The British continued to administer the territory under aUN Mandate until 1951, when Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, per UN resolution 390 A (V) adopted December 1950.
The strategic importance of Eritrea, due to itsRed Sea coastline and mineral resources, was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to Eritrea's annexation as Ethiopia's 14th provincein 1962. This was the culmination of a gradual process of takeover by the Ethiopian authorities, a process which included a 1959 edict establishing the compulsory teaching ofAmharic, the main language of Ethiopia, in all Eritrean schools. The lack of regard for the Eritrean population led to the formation of an independence movement in the early 1960s (1961), which erupted into a30-year war against successive Ethiopian governments that ended in 1991. Following a UN-supervisedreferendum in Eritrea (dubbedUNOVER) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993.[76] In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to theEritrean-Ethiopian War.[77]
From 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of theGulf of Tadjoura situated in modern-dayDjibouti was calledObock and was ruled bySomali andAfarSultans, local authorities with whomFrance signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 to first gain a foothold in the region.[78][79][80] In 1894,Léonce Lagarde established a permanent French administration in thecity of Djibouti and named the regionCôte française des Somalis (French Somaliland), a name which continued until 1967.
In 1958, on the eve of neighboringSomalia's independence in 1960, areferendum was held in the territory to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum favoured continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans.[81] There was also reports of widespreadvote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the polls.[82] The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed byMahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.[81] Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977.Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, became the nation's first president (1977–1999).[81] In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in aseries of protests against the long-serving government, which were associated with the largerArab Spring demonstrations. The unrest eventually subsided by April of the year, and Djibouti's rulingPeople's Rally for Progress party was re-elected to office.
TheDervish existed for 25 years, from 1895 until 1920. TheTurks named HassanEmir of the Somali nation,[83] and theGermans promised to officially recognize any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.[84] After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's new policy ofaerial bombardment.[85] As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into aprotectorate of Britain.Italy faced similar opposition from SomaliSultans and armies, and did not acquire full control of modern Somalia until theFascist era in late 1927. This occupation lasted until 1941, and was replaced by aBritishmilitary administration. Former British Somaliland would remain, along with Italian Somaliland, atrusteeship of Italy, between 1950 and 1960. The Union of the two countries in 1960 formed the Somali Republic. A civilian government was formed, and on 20 July 1961, through a popularreferendum, theconstitution drafted in 1960 was ratified.[86]
Due to its longstanding ties with theArab world, the Somali Republic was accepted in 1974 as a member of theArab League.[87] During the same year, the nation's formersocialist administration also chaired theOrganization of African Unity, the predecessor of theAfrican Union.[88] In 1991, theSomali Civil War broke out, which saw the dissolving of the union and Somaliland regaining its independence, along with the collapse of the central government and the emergence of numerous autonomous polities, including thePuntland administration in the north.[89] Somalia's inhabitants subsequently reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, eithersecular,Islamic orcustomary law, with a provision for appeal of all sentences. ATransitional Federal Government was subsequently created in 2004.[90] TheFederal Government of Somalia was established on 20 August 2012, concurrent with the end of the TFG's interim mandate.[91] It represents the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war.[91] TheFederal Parliament of Somalia serves as the government'slegislative branch.[92]
Modern Ethiopia and its current borders are a result of significant territorial reduction in the north and expansion in the east and south toward its present borders, owing to several migrations, commercial integration, treaties as well as conquests, particularly byEmperor Menelik II andRas Gobena.[93] From the central province of Shoa, Menelik set off to subjugate and incorporate 'the lands and people of the South, East and West into an empire.'[93][94] He did this with the help of Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia, began expanding his kingdom to the south and east, expanding into areas that had not been held since the invasion ofAhmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, and other areas that had never been under his rule, resulting in the borders of Ethiopia of today.[95] Menelik had signed theTreaty of Wichale with Italy in May 1889, in which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control a small area of northern Tigray (part of modern Eritrea).[96] In return, Italy was to provide Menelik with arms and support him as emperor.[97] The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to further expand their territorial claims. Italy began a state funded program of resettlement for landless Italians in Eritrea, which increased tensions between the Eritrean peasants and the Italians.[97] This conflict erupted in theBattle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians.[98]
In 1989, theTigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form theEthiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), and eventually managed to overthrow Mengistu's dictatorial regime in 1991. A transitional government, composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution, was then set up. The first free and democratic election took place later in 1995, when Ethiopia's longest-serving Prime MinisterMeles Zenawi was elected to office. As with other nations in the Horn region, Ethiopia maintained its historically close relations with countries in the Middle East during this period of change.[103] Zenawi died in 2012, but hisEthiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) party remains the ruling political coalition in Ethiopia.
Geography
Geology and climate
The Horn of Africa as seen from theNASASpace Shuttle in May 1993. The orange and tan colors in this image indicate a largely arid to semiarid climate.
The Horn of Africa is almostequidistant from theequator and theTropic of Cancer. It consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of theGreat Rift Valley, a fissure in the Earth'scrust extending fromTurkey toMozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabiantectonic plates. Mostly mountainous, the region arose through faults resulting from the Rift Valley.
Extensiveglaciers once covered theSimien andBale Mountains but melted at the beginning of theHolocene.[106] The mountains descend in a hugeescarpment to theRed Sea and more steadily to theIndian Ocean.Socotra is a small island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Somalia. Its size is 3,600 km2 (1,400 sq mi) and it is a territory of Yemen.
Thelowlands of the Horn are generally arid in spite of their proximity to the equator. This is because the winds of the tropicalmonsoons that give seasonal rains to theSahel and theSudan blow from the west. Consequently, they lose their moisture before reaching Djibouti and northern part of Somalia, with the result that most of the Horn receives little rainfall during the monsoon season.[107]
In the mountains of Ethiopia, many areas receive over 2,000 mm (79 in) per year, and evenAsmara receives an average of 570 mm (22 in). This rainfall is the sole source of water for many areas outside Ethiopia, includingEgypt. In the winter, the northeasterlytrade winds do not provide any moisture except in mountainous areas of northern Somalia, where rainfall in late autumn can produce annual totals as high as 500 mm (20 in). On the eastern coast, a strongupwelling and the fact that the winds blow parallel to the coast means annual rainfall can be as low as 50 mm (2.0 in).[107]
The climate in Ethiopia varies considerably between regions. It is generally hotter in the lowlands and temperate on the plateau. AtAddis Ababa, which ranges from 2,200 to 2,600 m (7,218 to 8,530 ft), maximum temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) and minimum 4 °C (39.2 °F). The weather is usually sunny and dry, but the short (belg) rains occur from February to April and the big (meher) rains from mid-June to mid-September. TheDanakil Desert stretches across 100,000 km2 of arid terrain in northeast Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, and northwestern Djibouti. The area is known for its volcanoes and extreme heat, with daily temperatures over 45 °C and often surpassing 50 °C. It has a number of lakes formed by lava flows that dammed up several valleys. Among these areLake Asale (116 m below sea level) andLake Giuletti/Afrera (80 m below sea level), both of which possess cryptodepressions in theDanakil Depression. The Afrera contains many active volcanoes, including the Maraho,Dabbahu,Afdera andErta Ale.[108][109]
In Somalia, there is not much seasonal variation in climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodicmonsoon winds and irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 28 to 43 °C (82 to 109 °F), except at higher elevations along the eastern seaboard, where the effects of a cold offshore current can be felt. Somalia has only two permanent rivers, theJubba and theShabele, both of which begin in theEthiopian Highlands.[110]
The Horn of Africa holds moreendemicreptiles than any other region in Africa, with over 285 species total and about 90 species which are found exclusively in the region. Among endemic reptile genera, there areHaackgreerius,Haemodracon,Ditypophis,Pachycalamus andAeluroglena. Half of these genera are uniquely found on Socotra. Unlike reptiles,amphibians are poorly represented in the region.
It is estimated that about 5,000 species ofvascular plants are found in the Horn, about half of which are endemic. Endemism is most developed in Socotra and northern Somalia. The region has two endemic plantfamilies: theBarbeyaceae and theDirachmaceae. Among the other remarkable species, there are thecucumber tree found only on Socotra, theBankoualé palm, theyeheb nut, and the Somalicyclamen.
Due to the Horn of Africa'ssemi-arid andarid climate, droughts are not uncommon. They are complicated by climate change and changes in agricultural practices. For centuries, the region'spastoral groups have observed carefulrangeland management practices to mitigate the effects of drought, such as avoiding overgrazing or setting aside land only for young or ill animals. However, population growth has put pressure on limited land and led to these practices no longer being maintained. Droughts in 1983–85, 1991–92, 1998–99 and 2011 have disrupted periods of gradual growth in herd numbers, leading to a decrease of between 37 and 62 percent of the cattle population. Initiatives byECHO andUSAID have succeeded in reclaiming hundreds of hectares of pastureland through rangeland management, leading to the establishment of the Dikale Rangeland in 2004.[112]
As of 2023, the Horn of Africa is affected by a severeongoing drought and famine that has been going on for six consecutive years, especially in Somalia and in the months from March to May during which 60 percent of the annual rainfall occurs. It is estimated that the lives of a number of people ranging from 22[113] to 58 million[114] are at risk.
Besides sharing similar geographic endowments, the countries of the Horn of Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together,[21] evincing a complex pattern of interrelationships among the various groups.[115] The two main macro groups in the Horn are theCushitic-speakingCushitic peoples traditionally centered in the lowlands and theEthiosemitic-speakingHabesha peoples who inhabit theEthiopian andEritrean highlands.
Saho women in traditional attire.Somali men and women in front of a traditional house
Languages belonging to theNilo-Saharan language family are also spoken in some areas byNilotic ethnic minorities mostly inEthiopia andEritrea. These tongues include the Nilo-SaharanMe'en andMursi languages used in southwestern Ethiopia, andKunama andNara idioms spoken in parts of southern Eritrea.
Languages belonging to theNiger-Congo language family are also spoken in some areas byBantu ethnic minorities in Somalia. In the riverine and littoral areas of southern Somalia,Bajuni,Barawani, and Bantu groups also speak variants of the Niger-CongoSwahili andMushunguli languages.[119][120]
The Horn has produced numerous indigenous writing systems. Among these isGe'ez script (ግዕዝGəʿəz) (also known asEthiopic), which has been written in for at least 2000 years.[121] It is anabugida script that was originally developed to write theGe'ez language. In speech communities that use it, such as the Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is calledfidäl (ፊደል), which means "script" or "alphabet".For centuries, Somali sheikhs and Sultans usedwadaad's writing (a version of the Arabic alphabet) to write. In the early 20th century, in response to a national campaign to settle on a writing script for theSomali language (which had long since lost its ancient script[122]),Osman Yusuf Kenadid, a Somali poet and remote cousin of theSultanYusuf Ali Kenadid of theSultanate of Hobyo, devised a phonetically sophisticated alphabet calledOsmanya (also known asfar soomaali; Osmanya: 𐒍𐒖𐒇 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘) for representing the sounds of Somali.[123] Though no longer the official writing script in Somalia, the Osmanya script is available in theUnicode range 10480-104AF [from U+10480 – U+104AF (66688–66735)].A number of ethnic minority groups in southern Ethiopia and Eritrea also adhere to varioustraditional faiths. Among these belief systems are the Nilo-SaharanSurma people's acknowledgment of thesky godTumu.[124]
Economy
Coffee beans from Ethiopia
According to the IMF, in 2010 the Horn of Africa region had a total GDP (PPP) of $106.224 billion and nominal of $35.819 billion. Per capita, the GDP in 2010 was $1061 (PPP) and $358 (nominal).[125][126][127][128]
Over 95 percent of cross-border trade within the region is unofficial and undocumented, carried out by pastoralists trading livestock.[129] The unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep and goats fromEthiopia sold to other countries in the Horn and the wider Eastern Africa region, includingSomalia andDjibouti, generates an estimated total value of between US$250 and US$300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure), with the towns ofBurao andYirowe in Somaliland being home to the largest livestock markets in the Horn of Africa, with as many as 10,000 heads of sheep and goats sold daily from all over the Horn of Africa, with many of whom shipped toGulf states via theport ofBerbera.[129][130][131][132] This trade helps lowerfood prices, increase food security, relieve border tensions and promote regional integration.[129] However, the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks, such as allowing disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore, governments are unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.[129]
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^John I. Saeed,Somali – Volume 10 of London Oriental and African language library, (J. Benjamins: 1999), p. 250.
^Sandra Fullerton Joireman,Institutional Change in the Horn of Africa, (Universal-Publishers: 1997), p.1: "The Horn of Africa encompasses the countries of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia. These countries share similar peoples, languages, and geographical endowments."
^J. D. Fage, Roland Oliver, Roland Anthony Oliver,The Cambridge History of Africa, (Cambridge University Press: 1977), p.190
^abGeorge Wynn Brereton Huntingford, Agatharchides,The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: With Some Extracts from Agatharkhidēs "On the Erythraean Sea", (Hakluyt Society: 1980), p.83
^abJohn I. Saeed,Somali – Volume 10 of London Oriental and African language library, (J. Benjamins: 1999), p. 250.
^abTeklehaimanot, Hailay Kidu. "A Mobile Based Tigrigna Language Learning Tool." International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM) 9.2 (2015): 50–53.
^abSandra Fullerton Joireman,Institutional Change in the Horn of Africa, (Universal-Publishers: 1997), p.1: "The Horn of Africa encompasses the countries of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia. These countries share similar peoples, languages, and geographical endowments."
^Felter, Claire (1 February 2018)."Somaliland: The Horn of Africa's Breakaway State".Council on Foreign Relations.Archived from the original on 21 November 2020. Retrieved24 March 2021. It covers approximately two million square kilometers (770,000 square miles) and is inhabited by roughly 115 million people (Ethiopia: 110 million, Somalia: 15.8 million, Eritrea: 6.4 million, and Djibouti: 921.8 thousand).
^Schreck, Carl J., and Fredrick HM Semazzi. "Variability of the recent climate of eastern Africa." International Journal of Climatology 24.6 (2004): 681–701.
^van Donzel, Emeri, "Fasilädäs" in Siegbert Uhlig, ed.,Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), p. 500.
^Pankhurst, Richard,The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, (London:Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 139–43.
^I. M. Lewis,A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa, (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p. 157.
^NEW ISSUES IN REFUGEE RESEARCH Working Paper No. 65 Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 – 2000 Guido Ambroso, Table 1, pg.5
^Horn of Africa, Volume 15, Issues 1–4, (Horn of Africa Journal: 1997), p.130.
^Michigan State University. African Studies Center, Northeast African studies, Volumes 11–12, (Michigan State University Press: 1989), p.32.
^Raph Uwechue,Africa year book and who's who, (Africa Journal Ltd.: 1977), p.209.
^Hugh Chisholm (ed.),The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 25, (At the University press: 1911), p.383.
^A Political Chronology of Africa, (Taylor & Francis), p.132.
^abcBarrington, Lowell,After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States, (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p.115
^Greystone Press Staff,The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East, (Greystone Press: 1967), p.338.
^Benjamin Frankel,The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World, (Gale Research: 1992), p.306.
^Oihe Yang,Africa South of the Sahara 2001, 30th Ed., (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p.1025.
^abJohn Young. "Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia" Third World Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 2 (June 1998) pp. 192
^the people subjugated and incorporated were the Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta and other groups. International Crisis Group. "Ethiopia: Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents" Africa Report No. 153, (4 September 2009) pp. 2
^Great Britain and Ethiopia 1897–1910: Competition for Empire Edward C. Keefer, International Journal of African Studies Vol. 6 No. 3 (1973) page 470
^Clapham, "Ḫaylä Śəllase",Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, p. 1063.
^Dagne, Haile Gabriel (2006).The commitment of the German Democratic Republic in Ethiopia: a study based on Ethiopian sources. Münster, London: Lit; Global.ISBN978-3-8258-9535-8.
^"Country Level".2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia.CSA. 13 July 2010. Archived fromthe original on 14 November 2010. Retrieved18 January 2013.
Beshah, Girma; Aregay, Merid Wolde (1964).The Question of the Union of the Churches in Luso-Ethiopian Relations (1500–1632). Lisbon: Junta de Investigações do Ultramar and Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos.
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