Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronte (29 September 1758 – 21 October 1805) was a BritishRoyal Navy officer whose leadership, grasp of strategy and unconventional tactics brought about a number of decisive British naval victories during theFrench Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest admirals in history and, by many, as the greatest.
Nelson was born into a moderately prosperousNorfolk family and joined the navy through the influence of his uncleMaurice Suckling, a high-ranking naval officer. Nelson rose rapidly through the ranks and served with leading naval commanders of the period before obtaining his own command at the age of 20, in 1778. He developed a reputation for personal valour and a firm grasp of tactics, but suffered periods of illness and unemployment after the end of theAmerican War of Independence. The outbreak of theFrench Revolutionary Wars allowed Nelson to return to service, where he was particularly active in theMediterranean Sea. He fought in several minor engagements offToulon and was important in the capture ofCorsica, where he was wounded and partially lost sight in one eye, and subsequently performed diplomatic duties with the Italian states. In 1797 he distinguished himself while in command ofHMS Captain at theBattle of Cape St Vincent. Shortly after this battle, Nelson took part in theBattle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, where the attack failed and he lost his right arm, forcing him to return to England to recuperate. The following year he won a decisive victory over the French at theBattle of the Nile and remained in the Mediterranean to support theKingdom of Naples against a French invasion.
In 1801, Nelson was dispatched to theBaltic Sea and defeatedneutralDenmark at theBattle of Copenhagen. He commanded the blockade of the French and Spanish fleets at Toulon and, after their escape, chased them to theWest Indies and back but failed to bring them to battle. After a brief return to England, he took over theCádiz blockade in 1805. On 21 October 1805, the Franco-Spanish fleet came out of port, and Nelson's fleet engaged them at theBattle of Trafalgar. The battle became Britain's greatest naval victory, but Nelson, aboardHMS Victory, was fatally wounded by a Frenchmarksman. His body was brought back to England, where he was accorded a state funeral, and considered a hero.
Nelson attendedPaston Grammar School inNorth Walsham until he was 12 years old, and also attendedKing Edward VI's Grammar School inNorwich. His naval career began on 1 January 1771, when he reported to the newly commissionedthird-rateHMS Raisonnable as anordinary seaman andcoxswain under his maternal uncle, Captain Maurice Suckling, who commanded the vessel. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was appointed amidshipman, and began officer training. Early in his service, Nelson discovered he experiencedseasickness, a chronic issue he experienced for the rest of his life.[6]
Raisonnable had been commissioned during a period of tension with Spain, but when this passed, Suckling was transferred to theNoreguardshipHMS Triumph and Nelson was dispatched to serve aboard theWest IndiamanMary Ann of the merchant shipping firm ofHibbert, Purrier and Horton, in order to gain experience at sea.[7] He sailed fromMedway, Kent, on 25 July 1771, heading to Jamaica and Tobago, and returning to Plymouth on 7 July 1772.[8] He twice crossed the Atlantic before returning to serve under his uncle as the commander of Suckling's longboat, which carried men and dispatches to and from shore. Nelson then learnt of aplanned expedition under the command ofConstantine Phipps, intended to survey a passage in the Arctic by which it was hoped India could be reached: the fabledNorth-East Passage.[9]
At his nephew's request, Suckling arranged for Nelson to join the expedition as coxswain,[9] to CommanderSkeffington Lutwidge aboard the convertedbomb vessel,HMS Carcass. The expedition reached within ten degrees of theNorth Pole, but unable to find a way through the dense ice floes, was forced to turn back. By 1800, Lutwidge had begun to circulate a story that, while the ship was trapped in the ice, Nelson had spotted and pursued apolar bear, before being ordered to return to the ship. Later, in 1809, Lutwidge said Nelson and a companion gave chase to the bear and upon being questioned as to why, replied: "I wished, Sir, to get the skin for my father."[10] Nelson briefly returned toTriumph after the expedition's return to Britain in September 1773. Suckling then arranged for his transfer toHMS Seahorse; one of two ships about to sail for theEast Indies.[11]
Captain Horatio Nelson, painted byJohn Francis Rigaud in 1781, with Fort San Juan—the scene of his most notable achievement up to that point—in the background. The painting itself was begun and nearly finished prior to the battle, when Nelson held the rank of lieutenant; when Nelson returned, Rigaud added the new captain's gold-braided sleeves.[12]
Nelson sailed for the East Indies on 19 November 1773, and arrived at the British outpost atMadras on 25 May 1774.[13] Nelson andSeahorse spent the rest of the year cruising off the coast and escortingmerchantmen. With the outbreak of theFirst Anglo-Maratha War, the British fleet operated in support of theEast India Company and in early 1775,Seahorse was dispatched to carry a cargo of the company's money toBombay. On 19 February, two ofHyder Ali'sketches attackedSeahorse, which drove them off after a brief exchange of fire. This was Nelson's first experience of battle.[14] Nelson spent the rest of the year escorting convoys and continued to develop his navigation and ship handling skills. In early 1776, he contracted malaria and became seriously ill. He was discharged fromSeahorse on 14 March and returned to England aboardHMS Dolphin.[15] Nelson spent the six-month voyage recuperating and had almost recovered by the time he arrived in Britain in September. His patron Suckling had risen to the post ofComptroller of the Navy in 1775, and used his influence to help Nelson gain further promotion.[3][16] Nelson was appointedactinglieutenant aboardHMS Worcester, which was about to sail toGibraltar.[17]
Worcester, under the command of CaptainMark Robinson, sailed as a convoy escort on 3 December, and returned with another convoy in April 1777.[18] Nelson then travelled to London to take his lieutenant's examination on 9 April; his examining board consisted of CaptainsJohn Campbell, Abraham North, and his uncle Suckling. Nelson passed the examination, and the next day received his commission and an appointment toHMS Lowestoffe, which was preparing to sail toJamaica under CaptainWilliam Locker.[19] She sailed on 16 May, arrived on 19 July, and after reprovisioning, carried out several cruises in Caribbean waters. After the outbreak of theAmerican War of Independence,Lowestoffe took several prizes, one of which was taken into Navy service asLittle Lucy. Nelson asked for and was given command of her, and took her on two cruises of his own.[20]
As well as giving him his first taste of command, it gave Nelson the opportunity to explore his fledgling interest in science. During his first cruise in command ofLittle Lucy, Nelson led an expeditionary party to theCaicos Islands,[21] where he made detailed notes of the wildlife and in particular a bird—now believed to be thewhite-necked jacobin.[22] Locker, impressed by Nelson's abilities, recommended him to the newcommander-in-chief at Jamaica,Sir Peter Parker. Parker duly took Nelson onto his flagshipHMS Bristol.[23] The entry of the French into the war in support of the Americans meant further targets for Parker's fleet. It took many prizes towards the end of 1778, which brought Nelson an estimated £400 (equivalent to £64,400 in 2023) inprize money. Parker appointed him asmaster and commander of thebrigHMS Badger on 8 December.[24]
Nelson andBadger spent most of 1779 cruising off of the Central American coast, ranging as far as the British settlements atBritish Honduras (now Belize), andNicaragua, but without much success at interception of enemy prizes.[25] On his return toPort Royal, he learnt Parker had promoted him topost-captain on 11 June, and intended to give him another command. Nelson handed over theBadger toCuthbert Collingwood while he awaited the arrival of his new ship: the 28-gunfrigateHMS Hinchinbrook,[a] newly captured from the French.[26] While Nelson waited, news reached Parker of a French fleet under the command ofCharles Hector, comte d'Estaing approaching Jamaica. Parker hastily organised his defences and placed Nelson in command ofFort Charles, which covered the approaches toKingston.[27] D'Estaing instead headed north, having received orders to lay siege toSavannah, and the anticipated invasion never materialised.[28]
Nelson took command of theHinchinbrook on 1 September 1779.[29]Hinchinbrook sailed from Port Royal on 5 October and, in company with other British ships, proceeded to capture a number of American prizes.[30] On his return to Jamaica in December, Nelson began to be troubled by recurrent attacks of malaria. Nelson remained in the West Indies in order to take part in Major-GeneralJohn Dalling's attempt tocapture the Spanish colonies in Central America, including an assault on theFortress of the Immaculate Conception on the San Juan River in Nicaragua.[31] In February 1780Hinchinbrook sailed from Jamaica as an escort for Dalling's invasion force. After sailing up the mouth of the San Juan River, Nelson's expeditionary force obtained the surrender of the Fortress of the Immaculate Conception and its 160 Spanish defenders after a two-week siege.[32] Despite this initial success, the British forces never reachedLake Nicaragua and, decimated byyellow fever, were forced to return to Jamaica. The British destroyed the fortress when they evacuated in January 1781. The failed campaign cost the lives of more than 2,500 soldiers, making it the costliest British disaster of the entire war.[33] Despite this, Nelson was praised for his efforts.[34]
Parker recalled Nelson and gave him command of the 44-gun frigateHMS Janus.[35] In 1780, Nelson fell seriously ill with what seemed to be dysentery,[36] and possiblyyellow fever,[37] in the jungles ofCosta Rica, and was unable to take command. He was taken to Kingston, Jamaica, to be nursed by "doctoress"Cubah Cornwallis, a rumoured mistress of fellow captainWilliam Cornwallis;[38] she ran a combination lodging-house and convalescence home for sailors.[39][37] He was discharged in August and returned to Britain aboardHMS Lion,[40] arriving in late November. Nelson gradually recovered over several months, and soon began agitating for a command. He was appointed to the frigateHMS Albemarle on 15 August 1781.[41]
Nelson received orders on 23 October 1781 to take the newly refittedAlbemarle to sea. He was instructed to collect an inbound convoy of theRussia Company atElsinore and escort them back to Britain. For this operation, theAdmiralty placed the frigatesHMS Argo andHMS Enterprise under his command.[42] Nelson successfully organised the convoy and escorted it into British waters. He then left the convoy to return to port, but severe storms hampered him.[43] Gales almost wreckedAlbemarle, as she was a poorly designed ship and an earlier accident had left her damaged, but Nelson eventually brought her intoPortsmouth in February 1782.[44] There, the Admiralty ordered him to fitAlbemarle for sea and join the escort for a convoy collecting atCork to sail forQuebec.[45] Nelson arrived offNewfoundland with the convoy in late May, then detached on a cruise to hunt Americanprivateers. Nelson was generally unsuccessful; he succeeded only in retaking several captured British merchant ships and capturing a number of small fishing boats and assorted craft.[46]
In August 1782 Nelson had a narrow escape from a far superior French force underLouis-Philippe de Vaudreuil, only evading them after a prolonged chase.[47] Nelson arrived at Quebec on 18 September.[48] He sailed again as part of the escort for a convoy to New York. He arrived in mid-November and reported to AdmiralSamuel Hood, commander of the New York station.[49] At Nelson's request, Hood transferred him to his fleet andAlbemarle sailed in company with Hood, bound for the West Indies.[50] On their arrival, the British fleet took up position off Jamaica to await the arrival of de Vaudreuil's force. Nelson and theAlbemarle were ordered to scout the numerous passages for signs of the enemy, but by early 1783 it became clear the French had eluded Hood.[51]
During his scouting operations, Nelson had developed a plan to attack the French garrison of theTurks Islands. Commanding a small flotilla of frigates and smaller vessels, helanded a force of 167 seamen and marines early on the morning of 8 March under a supporting bombardment.[52] The French were found to be heavily entrenched and, after several hours, Nelson called off the assault. Several officers involved criticised Nelson, but Hood does not appear to have reprimanded him.[53] Nelson spent the rest of the war cruising in the West Indies, where he captured a number of French and Spanish prizes.[54] After news of the peace reached Hood, Nelson returned to Britain in late June 1783.[55]
Nelson visited France in late 1783 and stayed with acquaintances atSaint-Omer, briefly attempting to learnFrench during his stay. He returned to England in January 1784 and attended court as part of Lord Hood's entourage.[56] Influenced bythe factional politics of the time, he contemplated standing forParliament as a supporter ofWilliam Pitt, but was unable to find aseat.[57]
Nelson's wife,Lady Nelson, formerly Frances "Fanny" Nisbet of the island ofNevis,West Indies. A painting of the British school, circa 1800, formerly attributed toRichard Cosway, from an earlier copy.
In 1784 Nelson received command of the frigateHMS Boreas, with the assignment to enforce theNavigation Acts in the vicinity ofAntigua.[58] Nelson hated Antigua and the only consolation was (Mrs)Mary Moutray whom he greatly admired.[59] The Acts were unpopular with both the Americans and the colonies.[60] Nelson served on the station under AdmiralSir Richard Hughes, and often came into conflict with his superior officer over their differing interpretation of the Acts.[61] The captains of the American vessels Nelson had seized sued him for illegal seizure. Because the merchants of the nearby island ofNevis supported the American claim, Nelson was in peril of imprisonment; he remained sequestered onBoreas for eight months until the courts ruled in his favour.[62]
In the interim, Nelson metFrances "Fanny" Nisbet, a young widow from a Nevis plantation family.[63] Nelson developed an affection for her. In response, her uncle, John Herbert, offered him a massivedowry. Both Herbert and Nisbet concealed the fact that their famed riches were a fiction, and Fanny did not disclose the fact that she was infertile due to a womb infection. Once they were engaged, Herbert offered Nelson nowhere near the dowry he had promised.[citation needed] During theGeorgian era, breaking a marital engagement was seen as quite dishonourable,[64] and so Nelson and Nisbet were married at Montpelier Estate on the island of Nevis on 11 March 1787, shortly before the end of his tour of duty in the Caribbean.[65] The marriage was registered at Fig Tree Church inSt John's Parish on Nevis. Nelson returned to England in July, with Fanny following later.[66] Following the marriage he became the stepfather of Nisbet's 7-year-old son Josiah Nisbet.
Nelson remained withBoreas until she was paid off in November 1787.[67] He and Fanny then divided their time betweenBath and London, occasionally visiting Nelson's relations in Norfolk. In 1788 they settled at Nelson's childhood home at Burnham Thorpe.[68] Now in reserve and on half-pay, he attempted to persuade the Admiralty—and other senior figures he was acquainted with, such as Hood—to provide him with a command. He was unsuccessful, as there were too few ships in the peacetime navy, and Hood did not intercede on his behalf.[69] Nelson spent his time trying to find employment for former crew members, attending to family affairs, and cajoling contacts in the navy for a posting. In 1792 theFrench revolutionary government annexed theAustrian Netherlands (now Belgium), which were traditionally preserved as a buffer state. The Admiralty recalled Nelson to service and gave him command of the 64-gunHMS Agamemnon in January 1793. Nelson took his stepson Josiah with him as a midshipman.[70] On 1 February France declared war.[71]
In May 1793 Nelson sailed as part of a division under the command of Vice AdmiralWilliam Hotham, joined later that month by the rest of Lord Hood's fleet.[72] The force initially sailed to Gibraltar and—with the intention of establishing naval superiority in the Mediterranean—made their way toToulon, anchoring off the port in July.[73] Toulon was largely under the control of moderate republicans androyalists, but was threatened by the forces of theNational Convention, which were marching on the city. Short of supplies and doubting their ability to defend themselves, the city authorities requested Hood take it under his protection. Hood readily acquiesced, and sent Nelson to carry dispatches toSardinia andNaples, requesting reinforcements.[74] After delivering the dispatches to Sardinia,Agamemnon arrived at Naples in early September. There, Nelson met KingFerdinand IV of Naples,[75] followed by the British ambassador to the kingdom,William Hamilton.[76] During the negotiations for reinforcements, Nelson was introduced to Hamilton's new wifeEmma Hamilton.[77]
The negotiations were successful, and 2,000 men and several ships were mustered by mid-September. Nelson put to sea in pursuit of a French frigate, but on failing to catch her, sailed forLeghorn, and then Corsica.[78] He arrived at Toulon on 5 October, where he found a large French army had occupied the hills surrounding the city and was bombarding it. Hood still hoped the city could be held if more reinforcements arrived, and sent Nelson to join a squadron operating offCagliari.[79]
Early on the morning of 22 October 1793,Agamemnon sighted five sails. Nelson closed with them and discovered they were a French squadron. He promptly gave chase, firing on the 40-gunMelpomene.[80] During theaction of 22 October 1793, he inflicted considerable damage, but the remaining French ships turned to join the battle. Realising he was outnumbered, Nelson withdrew and continued to Cagliari, arriving on 24 October.[80] After making repairs, Nelson andAgamemnon sailed forTunis on 26 October with a squadron under CommodoreRobert Linzee.[81] On arrival, Nelson was given command of a small squadron consisting ofAgamemnon, three frigates and a sloop, and ordered to blockade the French garrison on Corsica.[81] The fall of Toulon at the end of December 1793 severely damaged British fortunes in the Mediterranean. Hood had failed to make adequate provisions for a withdrawal and 18 Frenchships-of-the-line fell into republican hands.[82] Nelson's mission to Corsica took on an added significance, as it could provide the British with a naval base close to the French coast.[82] Hood therefore reinforced Nelson with extra ships during January 1794.[83]
A British assault force landed on the island on 7 February, after which Nelson moved to intensify the blockade offBastia. For the rest of the month, he carried out raids along the coast and intercepted enemy shipping. By late February,San Fiorenzo had fallen and British troops under Lieutenant-GeneralDavid Dundas had entered the outskirts of Bastia.[84] However, Dundas merely assessed the enemy positions and then withdrew, arguing the French were too well entrenched to risk an assault. Nelson convinced Hood otherwise, but a protracted debate between the army and naval commanders meant Nelson did not receive permission to proceed until late March. Nelson began to land guns from his ships and emplace them in the hills surrounding the town. On 11 April, the British squadron entered the harbour and opened fire, while Nelson took command of the land forces and commenced bombardment.[85] After 45 days the town surrendered.[86] Nelson then prepared for an assault onCalvi, working in company with Lieutenant-GeneralCharles Stuart.[87]
British forces landed at Calvi on 19 June, and immediately began moving guns ashore to occupy the heights surrounding the town. While Nelson directed a continuous bombardment of the enemy positions, Stuart's men began to advance. On the morning of 12 July, Nelson was at one of the forward batteries when a shot struck one of the nearby sandbags protecting the position, spraying stones and sand. Nelson was struck by debris in his right eye and forced to retire from the position. However, his wound was soon bandaged and he returned to action.[88] By 18 July, most enemy positions had been disabled, and that night Stuart, supported by Nelson, stormed the main defensive position and captured it. Repositioning their guns, the British brought Calvi under constant bombardment, and the town surrendered on 10 August.[89] Nelson did regain partial sight in his damaged eye, but said he could only "...distinguish light from dark but no object."
After the occupation of Corsica, Hood ordered Nelson to open diplomatic relations with the city-state ofGenoa, a strategically important potential ally.[90] Soon afterwards, Hood returned to England and was succeeded by AdmiralWilliam Hotham as commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. Nelson put into Leghorn and, whileAgamemnon underwent repairs, met with other naval officers at the port and entertained a brief affair with a local, Adelaide Correglia.[91] Hotham arrived with the rest of the fleet in December, whereupon Nelson andAgamemnon sailed on a number of cruises with them in late 1794 and early 1795.[92] On 8 March news reached Hotham of the French fleet at sea heading for Corsica. He immediately set out to intercept them, and Nelson eagerly anticipated his first fleet action. The French were reluctant to engage, and the two fleets shadowed each other on 12 March. The following day, two of the French ships collided, allowing Nelson to engage the much larger 84-gunÇa Ira. This engagement went on for two and a half hours, until the arrival of two French ships forced Nelson to veer away, having inflicted heavy casualties and considerable damage.[93]
The fleets continued to shadow each other before making contact again on 14 March in theBattle of Genoa. Nelson joined the other British ships in attacking the batteredÇa Ira, now under tow fromCenseur. Heavily damaged, the two French ships were forced to surrender, and Nelson took possession ofCenseur. Defeated at sea, the French abandoned their plan to invade Corsica and returned to port.[94]
Nelson and the fleet remained in the Mediterranean throughout the summer of 1795. On 4 July,Agamemnon sailed from San Fiorenzo with a small force of frigates and sloops, bound for Genoa. On 6 July, Nelson ran into the French fleet and found himself pursued by several, much larger ships-of-the-line. He retreated to San Fiorenzo, arriving just ahead of the pursuing French, who broke off as Nelson's signal guns alerted the British fleet in the harbour.[95] Hotham pursued the French to theHyères Islands, but failed to bring them to a decisive action.Several small engagements were fought, but to Nelson's dismay, he saw little action.[95] Nelson returned to operate out of Genoa, intercepting and inspecting merchantmen and cutting-out suspicious vessels in enemy and neutral harbours.[96] Nelson formulated ambitious plans for amphibious landings and naval assaults to frustrate the progress of theFrench Army of Italy, which was now advancing on Genoa, but could excite little interest in Hotham.[97] In November, Hotham was replaced bySir Hyde Parker, but the situation in Italy was rapidly deteriorating for the British: the French were raiding around Genoa and strongJacobin sentiment was rife within the city.[98]
A large French assault at the end of November broke the allied lines, forcing a general retreat towards Genoa. Nelson's forces were able to cover the withdrawing army and prevent them from being surrounded, but he had too few ships and men to materially alter the strategic situation. The British were forced to withdraw from the Italian ports. Nelson returned to Corsica on 30 November, angry and depressed with the British failure, and questioning his future in the navy.[99]
In January 1796, the position of commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Mediterranean passed toSir John Jervis, who appointed Nelson to exercise independent command over the ships blockading the French coast as acommodore.[100] Nelson spent the first half of the year conducting operations to frustrate French advances and bolster Britain's Italian allies. Despite minor successes in intercepting small French warships—such as in theaction of 31 May 1796, when Nelson's squadron captured a convoy of seven small vessels—he began to feel British presence on the Italian peninsula was becoming useless.[101] In June,Agamemnon was sent to Britain for repairs, and Nelson was appointed to the 74-gunHMS Captain.[101]
In the same month, the French thrust towards Leghorn and were certain to capture the city. Nelson hurried there to oversee the evacuation of British nationals and transport them to Corsica. After this, Jervis ordered him to blockade the newly captured French port.[102] In July, he oversaw the occupation ofElba, but by September, the Genoese had broken their neutrality to declare in favour of the French.[103] By October, the Genoese position and continued French advances led the British to decide the Mediterranean fleet could no longer be supplied. They ordered it to be evacuated to Gibraltar. Nelson helped oversee the withdrawal from Corsica and by December 1796 was aboard the frigateHMSMinerve, covering the evacuation of the garrison at Elba. He then sailed for Gibraltar.[104]
During the passage, Nelsoncaptured the Spanish frigateSanta Sabina and placed Lieutenants Jonathan Culverhouse andThomas Hardy in charge of the captured vessel; taking the frigate's Spanish captain on boardMinerve.Santa Sabina was part of a larger Spanish force, and the following morning two Spanish ships-of-the-line and a frigate were sighted closing fast. Unable to outrun them, Nelson was initially determined to fight, but Culverhouse and Hardy raised the British colours and sailed northeast, drawing the Spanish ships after them until being captured, giving Nelson the opportunity to escape.[105] Nelson went on to rendezvous with the British fleet at Elba, where he spent Christmas.[106] He sailed for Gibraltar in late January, and—after learning the Spanish fleet had sailed fromCartagena—stopped just long enough to collect Hardy, Culverhouse, and the rest of the prize crew captured withSanta Sabina, before pressing on through the straits to join Jervis offCadiz.[107]
Nelson receives the surrender of theSan Nicholas, an 1806 portrait byRichard Westall
Nelson joined Sir John Jervis' fleet offCape St Vincent and reported the Spanish movements.[108] Jervis decided to engage and the two fleets met on 14 February 1797. Nelson found himself towards the rear of the British line and realised it would be a long time before he could bringCaptain into action.[108] Nelson disobeyed orders andwore ship, breaking from the line and heading to engage the Spanish vanguard consisting of the 112-gunSan Josef, the 80-gunSan Nicolas, and the 130-gunSantísima Trinidad.Captain engaged all three, assisted byHMS Culloden, which had come to Nelson's aid.[109] After an hour of exchanging broadsides, which leftCaptain andCulloden badly damaged, Nelson found himself alongsideSan Nicolas. He led a boarding party across, crying "Westminster Abbey or glorious victory!" and forced her to surrender.[109]San Josef attempted to come to theSan Nicolas' aid, but became entangled with her compatriot and was left immobile. Nelson led his party from the deck ofSan Nicolas ontoSan Josef and captured her as well.[108] As night fell, the Spanish fleet broke off and sailed for Cadiz. Four ships had surrendered to the British and two of them were Nelson's.[110] It was the first time in 300 years a British flag officer had led a boarding party.[111][112]
Nelson was victorious, but had disobeyed direct orders. Jervis liked Nelson and so did not officially reprimand him,[110] but did not mention Nelson's actions in his official report of the battle.[113] He did write a private letter toFirst Lord of the Admiralty,George Spencer, where he said Nelson "contributed very much to the fortune of the day".[110] Nelson also wrote several letters about his victory, reporting that his action was being referred to amongst the fleet as "Nelson's Patent Bridge for boarding first rates".[109] Nelson's account was later challenged by Rear AdmiralWilliam Parker, who was aboardHMS Prince George. Parker claimed Nelson was supported by several more ships than he had acknowledged, and thatSan Josef had alreadystruck her colours by the time Nelson boarded her.[114] Nelson's account of his role prevailed and the victory was well received in Britain; Jervis was madeEarl St Vincent and on 17 May,[115] Nelson was made aKnight of the Bath.[116][117] On 20 February, in a standard promotion according to his seniority and unrelated to the battle, Nelson was promoted toRear Admiral of the Blue.[118]
Nelson was givenHMS Theseus as hisflagship, and on 27 May 1797, was ordered to lie off Cadiz; monitoring the Spanish fleet and awaiting the arrival of Spanish treasure ships from the American colonies.[119] He carried out a bombardment and personally led an amphibious assault on 3 July. During the action, Nelson's barge collided with that of the Spanish commander, and a hand-to-hand struggle ensued between the two crews. Twice, Nelson was nearly cut down and both times his life was saved by a seaman named John Sykes, who took the blows himself and was badly wounded. The British raiding force captured the Spanish boat and towed her back toTheseus.[119][120] During this period, Nelson developed a scheme to captureSanta Cruz de Tenerife, aiming to seize a large quantity ofspecie from the treasure shipPrincipe de Asturias, which was reported to have recently arrived.[121]
Nelson wounded during the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife; 1806 painting byRichard Westall
The battle plan called for a combination of naval bombardments and an amphibious landing. The initial attempt was called off after adverse currents hampered the assault and the element of surprise was lost.[122] Nelson immediately ordered another assault, but this was beaten back. He prepared for a third attempt to take place during the night. Although he personally led one of the battalions, the operation ended in failure, as the Spanish were better prepared than had been expected and had secured strong defensive positions.[123] Several of the boats failed to land at the correct positions in the confusion, while those that did were swept by gunfire andgrapeshot. Nelson's boat reached its intended landing point, but as he stepped ashore, he was hit in the right arm by a musketball, which fractured hishumerus in multiple places.[123] He was rowed back toTheseus, to be attended to by its surgeon Thomas Eshelby.[124] Upon arriving at his ship, he refused to be helped aboard, declaring:
"Let me alone! I have yet legs left and one arm. Tell the surgeon to make haste and get his instruments. I know I must lose my right arm and the sooner it is off, the better".[123][125]
A tourniquet saved him fromexsanguinating, and Eshelby amputated most of his right arm. Within half an hour, Nelson had returned to issuing orders to his captains.[126] Years later, he would excuse himself to CommodoreJohn Thomas Duckworth for not writing longer letters due to not being naturally left-handed.[127] Later on, he developed the sensation ofphantom limb in the area of his amputation and declared he had "found the direct evidence of the existence of soul".[128] Meanwhile, a force underSir Thomas Troubridge had fought their way to the main square but could go no further. Unable to return to the fleet because their boats had sunk, Troubridge was forced to enter into negotiations with the Spanish commander, and the British were allowed to withdraw.[129] The expedition had failed to achieve any of its objectives and left a quarter of the landing force dead or wounded.[129][130] The squadron remained off Tenerife for a further three days and, by 16 August, had rejoined Lord John Jervis' fleet off Cadiz. Despondent, Nelson wrote to Jervis:
"A left-handed Admiral will never again be considered as useful, therefore the sooner I get to a very humble cottage the better, and make room for a better man to serve the state".[131]
Post operative pain was such that Nelson had to return to England accompanied by Thomas Eshelby,[132] and he returned to England aboard HMSSeahorse, arriving atSpithead on 1 September. He was met with a hero's welcome; the British public had lionised Nelson after Cape St Vincent, and his wound earned him sympathy.[133] They refused to attribute the defeat at Tenerife to him, preferring instead to blame poor planning on the part of St Vincent, theSecretary at War,William Windham, or even Prime MinisterWilliam Pitt.[133]
Nelson returned to Bath with Fanny, before moving to London in October 1797 to seek expert medical attention for his amputation wound. While in London, news reached him ofAdmiral Duncan having defeated theDutch fleet at theBattle of Camperdown.[134] Nelson exclaimed he would have given his other arm to be present there.[134] He spent the last months of 1797 recuperating in London, during which time he was awarded theFreedom of the City of London and a pension of £1,000 (equivalent to £130,800 in 2023) a year. He used this money to buy Round Wood Farm nearIpswich, and intended to retire there with Fanny.[135] Despite his plans, Nelson was never to live there.[135]
Although surgeons had been unable to remove the centralligature from his amputation site, which had caused considerable inflammation and infection, it came out of its own accord in early December, and Nelson rapidly began to recover. Eager to return to sea, he began agitating for a command and was promised the 80-gunHMS Foudroyant. As she was not yet ready for sea, Nelson was instead given command of the 74-gunHMS Vanguard, and he appointedEdward Berry as hisflag captain.[136] French activities in the Mediterranean theatre were raising concern among the Admiralty asNapoleon was gathering forces in Southern France, but the destination of his army was unknown. Nelson andVanguard were to be dispatched to Cadiz to reinforce the fleet. On 28 March 1798, Nelson hoisted his flag and sailed to joinEarl St Vincent. St Vincent sent him on to Toulon with a small force toreconnoitre French activities.[137]
Nelson passed through the Straits of Gibraltar and took up position off Toulon by 17 May, but his squadron was dispersed and blown southwards by a strong gale which struck the area on 20 May.[138] While the British were battling the storm, Napoleon had sailed with his invasion fleet under the command ofVice AdmiralFrançois-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers. Nelson, having been reinforced with a number of ships from St Vincent, went in pursuit.[139] Nelson began searching the Italian coast for Napoleon's fleet, but was hampered by a lack of frigates that could operate as fast scouts. Napoleon had already arrived atMalta and secured the island's surrender after a show of force.[140] Nelson followed him there, but by the time he arrived, the French had already left. After a conference with his captains, he decided Napoleon's most likely destination now was Egypt and headed forAlexandria. However, upon Nelson's arrival on 28 June, he found no sign of the French. Dismayed, he withdrew and began searching to the east of the port. During this time, on 1 July, Napoleon's fleet arrived in Alexandria and landed their forces unopposed.[141] Brueys anchored his fleet inAboukir Bay, ready to support Napoleon if required.[142]
Nelson, meanwhile, had crossed the Mediterranean again, in a fruitless attempt to locate the French, and returned to Naples to re-provision.[143] When he again set sail, his intentions were to search the seas offCyprus, but he decided to pass Alexandria again for a final check. Along the way, his force found and captured a French merchant ship, which provided the first news of the French fleet: they had passed south-east of Crete a month prior—heading to Alexandria.[144] Nelson hurried to the port, but again found it empty of the French. Searching along the coast, he finally discovered the French fleet in Aboukir Bay on 1 August 1798.[145]
Nelson immediately prepared for battle, repeating a sentiment he had expressed at the battle of Cape St Vincent: "Before this time tomorrow, I shall have gained a peerage or Westminster Abbey."[146] It was late by the time the British arrived, and the French—having anchored in a strong position and possessing a combined firepower greater than Nelson's fleet—did not expect them to attack.[147] Nelson, however, immediately ordered his ships to advance. The French line was anchored close to a line ofshoals, believing that this would secure theirport side from attack; Brueys had assumed the British would follow convention and attack his centre from thestarboard side. However,Captain Thomas Foley aboardHMS Goliath discovered a gap between the shoals and the French ships, and tookGoliath into this channel. The unprepared French found themselves attacked on both sides; the British fleet split, with some following Foley and others passing down the starboard side of the French line.[148]
The British fleet was soon heavily engaged, passing down the French line and engaging their ships one by one. Nelson, onVanguard, personally engagedSpartiate, while also coming under fire fromAquilon. At about eight o'clock, he was with Edward Berry on the quarterdeck when a piece of French shot struck him in the forehead. He fell to the deck, with a flap of torn skin obscuring his good eye. Blinded and half-stunned, he felt sure he would die and cried out, "I am killed. Remember me to my wife." He was taken below to be seen by the surgeon.[149] After examining Nelson, the surgeon pronounced the wound non-threatening and applied a temporary bandage.[150] The French van, pounded by British fire from both sides, had begun to surrender, and the victorious British ships continued to move down the line, bringing Brueys' 118-gun flagshipOrient under constant, heavy fire.Orient caught fire under this bombardment and later exploded. Nelson briefly came on deck to direct the battle, but returned to the surgeon after watching the destruction ofOrient.[151]
The Battle of the Nile was a major blow to Napoleon's ambitions in the east. His fleet had been destroyed;Orient, another ship and two frigates had been burnt, while seven 74-gun ships and two 80-gun ships had been captured. Only two ships-of-the-line and two frigates escaped.[152] The forces Napoleon had brought to Egypt were stranded.[148] Napoleon attacked north along the Mediterranean coast, but Turkish defenders supported by Captain SirSidney Smith defeated his army at theSiege of Acre. Napoleon then left his army and sailed back to France, evading detection by British ships. Given its strategic importance, historians such asErnle Bradford regard Nelson's achievement at the Nile as the most significant of his career, even greater than Trafalgar seven years later.[153]
Nelson wrote dispatches to the Admiralty and oversaw temporary repairs to theVanguard before sailing to Naples, where he was met with enthusiastic celebrations.[154]King Ferdinand IV of Naples, in company with the Hamiltons, greeted him in person when he arrived at port, andSir William Hamilton invited Nelson to stay at his home.[155] Celebrations were held in honour of Nelson's birthday that September 1798, and he attended a banquet at the Hamiltons' house, where other officers had begun to notice his attentions toEmma, Lady Hamilton.
Lord Jervis himself had begun to grow concerned about reports of Nelson's behaviour, but in early October, word of Nelson's victory had reached London and overshadowed the matter. TheFirst Lord of the Admiralty,George Spencer, fainted upon hearing the news.[156] Scenes of celebration erupted across the country; balls and victory feasts were held, and church bells were rung. The City of London awarded Nelson and his captains swords, while the King ordered they be presented with special medals. EmperorPaul I of Russia sent Nelson a gift, andSultanSelim III of theOttoman Empire awarded Nelson theOrder of the Turkish Crescent, as well as the diamondchelengk from his own turban,[157] for Nelson's role in restoring Ottoman rule to Egypt.
Samuel Hood, after a conversation with theprime minister, told Nelson's wife Fanny her husband would likely be given aviscountcy, similarly to Jervis'earldom afterCape St Vincent, andAdam Duncan's viscountcy after Camperdown.[158] Lord Spencer, however, demurred, arguing such an award would create an unwelcome precedent as Nelson was only detached in command of a squadron—rather than being the commander in chief of the fleet. Instead, Nelson received the title ofBaron Nelson of the Nile.[159][160]
Castello di Maniace,caput of theDukedom of Bronte, situated 5 miles north of the town of Bronte. Viewed from north across the dried up river bed of the River Saraceno, withMount Etna in the background (the main crater of which is 15 km to the south-east). Painted in 1876 bySir John Walrond, 1st Baronet (1818–1889), son-in-law of the 3rd Duchess of Bronte. Royal Collection
Nelson was dismayed by the decision ofGeorge Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer, and declared he would rather have received no title than a merebarony.[160] He was, however, cheered by the attention showered on him by the citizens of Naples, the prestige accorded him by the kingdom's elite, and the comforts he received at the Hamiltons' residence. He made frequent visits to their residence to attend functions in his honour, or tour nearby attractions with Emma, who was almost constantly at his side and with whom he had fallen deeply in love.[161] Orders arrived from the Admiralty to blockade the French forces in Alexandria and Malta, a task Nelson delegated to his captainsSamuel Hood andAlexander Ball. Despite enjoying his lifestyle in Naples—even while judging it to be a "country of fiddlers and poets, whores and scoundrels", which he found less than desirable,[157] Nelson began to think of returning to England.[161] However, KingFerdinand IV had just faced an extended period of pressure from his wifeMaria Carolina of Austria, who was advocating for an aggressive foreign policy towards France, a country which had beheaded her sister and its queenMarie Antoinette five years ago.[157] SirWilliam Hamilton was joined in agreement with Queen Maria Carolina, and the King finally agreed to declare war on France.[162]
TheNeapolitan Army led by Austrian GeneralKarl Mack von Leiberich and supported by Nelson's fleet retook Rome from the French in late November 1798. The French regrouped outside Rome and, after being reinforced, routed the Neapolitans. In disarray, the Neapolitan army fled back to Naples, with the pursuing French close behind.[162] Nelson hastily organised the evacuation of the Royal Family, several nobles, and British nationals, including the Hamiltons. The evacuation started on 23 December and sailed through heavy gales before reaching the safety ofPalermo on 26 December.[163] With the departure of the Royal Family, Naples descended into anarchy, and news reached Palermo in January of the French entering the city under GeneralChampionnet and proclaiming theParthenopaean Republic.[164] Nelson was promoted toRear-Admiral of the Red on 14 February 1799,[165] and was occupied for several months blockading Naples, while a popular counter-revolutionary force underCardinal Ruffo known as theSanfedisti marched to retake the city. In late June, Ruffo's army entered Naples, forcing the French and their supporters to withdraw to the city's fortifications, as rioting and looting broke out amongst the ill-disciplined Neapolitan troops.[166]
Dismayed by the bloodshed, Ruffo agreed to acapitulation with the Jacobin forces, which allowed them safe conduct to France. Nelson arrived off Naples on 24 June to find the treaty put into effect. His subsequent role is still controversial.[167] Nelson, aboardFoudroyant, was outraged, and backed by King Ferdinand IV, he insisted the rebels must surrender unconditionally.[168] They refused. Nelson appears to have relented and the Jacobin forces marched out to the awaiting transports. Nelson then had the transports seized.[167] He took those who had surrendered under the treaty under armed guard, as well as the former AdmiralFrancesco Caracciolo.[169] Nelson ordered his trial bycourt-martial and refused Caracciolo's request it be held by British officers. Caracciolo was also not allowed to summon witnesses in his defence and was tried by royalist Neapolitan officers. He was sentenced to death. Caracciolo requested to be shot rather than hanged, but Nelson, following the wishes of Queen Maria Carolina, a close friend ofLady Hamilton, also denied this request, and even ignored the court's request to allow 24 hours for Caracciolo to prepare himself. Caracciolo was hanged aboard the Neapolitan frigateMinerva at 5 o'clock the same afternoon.[170]
Nelson kept the bulk of the Jacobins on the transports and began to hand hundreds over for trial and execution, refusing to intervene, despite pleas forclemency from both the Hamiltons and Queen Maria Carolina.[171] When the transports were finally allowed to carry the Jacobins to France, less than one-third were still alive.[172] On 13 August 1799, in reward for his support of the monarchy,[173] King Ferdinand IV gave Nelson the newly created titleDuke of Bronte in the peerage of theKingdom of Sicily as his perpetual property, as well as the estate of the formerBenedictine abbey of Santa Maria di Maniace—which he later transformed into theCastello di Nelson—situated between thecomunes ofBronte andManiace, later known as theDuchy of Nelson.[174] In 1799, Nelson opposed the mistreatment of slaves held in Portuguese galleys off Palermo and intervened to secure their release. Nelson petitioned the Portuguese commander Marquiz de Niza to hand over the slaves. The marquis acquiesced to the unusual request, allowing 24 slaves to be transferred toHMS Bonne Citoyenne, their blessings to Nelson ringing out across the harbour as their names were added to the sloop's already crowded muster book.[175][176]
Nelson returned to Palermo in August, and in September became the senior officer in the Mediterranean after Lord John Jervis' successor,George Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith, left to chase the French and Spanish fleets into the Atlantic.[177] Nelson spent most of 1799 at the Neapolitan court, but put to sea again in February 1800 after Lord Keith's return. Keith ordered Nelson to assist in thesiege of Malta, where the Royal Navy was conducting a tight blockade. On 18 February,Généreux—a survivor of the Battle of the Nile—was sighted and Nelson gave chase, capturing her aftera short battle and winning Keith's approval.[178] Nelson and the Hamiltons sailed aboardFoudroyant from Naples on a brief cruise aroundMalta in April 1800 and anchored atMarsa Sirocco. Here Nelson and Emma lived together openly, and were hosted byThomas Troubridge andThomas Graham.[179] It was during this time when Nelson and Lady Emma Hamilton's illegitimate daughterHoratia Nelson was likely conceived.[180]
Nelson had a difficult relationship with his superior officer; he was gaining a reputation for insubordination, having initially refused to send ships when Keith requested them, and on occasion returning to Palermo without orders, pleading poor health.[181] Keith's reports and rumours of Nelson's close relationship with Emma Hamilton were now circulating around London, and Lord Spencer wrote a pointed letter suggesting he return home.[182]
Emma Hamilton in an 1800 portrait owned by NelsonAn antique photograph of a portrait ofHoratia Ward (née Nelson) from the Style/Ward Family collection; Horatia was the daughter of Admiral Lord Horatio Nelson and Lady Emma Hamilton.
The recall of Sir William Hamilton to Britain was a further incentive for Nelson to return. In June, Nelson left Malta and conveyed QueenMaria Carolina and her suite toLeghorn. Upon his arrival, Nelson shifted his flag toHMS Alexander, but again disobeyed Lord Keith's orders by refusing to join the main fleet. Keith travelled to Leghorn to demand an explanation in person, and refused to be moved by the Queen's pleas to allow her to be conveyed in a British ship.[183] In the face of Keith's demands, Nelson reluctantlystruck his flag and bowed to Lady Hamilton's request to return to England over land.[184] Nelson, the Hamiltons, and several other British travellers left Leghorn forFlorence on 13 July. They made stops atTrieste andVienna, spending three weeks there, where they were entertained by the local nobility and heard theMissa in Angustiis byHaydn, which now bears Nelson's name. Haydn would meet them that August when they visitedEisenstadt.[185] By September they were inPrague, and later called atDresden,Dessau andHamburg; from there they caught a packet ship toGreat Yarmouth, arriving on 6 November.[186] Nelson was given a hero's welcome, and after being sworn in as a freeman of the borough, received the crowd's applause. He then made his way to London, arriving on 9 November.[187]
He attended court and was guest of honour at a number of banquets and balls. During this period, Fanny Nelson and Lady Emma Hamilton met for the first time; Nelson was reported being cold and distant to his wife, while his attentions to Lady Hamilton and her obesity became the subject of gossip.[187] With the marriage breaking down, Nelson began to hate even being in the same room as Fanny. Events came to a head around Christmas, when according to Nelson's solicitor, Fanny issued an ultimatum on whether he was to choose her or Lady Hamilton. Nelson replied that he loved Fanny but could not "forget his obligations" to Lady Hamilton.[188] Nelsonland Fanny ived together again.[189]
Shortly after his arrival in England, Nelson was appointed second-in-command of theChannel Fleet under Lord John Jervis.[190] He was promoted toVice-Admiral of the Blue on 1 January 1801,[191] and travelled toPlymouth, where on 22 January he was granted thefreedom of the city. On 29 January 1801, LadyEmma Hamilton gave birth to their daughterHoratia.[192] Nelson was delighted, but subsequently disappointed when he was instructed to move his flag fromHMS San Josef toHMS St George, in preparation for a planned expedition to the Baltic.[193] Tired of British ships imposing a blockade against French trade and stopping and searching their merchantmen, the Russian, Prussian, Danish and Swedish governments had formed an alliance to break the blockade. Nelson joined Admiral SirHyde Parker's fleet at Yarmouth, from where they sailed for the Danish coast in March. On their arrival, Parker was inclined to blockade Denmark and control the entrance to the Baltic, but Nelson urged a pre-emptive attack on the Danish fleet inCopenhagen harbour.[194] He convinced Parker to allow him to make an assault and was given significant reinforcements. Parker himself would wait in theKattegat, covering Nelson's fleet in case of the arrival of the Swedish or Russian fleets.[195]
The Battle of Copenhagen, 2 April 1801, byNicholas Pocock (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London). Nelson's fleet exchanges fire with the Danes, with the city of Copenhagen in the background.This glass was one of a set commissioned by Nelson to commemorate his victory at the Battle of Copenhagen.
On the morning of 2 April 1801, Nelson began to advance into Copenhagen harbour. The battle began badly for the British, with HMSAgamemnon,Bellona andRussell running aground, and the rest of the fleet encountering heavier fire from the Danish shore batteries than anticipated. Sir Hyde Parker sent the signal for Nelson to withdraw.[196] Nelson, directing action aboardHMS Elephant, was informed of the signal by the signal lieutenant Frederick Langford, but angrily responded: "I told you to look out on the Danish commodore and let me know when he surrendered. Keep your eyes fixed on him."[197] He then turned to his flag captainThomas Foley, and said "You know, Foley, I have only one eye. I have a right to be blind sometimes." He raised the telescope to his blind eye, and said "I really do not see the signal."[b][197][199]
The battle lasted three hours, leaving both Danish and British fleets heavily damaged. At length, Nelson dispatched a letter to the Danish commanderCrown Prince Frederick calling for a truce, which the Prince accepted.[200] Parker approved of Nelson's actions in retrospect, and Nelson was given the honour of going into Copenhagen the next day to open formal negotiations.[201][202] At a banquet that evening, he told Prince Frederick the battle had been the most severe he had ever participated in.[203] The outcome of the battle and several weeks of ensuing negotiations was a fourteen-week armistice, with Nelson becoming commander-in-chief in theBaltic Sea upon Parker's recall in May.[204] As a reward for the victory, he was createdViscount Nelson of the Nile and ofBurnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk on 19 May 1801.[205] In addition, on 4 August 1801, he was created Baron Nelson of the Nile and ofHilborough in the County of Norfolk, with a special remainder to his father and sisters.[206][207] Nelson sailed to the Russian naval base atReval in May, and there learnt the pact of armed neutrality was to be disbanded. Satisfied with the outcome of the expedition, he returned to England, arriving on 1 July.[208]
In France, Napoleon was amassing forces toinvade Great Britain. After a brief spell in London, where he again visited the Hamiltons, Nelson was placed in charge of defending theEnglish Channel to prevent the invasion.[209] He spent the summer of 1801reconnoitring the French coast, but saw little action apart froma failed attack onBoulogne in August.[210] On 1 October, thePeace of Amiens was signed between the British and the French,[157] and Nelson—in poor health again—retired once more to Britain, where he stayed with Sir William and Lady Hamilton. On 30 October, Nelson spoke in support of theAddington government in the House of Lords, and afterwards made regular visits to attend sessions.[211]
In January 1803 Nelson appeared as acharacter witness in the treason trial of a former comrade-in-arms, ColonelEdward Despard. Despard, who had been moving in radical circles in London—a member both of theLondon Corresponding Society and theUnited Irishmen—was the alleged ringleader of a conspiracy to assassinateKing George III and seize theTower of London as part of the so-calledDespard Plot. In court, Nelson recollected his service with Despard in the Caribbean during the American War. Under cross-examination, however, Nelson had to concede to having "lost sight of Despard for the last twenty years".[215][216] Nelson directed a further plea for clemency to Prime MinisterHenry Addington, who later told Nelson "he and his family had sat up after supper, weeping over the letter".[217] Following Despard's execution in February, Lady Fanny Nelson is reported to have takenCatherine Despard, the Colonel's black Jamaican wife, under her "protection".[218]
Nelson was appointed commander-in-chief of theMediterranean Fleet and given thefirst-rateHMS Victory as his flagship. He joined her atPortsmouth, where he received orders to sail to Malta and take command of a squadron there before joining the blockade ofToulon.[219] Nelson arrived off Toulon in July 1803 and spent the next year and a half enforcing the blockade. He was promoted toVice-Admiral of the White while still at sea on 23 April 1804.[220] In January 1805, the French fleet under the command of AdmiralPierre-Charles Villeneuve escaped Toulon and eluded the blockading British. Nelson set off in pursuit, but after searching the eastern Mediterranean learnt the French were blown back into Toulon.[221] Villeneuve managed to break out a second time in April, and this time succeeded in passing through the Strait of Gibraltar and into the Atlantic—bound for the West Indies.[221]
Nelson gave chase, but after arriving in the Caribbean, spent June in a fruitless search for the fleet. Villeneuve had briefly cruised around the islands before heading back to Europe incontravention of Napoleon's orders.[222] The returning French fleet was intercepted by a British fleet underSir Robert Calder and engaged in theBattle of Cape Finisterre, but managed to reachFerrol with only minor losses.[223] Nelson returned to Gibraltar at the end of July and travelled from there to England, dismayed at his failure to bring the French to battle and expecting to be censured.[224] To his surprise, he was given a rapturous reception from crowds who had gathered to view his arrival. Senior British officials congratulated him for sustaining the close pursuit, crediting him with saving the West Indies from a French invasion.[224] Nelson briefly stayed in London, where he was cheered wherever he went, before visiting Merton Place to see Lady Hamilton, arriving in late August. He entertained a number of his friends and relations there over the coming month, and began plans for a grand engagement with the enemy fleet, one that would surprise his foes by forcing apell-mell battle on them.[225]
CaptainHenry Blackwood arrived at Merton early on 2 September, bringing news that the French and Spanish fleets had combined and were currently at anchor in Cádiz. Nelson hurried to London, where he met with cabinet ministers and was given command of the fleet blockading Cádiz. While awaiting one of these meetings on 24 September withRobert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, theSecretary of State for War and the Colonies, Nelson and Major GeneralArthur Wellesley—the futureDuke of Wellington—met briefly in a waiting area. Wellington was waiting to be debriefed on his Indian operations, and Nelson on his chase and future plans.[226] Wellington later recalled, "[Nelson] entered at once into conversation with me, if I can call it conversation, for it was almost all on his side and all about himself and, in reality, a style so vain and so silly as to surprise and almost disgust me".[226] After a few minutes, Nelson left the room, but then being informed who his companion was, returned and entered into a more earnest and intelligent discussion with the young Wellesley. This lasted for a quarter of an hour, and encompassed topics such as the war, the state of the colonies, and the geopolitical situation. On this second discussion, Wellesley recalled, "I don't know I ever had a conversation that interested me more". This was the only meeting between the two.[227]
Nelson returned briefly to Merton to set his affairs in order and bid farewell to Emma before travelling back to London and then on to Portsmouth; arriving there early on the morning of 14 September. He breakfasted at the George Inn with his friendsGeorge Rose, theVice-President of the Board of Trade, andGeorge Canning, theTreasurer of the Navy. Word spread of Nelson's presence at the inn and a large crowd of well-wishers gathered. They accompanied Nelson to his barge and cheered him off, which Nelson acknowledged by raising his hat. He was recorded as having turned to his colleague and stated: "I had their huzzas before; I have their hearts now."[228][229][230] TheEnglish Romantic poetRobert Southey reported on the onlookers for Nelson's walk to the dock: "Many were in tears and many knelt down before him and blessed him as he passed."[231]
Victory joined the British fleet off Cádiz on 27 September, and Nelson took over from Vice AdmiralCuthbert Collingwood.[232] Nelson spent the following weeks preparing and refining his tactics for the anticipated battle and dining with his captains to ensure they understood his intentions.[233] He had devised a plan of attack which anticipated the allied fleet would form up in a traditionalline of battle. Drawing on his own experience from the Nile and Copenhagen, and the examples ofDuncan atCamperdown andRodney at theSaintes, Nelson decided to split his fleet into squadrons rather than form it into a similar line parallel to the enemy.[234] These squadrons would then cut the enemy's line in a number of places, allowing a pell-mell battle to develop. The British ships could overwhelm and destroy parts of their opponents' formation before unengaged enemy ships could come to their aid.[234]
The combined French and Spanish fleet under Villeneuve's command numbered 33 ships of the line. Napoleon intended for Villeneuve to sail into the English Channel and cover a planned invasion of Britain. However, the entry of Austria and Russia into the war forced Napoleon to call off this invasion and transfer troops to Germany. Villeneuve was reluctant to risk engagement with the British and this reluctance led Napoleon to send Vice-AdmiralFrançois Rosily to Cádiz in order to take command of the fleet. Rosily was then to sail into the Mediterranean and land troops at Naples before making port at Toulon.[232] Villeneuve decided to sail the fleet out before his successor could arrive.[232] On 20 October 1805, the fleet was sighted making its way out of harbour by patrolling British frigates, and Nelson was informed they appeared to be heading west.[235]
At four o'clock on the morning of 21 October, Nelson orderedVictory to turn towards the approaching enemy fleet and signalled the rest of his force to battle stations. He then went below deck and made out his will before returning to quarterdeck to carry out an inspection.[236] Despite having 27 ships against Villeneuve's 33, Nelson was confident of success, declaring he would not be satisfied with taking fewer than 20 prizes.[236] He returned briefly to his cabin to write a final prayer, after which he joinedVictory's signal lieutenantJohn Pasco.
Mr Pasco, I wish to say to the fleet "England confides that every man will do his duty". You must be quick, for I have one more signal to make, which is for close action.[237]
Pasco suggested changingconfides toexpects which, being in theSignal Book, could be signalled by the use of a single code (three flags), whereasconfides would have to be spelt out letter by letter. Nelson agreed, andthe signal was hoisted.[237] As the fleets converged,Victory's CaptainThomas Hardy suggested Nelson remove the decorations on his coat so he would not be easily identified by enemy sharpshooters. Nelson replied it was too late "to be shifting a coat", adding they were "military orders and he did not fear to show them to the enemy".[c][239] CaptainHenry Blackwood of the frigateHMS Euryalus suggested Nelson come aboard his ship to better observe the battle. Nelson refused, and also turned down Hardy's suggestion to let Admiral SirEliab Harvey'sHMS Temeraire come ahead ofVictory and lead the line into battle.[239]
Victory came under fire, initially passing wide, but then with greater accuracy as the distances decreased. A cannonball struck and killed Nelson's secretaryJohn Scott, nearly cutting him in two.Hardy's clerk then took over, but he too was almost immediately killed.Victory's wheel was shot away; another cannonball cut down eight marines. Standing next to Nelson on the quarterdeck, Hardy's shoe buckle was suddenly dented by a splinter.[240]Victory had by now reached the enemy line, and Hardy asked Nelson which ship to engage first. Nelson told him to take his pick, whereupon Hardy movedVictory across the stern of the 80-gun French flagshipBucentaure.[240]Victory then came under fire from the 74-gunRedoutable lying offBucentaure's stern, as well as the 130-gunSantísima Trinidad. As enemy sharpshooters fired ontoVictory's deck from their rigging, Nelson and Hardy continued directing and giving orders.[240]
At a quarter-past one in the afternoon,[157] Hardy realised Nelson was not by his side. He turned to see Nelson kneeling on the deck, supporting himself with his hand, before falling onto his side. Hardy rushed to him, at which point Nelson smiled: "Hardy, I do believe they have done it at last[...] my backbone is shot through".[240]
He was hit by a musket ball fired from themizzen-top ofRedoutable at a range of 50 feet (15 m). The ball entered his left shoulder, passed through a lung,[157] then his spine at the sixth and sevenththoracic vertebrae, and lodged 2 inches (51 mm) below his right shoulder blade in the back muscles. In return, signal midshipmanJohn Pollard, possibly together with his fellow-midshipman Francis Edward Collingwood, is said to have shot down the Frenchmarksman responsible for Nelson's death.[241][242] Nelson was carried below to the cockpit by the sergeant major of marines Robert Adair and two seamen. As he was being carried down, he asked them to pause while he gave advice to a midshipman on the handling of thetiller.[243] He then draped a handkerchief over his face to avoid causing alarm amongst the crew. He was taken to the ship surgeonWilliam Beatty, telling him: "You can do nothing for me. I have but a short time to live. My back is shot through".[244]
Nelson was made comfortable, fanned, and brought lemonade and watered wine to drink after he complained of feeling hot and thirsty. He asked several times to see Hardy, who was on deck supervising the battle, and asked Beatty to remember him to Emma, his daughter, and his friends.[244] Hardy came belowdeck to see Nelson just after half-past two, and informed him a number of enemy ships had surrendered. Nelson told him he was sure to die and begged him to pass his possessions on to Emma. Those with Nelson at this point were chaplainAlexander Scott, purserWalter Burke, Nelson's steward, Chevalier and Beatty. Nelson, fearing a gale was blowing up, instructed Hardy to be sure to anchor. After reminding him to "take care of poorLady Hamilton", Nelson said: "Kiss me, Hardy". Beatty records Hardy knelt and kissed Nelson on the cheek. He then stood for a minute or two, before kissing Nelson on the forehead. Nelson asked, "Who is that?" On hearing it was Hardy, he replied, "God bless you, Hardy."[245]
By now very weak, Nelson continued to murmur instructions to Burke and Scott, "fan, fan[...] rub, rub[...] drink, drink." Beatty had heard Nelson murmur, "Thank God I have done my duty", and when he returned, Nelson's voice had faded and his pulse was very weak.[245] Nelson looked up as Beatty took his pulse, then closed his eyes. Scott, who remained by Nelson as he died, recorded his last words as "God and my country".[246] Nelson died at half-past four in the afternoon, three hours after he had been shot.[245] He was 47 years old.
The Death of Nelson byDaniel Maclise (Houses of Parliament, London)
Nelson's body was placed in a cask ofbrandy mixed withcamphor andmyrrh, which was then lashed to theVictory's mainmast and placed under guard.[247] This was a controversial decision, with the public later believing it would have been better for him to have been put inrum instead to better preserve him.[248]Victory was towed to Gibraltar after the battle, and on arrival the body was transferred to a lead-lined coffin filled withspirits of wine. His effects, uniforms and papers were sent separately.[247] Collingwood's dispatches about the battle were carried to England aboardHMS Pickle, and when the news arrived in London, a messenger was sent to Merton Place to bring the news of Nelson's death to Emma Hamilton.[249]
KingGeorge III, on receiving the news, is alleged to have said in tears, "We have lost more than we have gained."[250]The Times reported:
We do not know whether we should mourn or rejoice. The country has gained the most splendid and decisive Victory that has ever graced the naval annals of England; but it has been dearly purchased.[250]
Print of the royal barge carrying Nelson's bodyNelson's coffin in the crossing of St Paul's, during the funeral service; the dome hung with captured French and Spanish flagsThe sarcophagus of Nelson in the crypt of St Paul's
Nelson's body was unloaded fromVictory at theNore. It was conveyed upriver inSir George Grey's yachtChatham toGreenwich and placed inside a lead coffin. The lead coffin was then placed inside a wooden one made from the mast ofL'Orient, which had been salvaged after theBattle of the Nile and given to Nelson as an ironious gift by captainHallowell of HMSSwiftsure.[251] He lay in state for three days in thePainted Hall ofGreenwich Hospital, where the surrounding arrangements all but disintegrated under the crush of crowds far greater than authorities had anticipated.[157] His body was then taken upriver aboard a barge originally used asKing Charles II's state barge; accompanied by LordSamuel Hood, chief mourner SirPeter Parker, and thePrince of Wales.[252] The Prince of Wales at first announced his intention of attending the funeral as chief mourner. However, he ultimately attended in a private capacity along with his brothers, when his father KingGeorge III reminded him it was against protocol for the heir to the throne to attend the funerals of anyone except members of the royal family.[252]
On 8 January 1806, the coffin was taken into theAdmiralty for the night, attended by Nelson's chaplain Alexander Scott.[252] The following day, 9 January, a funeral procession consisting of 32 admirals, over a 100 captains, and an escort of 10,000 soldiers took the coffin from the Admiralty toSt Paul's Cathedral.[253] After a four-hour service, he was interred within a crypt in asarcophagus originally carved forCardinal Wolsey;[5] the sarcophagus and its base had been previously taken over for the tomb ofHenry VIII, which was never completed.[254] The sailors charged with folding the flag and then placing on Nelson's coffin after it had been lowered through the floor of thenave, instead tore it into fragments, each taking a piece as a memorial of their fallen commander.[255][157]
Nelson was regarded as a highly effective leader and someone who was able to sympathise with the needs of his sailors. He based his command on love rather than authority, inspiring both his superiors and subordinates with his considerable courage, commitment and charisma—dubbed "the Nelson touch".[256][257] Nelson combined this talent with an adept grasp of strategy and politics, making him a highly successful naval commander. AdmiralTōgō Heihachirō, himself often called "the Nelson of the East", placed Nelson as among the greatest naval commanders in history—second only to AdmiralYi Sun-sin.[258] The memorandum Nelson wrote before Trafalgar expresses his attitude well: "No captain can do very wrong if he places his ship alongside that of the enemy."[259]
Nelson's personality was complex, often characterised by a desire to be noticed both by his superiors and the public. He was easily flattered by praise, and dismayed when he felt he was not given sufficient credit for his actions.[260] This led him to take risks and enthusiastically publicise his resultant successes,[261] which was not always considered acceptable at the time.[262] Nelson was also highly confident in his abilities, determined and able to make important decisions.[263] His active career meant he was considerably experienced in combat and a shrewd judge of his opponents, able to identify and exploit his enemies' weaknesses.[256] He was often prone to insecurities, however, as well as violent mood swings,[264] and was extremely vain; he loved to receive decorations and tributes.[265] Despite his personality, he remained a highly professional leader and was driven all his life by a strong sense of duty.[264] Nelson's fame reached new heights after his death and he came to be regarded as one of Britain's greatest military heroes, ranked alongsideJohn Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, andArthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington.[266] In theBBC's100 Greatest Britons programme in 2002, Nelson was voted the ninth-greatest Briton of all time.[267]
Aspects of Nelson's life and career were controversial, both during his lifetime and after his death. His affair withEmma Hamilton was widely remarked upon and disapproved of, to the extent that Emma was denied permission to attend his funeral. She and their daughterHoratia were also subsequently ignored by the government, which awarded Nelson's money and titles only to his legitimate family.[268] Nelson's actions during the reoccupation of Naples have also been the subject of debate. His approval of the wave of reprisals against the Jacobins, who had surrendered under the terms agreed byCardinal Ruffo, as well as his personal intervention in securing the execution ofFrancesco Caracciolo, are considered by some biographers such asRobert Southey to have been a shameful breach of honour. A prominent contemporary, politicianCharles James Fox, was among those who attacked Nelson for his actions at Naples.[269] Other pro-republican writers produced books and pamphlets decrying the events in Naples as atrocities.[270] Later assessments, including byAndrew Lambert, have stressed the armistice had not been authorised by theKing of Naples, and the retribution meted out by the Neapolitans was not unusual for the time. Lambert also suggests Nelson, in fact, acted to put an end to the bloodshed; using his ships and men to restore order in the city.[270]
While Nelson served in theWest Indies, he came into contact with prominent white colonists residing there, forming friendships with many of them. These relationships led Nelson to absorb theirproslavery views, particularly that slavery was necessary to the islands' economic prosperity. According to Grindal, Nelson later used his social influence to counter theemerging abolitionist movement in Britain.[271]University of Southampton academic Christer Petley contextualises this view:
The debate over the future of slavery divided Britons.Wilberforce personified one type of British patriotism—arguing for an end to slave-trading on the basis that it was a blot on the reputation of a proud and Christian nation. Slaveholders offered their own patriotic arguments—maintaining that the trade was so instrumental to the imperial economy that Britain could ill-afford to stop it. Nelson had befriended several slaveholding colonists during his time in the Caribbean. Privately, he came to sympathise with their political outlook. It is clear that, by the time of his death at Trafalgar, he despised Wilberforce and stood in staunch opposition to the British abolitionist campaign.[272]
Over the course of his life, Nelson came into contact numerous times with aspects of slavery and the people involved in that institution. These included his relationships with Caribbeanplantation owners and his marriage to Fanny, a slave owner born into a family which belonged to the Antiguanplantocracy. One of his friends in the West Indies wasSimon Taylor, one of the richest plantation-owners inJamaica who owned hundreds of slaves. In 1805 Taylor wrote to Nelson, requesting he publicly intervene in favour of the pro-slavery side in Britain's debate over abolition. Nelson replied to Taylor, writing "while [he had] ... a tongue", he would "launch [his] voice against the damnable and cursed(sic) doctrine ofWilberforce and his hypocritical allies".[273] In the same letter, Nelson wrote he had always "[endeavoured] to serve the Public weal, of which theWest India Colonies form so prominent and interesting a part. I have ever been, and shall die, a firm friend to our present Colonial system. I was bred, as you know, in the good old school, and taught to appreciate the value of our West India possessions."[274]
This letter was published in 1807 by the anti-abolitionist faction, 18 months after Nelson's death, and out of context, in an apparent attempt to bolster their cause prior to the parliamentary vote on the Abolition Bill.[275] Many of Nelson's actions indicate his position on the matter of slavery, most notably:
Nelson's Column –Death of Nelson at Trafalgar panel, withGeorge Ryan standing on the left-hand edge, holding a rifle
Any West Indian slave escaping to a navy ship, including Nelson's, were signed on, paid, and treated the same as other crew members. At the end of their service they were discharged as free men. In fact, the bronze relief at the base of Nelson's column clearly shows the blackGeorge Ryan, aged 23, withmusket shooting the French alongside the dying Admiral.[276]
In 1799, Nelson intervened to secure the release of 24 slaves being held in Portuguese galleys off Palermo.[175][176]
In 1802, when it was proposed that West Indian plantation slaves should be replaced by free, paid industrious Chinese workers—Nelson supported the idea.[277]
In 1805, Nelson rescued the black Haitian General Joseph Chretien and his servant from the French. They asked if they could serve with Nelson, and Nelson recommended to the Admiralty they be paid until they could be discharged and granted passage to Jamaica. The General's mission was to end slavery, a fact of which Nelson was well aware. The general and his servant were well treated and paid.[278]
The Nelson family used to have a free black servant called Price. Nelson said of him he was "as good a man as ever lived" and he suggested to Emma she invite the elderly Price to live with them. In the event, Price declined.[279]
Nelson's influence continued long after his death and saw periodic revivals of interest, especially during times of crisis in Britain. His tragic death in the legendaryBattle of Trafalgar solidified his status as a hero. In the 1860s,Poet LaureateAlfred Tennyson appealed to the image and tradition of Nelson in order to oppose the defence cuts being made by Prime MinisterWilliam Ewart Gladstone.[280]First Sea LordJackie Fisher was a keen exponent of Nelson during the early 20th century, and often emphasised his legacy during his period of naval reform.[281]Winston Churchill also found Nelson to be a source of inspiration during theSecond World War.[282] Nelson has been frequently depicted in art and literature; appearing in paintings byBenjamin West andArthur William Devis, and in books and biographies byJohn McArthur,James Stanier Clarke andRobert Southey.[283] Nelson is also celebrated and commemorated in numerous songs, written both during his life and following his death.Thomas Attwood's "Nelson's Tomb: A Favourite Song" commemorates Nelson's death in the Battle of Trafalgar.[284]
The city ofNelson inNew Zealand is named after him.[285] A number of monuments and memorials were constructed across Britain and abroad to honour his memory and achievements.Dublin's monument to Nelson,Nelson's Pillar, completed in 1809, was destroyed byIrish republicans in 1966.[286] InMontreal, a statue was started in 1808 and completed in 1809.[287] In Great Yarmouth, on the coast in his home county of Norfolk, theBritannia Monument (aka the Norfolk Naval Pillar) to Nelson was erected in 1819, with dedications at the base to his four main naval victories. Others followed around the world, with London'sTrafalgar Square being created in his memory in 1835 and the centrepieceNelson's Column finished in 1843.[288] ARoyal Society of Artsblue plaque was unveiled in 1876 to commemorate Nelson at 147New Bond Street.[289] The architect of theBritannia Royal Naval College inDartmouth, SirAston Webb, placed a window high in the chapel such that annually, on 21 October at the time of Nelson's death, the light from it falls on the statue of Christ behind the altar.[290]
Nelson and his monuments are seen more critically in countries that felt the negative aspects of colonialism and who may seek to revise their public history. Major public memorials in primary locations in some cities have been subject to protest and removal as conscious acts. In 1966, the Nelson Pillar in Dublin was blown up by Irish Republicans: a novelty folk song, "Up Went Nelson", topped the Irish pop charts in the wake of the explosion, while a newspaper article marking the 55th anniversary noted: "For many, the biggest surprise about the blowing up of Nelson's Pillar...is why it took 157 years."[291] Across the Atlantic, in the Caribbean in 2020, after years of campaigning, theNelson Statue in National Heroes Square, Bridgetown, Barbados, was removed and placed in a museum. It had stood since 1813 in a central public space of the capital known until 1999 as Trafalgar Square. The Barbadian Prime MinisterMia Mottley said at the ceremony marking the statue's removal:
National Heroes Square must reflect our heroes. And ... while we accept that the statue of the vice admiral Lord Horatio Nelson is an important historic relic, it is not a relic to be placed in the National Heroes Square of a nation that has had to fight for too long to shape its destiny and to forge a positive future for its citizens.[292]
In 1799, Nelson was createdDuke of Bronte of theKingdom of Sicily by KingFerdinand III of Sicily, and after briefly experimenting with the signature "Brontë Nelson of the Nile", he signed himself "Nelson & Brontë" for the rest of his life.[304] Nelson had no legitimate children; his daughter Horatia married the Reverend Philip Ward, with whom she had ten children before her death in 1881.[305] Since Nelson died without legitimate issue, his viscountcy and his barony created in 1798, both "of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk", became extinct upon his death.[306] However, the barony created in 1801, "of the Nile and of Hilborough in the County of Norfolk", passed by a special remainder which included Nelson's father and sisters and their male issue toWilliam Nelson, who was Nelson's older brother. In November 1805, William Nelson was createdEarl Nelson andViscount Merton, of Trafalgar and of Merton in the County of Surrey, in recognition of his late brother's services, and he also inherited the dukedom of Bronte.[307]
Arms were granted and confirmed on 20 October 1797. Nelson's paternal arms (Or, across flory sable over all abendletgules) wereaugmented to honour his naval victories. After the Battle of Cape St Vincent (14 February 1797), Nelson was grantedheraldic supporters of asailor and alion.[309] In honour of the Battle of the Nile in 1798, the Crown granted him an augmentation of honourblazonedOn a chief wavy argent a palm tree between a disabled ship and a ruinous battery all issuant from waves of the sea all proper (deemed a notorious example ofdebased heraldry – comparatively uncommon in European heraldry).[310] The grant added theLatin mottoPalmam qui meruit ferat ("let him who has earned it bear the palm"), and added to his supporters a palm branch in the hand of the sailor and in the paw of the lion, and a "tri-colored flag and staff in the mouth of the latter".[311]
After Nelson's death, his elder brother and heir William Nelson, 1st Earl Nelson, was granted a further augmentation:On a fess wavy overall azure the wordTRAFALGAR or.[312] This additional augmentation was not used by those who succeeded him in the earldom, including the present Earl Nelson.[313]
^The spelling of the name was widely varied, and numerous versions exist even in current literature. Variations includeHinchinbroke,Hinchinbrooke,Hinchingbroke,Hinchingbrook andHinchingbrooke.
^Nelson biographerRoger Knight, disputes the veracity of this story, calling it a "myth".[198]
^HistorianNicholas A. M. Rodger, disputes this claim, calling it a "myth" and saying "[Nelson] was wearing an old uniform coat with inconspicuous cloth replicas of his decorations. There is no evidence he deliberately sought or recklessly courted death, though he was certainly well enough aware of the risks of action".[238]
^Williams, Kate (2009).England's Mistress: The Infamous Life of Emma Hamilton (Large Print ed.). BBC Audiobooks Ltd by arr. with Random House.ISBN978-1408430781.
^Gurney, William Brodie; Gurney, Joseph (1803).The Trial of Edward Marcus Despard, Esquire: For High Treason, at the Session House, Newington, Surrey, On Monday the Seventh of February, 1803. London: M Gurney. p. 176.
^Hawley, Samuel (2005).The Imjin War: Japan's Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer Chin. Conquistador Press. p. 490.ISBN978-8995442425.
^Warner, Oliver. (1976).Command at sea: great fighting admirals from Hawke to Nimitz. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 110.Internet Archive website Retrieved 19 July 2019.
^Attwood, Thomas and Thomas Cory "Nelson's Tomb: A Favourite Song, Sung by Mr. Incledon" London: Printed & sold by Goulding & Company. 117 New Bond St. & Westmorland St. Dublin.
Naish, George P. B. (1958).Nelson's Letters to his Wife and other documents 1785–1831. London: Navy Records Society.
Nelson, Horatio, Lord Viscount,The Dispatches and Letters of Vice Admiral Lord Viscount Nelson: With Notes by Sir Nicholas Harris Nicolas G.C.M.G., The First Volume, 1777 to August 1794, Henry Colburn, London, 1844
Nelson, Horatio, Lord Viscount,The Dispatches and Letters of Vice Admiral Lord Viscount Nelson: With Notes by Sir Nicholas Harris Nicolas G.C.M.G., The Third Volume, January 1798 to August 1799, Henry Colburn, London, 1845
Wilkinson, Clennell (1931).Nelson. London: George G. Harrap.
Willis, Sam (2014).In the Hour of Victory: The Royal Navy at War in the Age of Nelson. W.W. Norton & Company.
Wright, Thomas (1874).The History of France from the Earliest Period to the Present Time. Vol. II. London and New York: The London Printing and Publishing Company.OCLC319938296.
Vincent, Edgar (2003).Nelson: Love & Fame. Basic Books.ISBN0-300-10260-7.
Warner, Oliver (1959).Trafalgar. B. T. Batsford.
Worrall, Simon (2005). "Battle of Trafalgar: Admiral Lord Nelson's Fatal Victory".National Geographic.208 (4).
Yonge, Charles Duke (1863).The History of the British Navy, Volumes I & II. Richard Bentley, London; Vol. I: 716 pages; Vol. II: 809 pages.,E'book v1,E'book v2
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![Coat of arms used after the Battle of the Nile. An example of debased heraldry.[310]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aArms_of_Horatio_Nelson%2c_1st_Viscount_Nelson_(1798).svg)
