| Hong Taiji 皇太極 | |||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Portrait in theHong Kong Palace Museum | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Emperor of the Qing dynasty | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Reign | 1636 – 21 September 1643 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Predecessor | Himself (as Khan of the Later Jin dynasty) | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Successor | Shunzhi Emperor | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Khan of theLater Jin dynasty | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Reign | 20 October 1626 – 1636 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Predecessor | Nurhaci | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Successor | Himself (as Emperor of the Qing dynasty) | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Born | (1592-11-28)28 November 1592 Fu Ala,Manchuria,Ming | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Died | 21 September 1643(1643-09-21) (aged 50) | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Burial | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Consorts | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Issue |
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| House | Aisin-Gioro | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Dynasty | Later Jin (1626–1636) Qing (1636–1643) | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Father | Nurhaci | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Mother | Empress Xiaocigao | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Hong Taiji | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Traditional Chinese | 天聰汗 | ||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 天聪汗 | ||||||||||||
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Hong Taiji (28 November 1592 – 21 September 1643), also rendered asHuang Taiji and sometimes referred to asAbahai in Western literature, also known by histemple name as theEmperor Taizong of Qing, was the second khan of theLater Jin dynasty and the foundingemperor of theQing dynasty. He was responsible for consolidating the empire that his fatherNurhaci had founded and laid the groundwork for the conquest of theMing dynasty, although he died before this was accomplished. He was also responsible for changing the name of theJurchens to "Manchu" in 1635, and changing the name of his dynasty from "Great Jin" to "Great Qing" in 1636.
It is unclear whether "Hong Taiji" was a title or a personal name. WrittenHong taiji inManchu, it was borrowed from the Mongolian titleKhong Tayiji.[1] That Mongolian term was itself derived from the Chinesehuang taizi 皇太子 ("crown prince", "imperial prince"), but in Mongolian it meant, among other things, something like "respected son".[2] Alternatively, historianPamela Crossley argues that "Hung Taiji" was a title "of Mongolian inspiration" derived fromhung, a word that appeared in other Mongolian titles at the time.[3] Early seventeenth-century Chinese andKorean sources rendered his name as "Hong Taiji" (洪台極).[4] The modern Chinese rendering "Huang Taiji" (皇太極), which uses the characterhuang ("imperial"), misleadingly implies that Hong Taiji once held the title of "imperial prince" or heir apparent, even though his father and predecessorNurhaci never designated a successor.[5]
"Hong Taiji" was very rarely used in Manchu sources, because they observed a taboo on the personal names of emperors. In redacted documents, Hong Taiji was simply called the "FourthBeile" or "fourth prince" (duici beile), indicating that he was the fourth ranked among the eightbeile Nurhaci had designated from among his sons.[6] However, an archival document rediscovered in 1996 and recounting events from 1621 calls him "Hong Taiji" in a discussion concerning the possible naming of Nurhaci's heir apparent, a title that the document refers to astaise.[7] Tatiana Pang and Giovanni Stary, two specialists of early Manchu history, consider this document as "further evidence" that Hong Taiji was his real name, "not being at all connected with the Chinese titlehuang taizi".[7] HistorianMark Elliott views this as persuasive evidence that Hong Taiji was not a title, but a personal name.[8]
Western scholars used to refer to Hong Taiji as "Abahai", but this appellation is now considered mistaken.[9] Hong Taiji was never mentioned under this name in Manchu and Chinese sources; it was a mistake first made by Russian clergymanVladimir Gorsky [ru] and later repeated by sinologists starting in the early twentieth century.[10] Giovanni Stary states that this name may have originated by confusing "Abkai" withAbkai sure, which was Hong Taiji'sera name in theManchu language.[11] Though "Abahai" is indeed "unattested in Manchu sources", it might also have derived from the Mongol wordAbaġai, an honorary name given to the younger sons of hereditary monarchs.[12] According to another view, Hong Taiji was mistakenly referred to as Abahai as a result of a confusion with the name of Nurhaci's main consortLady Abahai.
Hong Taiji was the secondKhan of theLater Jin and then Emperor of theQing dynasty, after he changed its name. His title as Great Khan wasBogd Sécén Khaan (Manchu: Gosin Onco Hūwaliyasun Enduringge Han), and he was referred to asBogda Khan by his Mongol subjects. Hisreign names, which were used in his lifetime to record dates, wereTiancong天聰 ("heavenly wisdom"; Manchu:Abka-i sure) from 1627 to 1636, andChongde崇德 ("lofty virtue"; Manchu:Wesihun erdemungge, Mongolian:Degedü Erdemtü) from 1636 to 1643.
Hong Taiji'stemple name, by which he was worshipped at theImperial Ancestral Temple, wasTaizong 太宗, the name that was conventionally given to the second emperor of a dynasty.[13] Hisposthumous name, which was chosen to reflect his style of rule, was "Wen Huangdi"文皇帝 (Manchu:šu hūwangdi), which means "the culturing emperor" or "the emperor of letters".[14][note 1]
Hong Taiji was the eighth son ofNurhaci,[15] whom he succeeded as the second ruler of theLater Jin dynasty in 1626. He might have hadMongolian ancestry as the son ofYehe-Nara Monggo Jerjer, and he might have been genetically related to the MongolicDaur people as a member of theAisin-Gioro clan.[16][17][18]
Although it has always been regarded as gossip, he was said to have been involved in the suicide ofDorgon's mother,Lady Abahai, in order to block the succession of his younger brother. This is speculated because at the time of Nurhaci's death, there were four Lords/Beile with Hong Taiji holding the lowest rank, but also being the most fit one.
Originally, at the end of Nurhaci's reign, Hong Taiji controlled the two WhiteBanners, but after Lady Abahai's death, he switched his two banners with Dorgon andDodo's two Yellow banners. In the end, Hong Taiji had control over the highest class banners — thePlain andBordered Yellow Banners — and the most influence. From there, he slowly got rid of his competitors' powers. Later, he would also receive thePlain Blue Banner from his fifth brotherManggūltai, which was the third strongest banner. Those three banners would officially become the Upper Three Banners during the early years of the Qing dynasty.
During his reign, Hong Taiji started recruitment ofHan Chinese officials. After a 1623 revolt, Nurhaci came to mistrust hisNikan (Manchu:ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ, "Han people") followers so Hong Taiji began their assimilation into the country and government.
A mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto and Hong Taiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.[19]
It is the predecessor of Mongol Yamen (ᠮᠣᠩᡤᠣ
ᠵᡠᡵᡤᠠᠨ 蒙古衙門,monggo jurgan) which was established for indirect government of Inner Mongolia after the Mongols were conquered by Hong Taiji. In 1638 it was renamed toLifanyuan. Initially, the ministerial affairs were settled, while vice-ministers were set up as vice-ministers.[20]
He continued the expansion of the Later Jin dynasty inManchuria, pushing deeper into theMongolian Plateau and raiding theJoseon dynasty and theMing dynasty. His personal military abilities were widely praised and he effectively developed the military-civil administration known as theEight Banners orBanner system. This system was well-suited to accept the different peoples, primarilyHan andMongols, who joined the Later Jin state either following negotiated agreements or military defeat.
Although Hong Taiji patronizedTibetan Buddhism in public, in private he disdained the Buddhist belief of the Mongols and thought it was destructive of Mongol identity. He is quoted to have said that, "The Mongolian princes are abandoning the Mongolian language; their names are all in imitation of thelamas."[21] The Manchus themselves such as Hong Taiji did not personally believe in Tibetan Buddhism and few wanted to convert. Hong Taiji described some Tibetan Buddhist lamas as "incorrigibles" and "liars",[22] but still patronized Buddhism in order to harness the Tibetans' and Mongols' belief in the religion.[23]
Hong Taiji started his conquest by subduing the potent Ming ally in Korea. February 1627 his forces crossed theYalu River which had frozen.[24] In 1628, he attempted to invade the Ming dynasty, but was defeated byYuan Chonghuan and his use of artillery.[24] During the next five years, Hong Taiji spent resources in training his artillery to offset the strength of the Ming artillery.
Hong Taiji upgraded the weapons of the Empire. He realized the advantage of theRed Cannons and later also bought the Red Cannons into the army. Though the Ming dynasty still had more cannons, Hong Taiji now possessed the cannons of equal might and Asia's strongest cavalry. Also during this time, he sent several probing raids into northern China which were defeated. First attack went through the Jehol Pass, then in 1632 and 1634 he sent raids intoShanxi.[24]
In 1636, Hong Taijiinvaded Joseon Korea, as the latter did not accept that Hong Taiji had become emperor and refused to assist in operations against the Ming.[24] With the Joseon dynasty surrendered in 1637, Hong Taiji succeeded in making them cut off relations with the Ming dynasty and force them to submit astributary state of theQing dynasty. Also during this period, Hong Taiji took over Inner Mongolia, which protected northern border of China, in three major wars, each of them victorious.[25] From 1636 until 1644, he sent 4 major expeditions into theAmur region.[24] In 1640 he completed the conquest of theEvenks, when he defeated and captured their leaderBombogor. By 1644, the entire region was under his control.[24]
Huang Taji's plan at first was to make a deal with the Ming dynasty. If the Ming was willing to give support and money that would be beneficial to the Qing's economy, the Qing in exchange would not only be willing to not attack the borders, but also admit itself as a country one level lower than the Ming dynasty; however, since Ming court officials were reminded of the deal that preceded theSong dynasty'swars with the Jin Empire, the Ming refused the exchange. Huang Taiji rejected the comparison, saying that, "Neither is your Ming ruler a descendant of the Song nor are we heir to the Jin. That was another time."[26] Hong Taiji had not wanted to conquer the Ming. The Ming's refusal ultimately led him to take the offensive. The people who first encouraged him to invade the Ming dynasty were his ethnic Han advisors Fan Wencheng, Ma Guozhu, and Ning Wanwo.[27] Hong Taiji recognized that the Manchus needed Han defectors in order to assist in the conquest of the Ming, and thus explained to other Manchus why he also needed to be lenient to recent defectors like Ming general Hong Chengchou, who surrendered to the Qing in 1642.[23]
When Hong Taiji came into power, the military was composed of entirely Mongol and Manchu companies. By 1636, Hong Taiji created the first of many Chinese companies. Before the conquest of the Ming dynasty, the number of companies organized by him and his successor was 278 Manchus, 120 Mongols, and 165 Han.[28] By the time of Hong Taiji's death there were more ethnic Han than Manchus and he had realized the need for there to be control exerted whilst getting approval from the Han majority. Not only did he incorporate the Han into the military, but also into the government. TheCouncil of Deliberative Officials was formed as the highest level of policy-making and was composed entirely of Manchu. However, Hong Taiji adopted from the Ming such institutions as theSix Ministries, theCensorate and others.[28] Each of these lower ministries was headed by a Manchu prince, but had four presidents: two were Manchu, one was Mongol, and one was Han. This basic framework remained, even though the details fluctuated over time, for some time.[28]
In 1635, Hong Taiji changed the name of his people from Jurchen (Manchu:
jušen) to Manchu, or
manju in theManchu language. The original meaning ofManju is not known and so the reasons for its adoption remain opaque. There are many theories as to the reason for the choice of name but two of the most commonly cited are its sounding similar to the Manchu word for "brave" and a possible connection with the BodhisattvaManjusri, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom, of whom Nurhaci claimed to be an incarnation.
The dynastic name Later Jin was a direct reference to theJin dynasty founded by the Jurchen people, who ruled northern China from 1115 to 1234. As such, the name was likely to be viewed as closely tied to the Jurchens and would perhaps evoke hostility from ethnic Han who viewed theSong dynasty, rival state to the Jin, as the legitimate rulers of China at that time. Hong Taiji's ambition was to conquerChina proper and overthrow theMing dynasty, and to do that required not only a powerful military force but also an effective bureaucratic administration. For this, he used the obvious model, that of the Ming government, and recruited Ming officials to his cause. If the name of Later Jin would prove an impediment to his goal among the Han people, then it was not too much to change it. At the same time, Hong Taiji conquered territory north of Shanhai pass and defeatedLigdan Khan in Inner Mongolia. He captured one of the Yuan dynasty'simperial jade seals (Chinese:制誥之寶)[29] and a golden Buddha called "Mahakala".[30] In April 1636, theMongolian nobility of Inner Mongolia, Manchu nobility andHan bureaucrats held aKurultai in Shenyang where they voted to support Hong Taiji to be the emperor of what would later become the Qing empire.[31][32] Russian archive contains translations of the 1636 year Hong Taiji decree with the provision that after the fall of the Qing dynasty Mongols will return to their previous laws, i.e. independence.[33] Whatever his precise motivation behind doing so might've been, Hong Taiji proclaimed the establishment of the Qing dynasty and also changed his era name to Chóngdé in 1636.[24] The reasons for the choice ofQing as the name of this new dynasty are likewise unclear, although it has been speculated thatJin andQing are pronounced similarly inManchu. However, according to thewuxing theory, traditional ideas held that fire, which was associated with the character forMing, would be overcome by water, which is the element associated with the character forQing, and that this might have influenced the choice. Another possible reason may be that Hong Taiji changed the name of the dynasty from (Later) Jin to Qing in order to avoid destructive fraternal struggles and skirmishes between brothers and half brothers for the throne, as according to Taoist philosophy, the dynastic name Jin carries the meaning of metal and fire in its constituents, thereby supposedly "igniting the tempers" of the brothers of the Manchurian dynasty into open conflict and war. Hong Taiji therefore adopted the new name of Qing (清), which includes the Chinese character for water on its left hand side. The name, which means "clear and transparent", with its water symbol, was hoped to put out the feud between the brothers.[citation needed]
Hong Taiji claimed that the progenitor of his clan, theAisin Gioro, was the legendary figureBukūri Yongšon[34] (布庫里雍順), who was supposedly conceived from a virgin birth. According to legend, three heavenly maidens, namely Enggulen (恩古倫), Jenggulen (正古倫) and Fekulen (佛庫倫), were bathing at a lake called Bulhūri Omo near theChangbai Mountains. A magpie dropped a piece of red fruit near Fekulen, who ate it. She then became pregnant with Bukūri Yongšon. However, another older version of the story by the Hurha (Hurka) tribe member Muksike recorded in 1635 contradicts Hong Taiji's version, claiming that it was inHeilongjiang province close to theAmur river where Bulhuri lake was supposedly located and that it was there that the "heavenly maidens" took their bath. This was recorded in theJiu Manzhou Dang and his much shorter and simpler in addition to being older. This is thus believed to be the original version and Hong Taiji changed it to Changbai. It shows that the Aisin Gioro clan originated in the Amur area and the Heje (Hezhen) and other Amur valley Jurchen tribes had an oral version of the same tale. It also fits with Jurchen history as some ancestors of the Manchus came down from the north into the Amur valley before the 14th-15th centuries and only later moved further south.[35]
Before Hong Taiji was emperor, he controlled the two White banners. Upon Nurhaci's death, Hong Taiji immediately switched his two White Banners with Nurhaci's two Yellow Banners, which should have been passed on to Dorgon and his brothers. As emperor, he was the holder of three banners out of eight. He controlled the Upper Three Banners or the Elite banners which at the time were the Plain/Bordered Yellow Banners and Plain Blue Banner. Later the Plain Blue Banner was switched by Dorgon to the Plain White Banner as the third Elite Banner. At the end of his reign, Hong Taiji gave the two Yellow Banners to his eldest son Hooge. Daisan, who was the second son of Nurhaci, and his son controlled the two Red Banners. Dorgon and his two brothers controlled the two White Banners and Šurhaci's sonJirgalang controlled the remaining Bordered Blue Banner.
Hong Taiji died on 21 September 1643 just as the Qing was preparing to attackShanhai Pass, the last Ming fortification guarding access to the north China plains.[36][note 2] Because he died without having named an heir, the Qing state now faced a succession crisis.[38] TheDeliberative Council of Princes and Ministers debated on whether to grant the throne to Hong Taiji's half-brotherDorgon – a proven military leader – or to Hong Taiji's eldest sonHooge. As a compromise, Hong Taiji's five-year-old ninth son Fulin was chosen, while Dorgon – alongside Nurhaci's nephewJirgalang – was given the title of "prince regent".[39] Fulin was officially crownedemperor of the Qing dynasty on 8 October 1643 and it was decided that he would reign under the era name "Shunzhi."[40] A few months later, Qing armies led by Dorgon seizedBeijing, and the youngShunzhi Emperor became the first Qing emperor to rule from that new capital.[41] That the Qing state succeeded not only in conquering China but also in establishing a capable administration was due in large measure to the foresight and policies of Hong Taiji. His body was buried inZhaoling, located in northernShenyang.
As the emperor, he is commonly recognized as having abilities similar to the best emperors such asYongle,Emperor Taizong of Tang due to his effective rule, use of talent, and warring skills. According to historianJin Yong, Hong Taiji had the broad and wise views ofQin Shi Huang,Emperor Gaozu of Han,Emperor Guangwu of Han,Emperor Wen of Sui,Emperor Taizong of Tang,Emperor Taizu of Song,Kublai Khan, theHongwu Emperor, and theYongle Emperor.[citation needed] His political abilities were paralleled only byGenghis Khan,Emperor Taizong of Tang, andEmperor Guangwu of Han.[citation needed] In this sense, Hong Taiji is considered by some historians as the true first emperor for the Qing dynasty.[citation needed] Some historians suspect Hong Taiji was overall underrated and overlooked as a great emperor because he was a Manchu.[citation needed]
Empress
Primary Consort
Secondary Consort
Concubine
| Giocangga (1526–1583) | |||||||||||||||
| Taksi (1543–1583) | |||||||||||||||
| Empress Yi | |||||||||||||||
| Nurhaci (1559–1626) | |||||||||||||||
| Agu | |||||||||||||||
| Empress Xuan (d. 1569) | |||||||||||||||
| Hong Taiji (1592–1643) | |||||||||||||||
| Yangginu (d. 1584) | |||||||||||||||
| Empress Xiaocigao (1575–1603) | |||||||||||||||
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)Hong Taiji Born: 28 November 1592 Died: 21 September 1643 | ||
| Regnal titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by | Khan ofLater Jin 1626–1636 | Qing dynasty was established in 1636. Himself became theEmperor of the Qing dynasty. |
| New title Qing dynasty was established in 1636 | Emperor of the Qing dynasty 1636–1643 | Succeeded by |
Emperors of theQing dynasty | ||
|---|---|---|
Later Jin rulers posthumously regarded as Qing emperors Enthroned in 1626 asKhan,Hong Taiji changed the dynastic name to "Great Qing" in 1636 and claimed the title of emperor. | .svg) | |
Xia →Shang →Zhou →Qin →Han →3 Kingdoms →Jìn /16 Kingdoms →S. Dynasties /N. Dynasties →Sui →Tang →5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms →Liao /Song /W. Xia /Jīn →Yuan →Ming →Qing →ROC /PRC | ||
