Hong Kong action cinema is the principal source of theHong Kong film industry's global fame.Action films fromHong Kong have roots inChinese andHong Kong cultures, includingChinese opera, storytelling and aesthetic traditions, which Hong Kong filmmakers combined with elements fromHollywood andJapanese cinema along with newaction choreography andfilmmaking techniques, to create a culturally distinctive form that went on to have wide transcultural appeal. In turn, Hollywood action films have been heavily influenced by Hong Konggenre conventions, from the 1970s onwards.
The firstHong Kong action films favoured thewuxia style, emphasizingmysticism and swordplay, but this trend was politically suppressed in the 1930s and replaced bykung fu films that depicted more down-to-earth unarmed martial arts, often featuringfolk heroes such asWong Fei Hung. Post-war cultural upheavals led to a second wave of wuxia films with highly acrobatic violence, followed by the emergence of the grittier kung fu films for which theShaw Brothers studio became best known.
Hong Kong action cinema peaked from the1970s to the1990s. The 1970s saw a resurgence in kung fu films during the rise and sudden death ofBruce Lee. He was succeeded in the1980s byJackie Chan—who popularized the use of comedy, dangerousstunts, and modern urban settings in action films—andJet Li, whose authenticwushu skills appealed to both eastern and western audiences. The innovative work of directors and producers likeTsui Hark andJohn Woo introduced further variety, with genres such asheroic bloodshed andgun fu films, and themes such astriads and the supernatural. However, an exodus by many leading figures to Hollywood in the 1990s coincided with a downturn in the industry.
The signature contribution to action cinema from theChinese-speaking world is themartial arts film, the most famous of which were developed in Hong Kong. The genre emerged first inChinese popular literature. The early 20th century saw an explosion of what were calledwuxia novels (often translated as "martial chivalry"), generally published in serialized form in newspapers. These were tales of heroic, sword-wielding warriors, often featuring mystical orfantasy elements. This genre was quickly seized on by earlyChinese films, particularly in the movie capital of the time,Shanghai. Starting in the 1920s,wuxia titles, often adapted from novels (for example, 1928'sThe Burning of the Red Lotus Monastery and its eighteen sequels) were hugely popular and the genre dominated Chinese film for several years.[1]
The boom came to an end in the 1930s, caused by official opposition from cultural and political elites, especially theKuomintang government, who saw it as promoting superstition and violent anarchy.[2]Wuxia filmmaking was picked up in Hong Kong, at the time aBritish colony with a highly liberal economy and culture and a developing film industry. The first martial arts film inCantonese, the dominantChinese spoken language of Hong Kong, wasThe Adorned Pavilion (1938).[citation needed]
By the late 1940s, upheavals inmainland China—theSecond Sino-Japanese War, theChinese Civil War, and the victory of theChinese Communist Party—had shifted the centre ofChinese language filmmaking to Hong Kong. The industry continued the wuxia tradition in CantoneseB movies and serials, although the more prestigiousMandarin-language cinema generally ignored the genre. Animation and special effects drawn directly on the film by hand were used to simulate the flying abilities and otherpreternatural powers of characters; later titles in the cycle includedThe Six-Fingered Lord of the Lute (1965) andSacred Fire, Heroic Wind (1966).[2]
A counter-tradition to the wuxia films emerged in thekung fu movies that were also produced at this time. These movies emphasized more "authentic", down-to-earth and unarmed combat over the swordplay and mysticism ofwuxia. The most famous exemplar was real-life martial artistKwan Tak Hing; he became an avuncular hero figure to at least a couple of generations of Hong Kongers by playing historical folk heroWong Fei Hung in a series of roughly one hundred movies, fromThe True Story of Wong Fei Hung (1949) through toWong Fei Hung Bravely Crushing the Fire Formation (1970).[3] A number of enduring elements were introduced or solidified by these films: the still-popular character of "Master Wong"; the influence ofChinese opera with its stylized martial arts andacrobatics; and the concept of martial arts heroes as exponents ofConfucian ethics.[4]
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In the second half of the 1960s, the era's biggest studio,Shaw Brothers, inaugurated a new generation of wuxia films, starting with Xu Zenghong'sTemple of the Red Lotus (1965), a remake of the 1928 classic. These Mandarin productions were more lavish and in colour; their style was less fantastical and more intense, with stronger and more acrobatic violence. They were influenced by importedsamurai movies fromJapan and by the wave of"New School" wuxia novels by authors likeJin Yong andLiang Yusheng that started in the 1950s.[5][6]
The New Schoolwuxia wave marked the move of male-oriented action films to the centre of Hong Kong cinema, which had long been dominated by female stars and genres aimed at female audiences, such asromances andmusicals. Even so, during the 1960s female action stars likeCheng Pei-pei andConnie Chan Po-chu were prominent alongside male stars, such as former swimming championJimmy Wang Yu, and they continued an old tradition of female warriors inwuxia storyte directors of the period wereChang Cheh withOne-Armed Swordsman (1967) andGolden Swallow (1968) andKing Hu withCome Drink with Me (1966). Hu soon left Shaw Brothers to pursue his own vision ofwuxia with independent productions inTaiwan, such as the enormously successfulDragon Inn (1967, a.k.a.Dragon Gate Inn) andA Touch of Zen which was nominated for thePalme d'Or at the1975 Cannes Film Festival.[7] Chang stayed on and remained the Shaws' prolific star director into the early 1980s.
The early 1970s sawwuxia giving way to a new, grittier and more graphic (andMandarin-speaking) iteration of the kung fu movie, which came to dominate through the decade and into the early 1980s. Seriously trainedmartial artists such asTi Lung andGordon Liu became some of the top stars as increasing proportions of running times were devoted to combat set-pieces.Chinese Boxer (1970), starring and directed by Jimmy Wang Yu, is widely credited with launching the kung fu boom. But remaining at the vanguard, at least initially, wereShaw Brothers and director Chang Cheh. Chang'sVengeance (1970) was another of the first trendsetters and his dozens of contributions includedThe Boxer from Shantung (1972),Heroes Two (1974),Five Deadly Venoms (1978) andCrippled Avengers (1979). Kung fu cinema was particularly influenced by Chang's concern with his vision of masculine values and male friendship;[8] the female warrior figures who had been prominent in late 1960s wuxia work were sidelined, with prominent exceptions such as the popularAngela Mao.
Chang's only competitor as the genre's most influential filmmaker was his long-timeaction choreographer,Lau Kar Leung (a.k.a. Liu Chia Liang in Mandarin). Lau began directing his own movies for the Shaw brothers in 1975 withThe Spiritual Boxer, a progenitor of the kung fu comedy. In subsequent titles likeExecutioners from Shaolin (1977),The 36th Chamber of Shaolin (1978), andLegendary Weapons of China (1982), Lau emphasized the traditions and philosophy of the martial arts and strove to give onscreen fighting greater authenticity and ever greater speed and intricacy.[3]
The kung fu boom was partly fueled by enormous international popularity, and not just in East Asia. In the West, kung fu imports,dubbed and often recut and retitled, shown as "B" films in urban theaters and on television, made Hong Kong film widely noticed, although not widely respected, for the first time. African Americans particularly embraced the genre (as exemplified by the popularhip-hop group, theWu-Tang Clan) perhaps as an almost unprecedented source of adventure stories with non-white heroes, who furthermore often displayed a strong streak of racial and/or nationalistic pride.[9]
The popularity of these movies in North America would continue into the 1980s when ninja movies were introduced. In popular culture, the films of this era were colloquially known asKung Fu Theater orBlack Belt Theater, names that many independent stations used for their weekly airing slot.
The Brothers (1979), a Shaw Brothers production, was a significant departure from the kung fu films the studio was known for.The Brothers was an action crime-drama, about two brothers on opposing sides of the law. It was a remake of the Indian crime dramaDeewaar (1975), written bySalim–Javed.[10] In turn,The Brothers laid the foundations for theheroic bloodshed genre of 1980s Hong Kong cinema, inspiringJohn Woo's breakthrough filmA Better Tomorrow (1986).[11]
No single figure was more responsible for this international profile thanBruce Lee, an American-born, Hong Kong-raised martial artist and actor. Despite his larger filmography, Lee starred in just four completed martial arts films before his untimely death at age 32:The Big Boss (1971),Fist of Fury andWay of the Dragon (both 1972), andEnter the Dragon (1973). Eastern film historianPatrick Macias ascribes his success to "(bringing) the warrior spirit of old into the present day... developing his own fighting style... and possessing superhuman charisma".[12] His first three movies broke local box office records and were successful in much of the world.Fist of Fury andWay of the Dragon went on to gross an estimatedUS$100 million andUS$130 million worldwide, respectively.[13]
The English-languageEnter the Dragon, the first-ever US-Hong Kong co-production, grossed an estimatedUS$350 million worldwide,[14] making it the most internationally successful film from the region. Furthermore, his decision at the outset to work for young, upstart studioGolden Harvest, rather than accept the Shaws' notoriously tightfisted standard contract, was a factor in Golden Harvest's meteoric rise and Shaw's eventual decline.[3][15]
The only Chinese performer who has ever rivalled Bruce Lee's global fame isJackie Chan. Like many kung fu performers of the day, Chan came out of training inPeking opera and started in film as astuntman, notably in some of Lee's vehicles. He was groomed for a while byThe Big Boss andFist of Fury directorLo Wei as another Lee clone, in several movies includingNew Fist of Fury (1976), with little success. But in 1978, Chan teamed up with action choreographerYuen Woo Ping on Yuen's directorial debut,Snake in the Eagle's Shadow. The resulting blend of physical comedy and kung fu action provided Chan with his first hit and the rudiments of what would become his signature style. Chan's follow-up movie with Yuen,Drunken Master (also 1978), and his directorial debut,The Fearless Hyena (1979), were also giant hits and cemented his popularity.[3]
Although these films were not the first kung fu comedies, they launched a vogue that helped reinvigorate the waning kung fu genre. Especially notable in this regard were two of Chan's childhoodPeking Opera School classmates,Sammo Hung andYuen Biao, who also made careers of this specialty, sometimes co-starring with Chan. Hung, noted for the seeming paradox of his overweight physique and physical agility, also made a name for himself as a director and action choreographer from early on, with titles likeEnter the Fat Dragon (1978).[citation needed]
Chan's clowning may have helped extend the life of the kung fu wave for several years. Nevertheless, he became a star towards the end of the boom, and would soon help move the colony towards a new type of action. In the 1980s, he and many colleagues would forge a slicker, more spectacular Hong Kong pop cinema that would successfully compete with the post-Star Wars summer blockbusters from America.
In the early 1980s,Jackie Chan began experimenting with elaboratestunt action sequences in films such asThe Young Master (1980)[16] and especiallyDragon Lord (1982),[17] which featured a pyramid fight scene that holds the record for the mosttakes required for a single scene, with 2900 takes,[18] and the final fight scene in which he performs various stunts, including one where he does a back flip off aloft and falls to the lower ground.[19] By 1983, Chan branched out into action films which, though they still used martial arts, were less limited in scope, setting and plot, with an emphasis on elaborate yet dangerous stunt sequences. His first film in this vein,Project A (1983), saw the official formation of theJackie Chan Stunt Team and added elaborate, dangerous stunts to the fights and typical slapstick humor (at one point, Chan falls from the top of a clock tower through a series of fabric canopies). The new formula helpedProject A gross overHK$19 million in Hong Kong,[20] and significantly more in other Asian countries such as Japan, where it grossed¥2.95 billion and became one of thehighest-grossing films of 1984.[21]Winners and Sinners (1983) also featured an elaborate action sequence that involves Chan skating along a busy high road, including a risky stunt where he slides under a truck.
Chan continued to take the approach – and the budgets – to new heights in hits likePolice Story (1985), which is considered one of the greatest action films of all time.[22] Here was Chan dangling from a speeding bus, destroying large parts of a hillside shantytown, fighting in a shopping mall while breaking many glass panes, and sliding down a pole covered with exploding light bulbs. The latter is considered one of the greatest stunts in the history of action cinema.[23] The 1988 sequel called for explosions on a scale similar to many Hollywood movies and seriously injured leading ladyMaggie Cheung – an occupational risk Chan had already grown used to. Thus Jackie Chan created the template for the contemporary urban action-comedy of the 1980s, combining cops, kung fu and all the body-breaking potential of the modern city with its glass, metal and speeding vehicles.[24]
Chan's move towards larger-scale action films was paralleled by work coming out ofCinema City, the production company established in 1980 by comediansRaymond Wong,Karl Maka andDean Shek. With movies like the spy spoofAces Go Places (1982) and its sequels, Cinema City helped make modern special effects,James Bond-type gadgets and big vehicular stunts part of the industry vernacular.[25] Director/producerTsui Hark had a hand in shaping the Cinema City style while employed there from 1981–1983[15] but went on to make an even bigger impact after leaving. In such movies asZu Warriors from the Magic Mountain (1983) andA Chinese Ghost Story (1987, directed byChing Siu-tung), he kept pushing the boundaries of Hong Kong special effects. He led the way in replacing the rough and ready camera style of 1970s kung fu with glossier and more sophisticated visuals and ever more furious editing.[citation needed]
As a producer, Tsui Hark facilitated the creation ofJohn Woo's epoch-makingheroic bloodshed movieA Better Tomorrow (1986). Woo's saga of cops and thetriads (Chinese gangsters) combined fancifully choreographed (and extremely violent) gunplay (calledgun fu) with heightened emotional melodrama, sometimes resembling a modern-dress version of 1970skung fu films by Woo's mentorChang Cheh. The formula broke another all-time box office record. It also jump-started the faltering career of co-starChow Yun-fat, who overnight became one of the colony's most popular idols and Woo's favorite leading man.[3]
For the remainder of the 1980s and into the early 1990s, a deluge of films by Woo and others explored similar territory, often with a similar visual style and thematic bent. They were usually marked by an emphasis on the fraternal bonds of duty and affection among the criminal protagonists. The most notable otherauteur of these themes wasRingo Lam, who offered a less romanticized take in such films asCity on Fire,Prison on Fire (both 1987), andFull Contact (1992), all starring Chow Yun-Fat. The genre and its creators were accused in some quarters of cravenly glorifying real-life triads, whose involvement in the film business was notorious.[26]
As the triad films petered out in the early 1990s, period martial arts returned as the favored action genre. But this was a new martial arts cinema that took full advantage of technical strides as well the higher budgets that came with Hong Kong's dominance of the region's screens. These lavish productions were often adapted from the more fantasticalwuxia novels, which featured flying warriors in mid-air combat. Performers were raised up on ultrathin wires to allow them to conduct gravity-defying action sequences, a technique known by Western fans, sometimes disparagingly, aswire fu.[12]
As so often, Tsui Hark led the way. He producedSwordsman (1990), which reestablished the wuxia novels ofJin Yong as favorite big-screen sources (television adaptations had long been ubiquitous). He directedOnce Upon a Time in China (1991), which resurrected oft-filmed folk heroWong Fei Hung. Both films were followed by sequels and a raft of imitations, often starring Mainlandwushu championJet Li. He went on to receive a special award for amainland China person at the 1995 TaipeiGolden Horse Film Festival. The other signature star of the subgenre was Taiwanese-born actressBrigitte Lin. She made an unlikely specialty of androgynous woman-warrior types, such as the villainous, sex-changingeunuch inThe Swordsman 2 (1992), epitomizing martial arts fantasy's often-noted fascination with gender instability.[27]
Hong Kong's international impact initially came in the form ofmartial arts films, especially 1970skung fu films and most notably those ofBruce Lee.[28] His earliest attempts at introducing his brand of Hong Kong martial arts cinema to the West came in the form of Americantelevision shows, such asThe Green Hornet (1966 debut) andKung Fu (1972 debut).[29] The "kung fu craze" began in 1973, with the unprecedented success of Hong Kong martial arts films at the North American box office.King Boxer (Five Fingers of Death) starringIndonesian-born actorLo Lieh was the first Hong Kong film to top the US box office, paving the way for Bruce Lee's breakthrough withThe Big Boss (Fists of Fury) topping the US box office. In May 1973, Hong Kong action cinema made US box office history, with three foreign films holding the top three spots for the first time:Fists of Fury,Lady Whirlwind (Deep Thrust), andFive Fingers of Death. Lee continued his success withFist of Fury (The Chinese Connection), which also topped the US box office the following month.[28]
Kung fu film releases in the United States initially targetedAsian American audiences, before becoming a breakout success among largerAfrican-American andHispanic audiences,[30] and then among whiteworking-class Americans.[31] Kung fu films also became a global success, acrossAsia,Europe and thethird world.[31] This eventually paved the way for Lee's posthumousHollywood film breakthrough with the Hong Kong and US co-productionEnter the Dragon (1973). Hong Kong martial arts cinema subsequently inspired a wave of Western martial arts films and television shows throughout the 1970s–1990s (launching the careers of Western martial arts stars such asJean-Claude Van Damme,Steven Seagal andChuck Norris), as well as the more general integration ofAsian martial arts into Westernaction films and television shows by the 1990s.[29]
Sascha Matuszak ofVice saidEnter the Dragon "is referenced in all manner of media, the plot line and characters continue to influence storytellers today, and the impact was particularly felt in the revolutionizing way the film portrayedAfrican Americans,Asians and traditional martial arts."[32] Kuan-Hsing Chen and Beng Huat Chua citedfight scenes in Hong Kong films such asEnter the Dragon as being influential for the way they pitched "an elemental story of good against evil in such a spectacle-saturated way".[33]
In Japan, themanga andanime franchisesFist of the North Star (1983–1988) andDragon Ball (1984–1995) were influenced by Hong Kong martial arts films, particularly 1970s kung fu films such as Bruce Lee'sEnter the Dragon and Jackie Chan'sDrunken Master (1978).[34][35] In turn,Fist of the North Star and especiallyDragon Ball are credited with setting the trends for popularshōnen manga and anime from the 1980s onwards.[36][37]
Similarly in India, Hong Kong martial arts films had an influence onBollywoodmasala films.[38] After the success of Bruce Lee films (such asEnter the Dragon) in India,[39]Deewaar (1975) and later Bollywood films incorporated fight scenes inspired by 1970s Hong Kong martial arts films up until the 1990s.[40] Bollywood action scenes emulated Hong Kong rather than Hollywood, emphasising acrobatics andstunts and combiningkung fu (as perceived by Indians) withIndian martial arts such aspehlwani.[41]
Hong Kong martial arts films such asEnter the Dragon were the foundation forfighting games.[42] TheStreet Fighter video game franchise (1987 debut) was inspired byEnter the Dragon, with the gameplay centered around an international fighting tournament, and each character having a unique combination of ethnicity, nationality and fighting style.Street Fighter went on to set the template for all fighting games that followed.[43] The earlybeat 'em up gameKung-Fu Master (1984) was also based on Bruce Lee'sGame of Death (1972) and Jackie Chan'sWheels on Meals (1984).[44]
The success of Bruce Lee's films helped popularize the concept ofmixed martial arts (MMA) in the West via hisJeet Kune Do system. In 2004,Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) founderDana White called Lee the "father of mixed martial arts".[45]Parkour was also influenced by the acrobatic antics of Jackie Chan in his Hong Kong action films,[46][47] as well as the philosophy of Bruce Lee.[48]
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Hong Kong action cinema's innovative developments in the 1980s had not only established Hong Kong as the dominant cinema inEast Asia, but reawakenedWestern interest. By the 1990s, there was a second "Asian invasion" from Hong Kong action cinema, heavily influencing and revitalizingHollywood action cinema. There was a significant crossover of Hong Kong stars, filmmakers and action choreographers from Hong Kong to Hollywood, in addition to the wide adoption of Hong Kong action filmmaking techniques in Hollywood.[49] The wide adoption of Hong Kong action film conventions was referred to as the "Hong Kongification" of Hollywood.[50]
Building on the reduced but enduring kung fu movie subculture, Jackie Chan and films like Tsui Hark'sPeking Opera Blues (1986) were already building a cult following when Woo'sThe Killer (1989) had a limited but successful release in the U.S. and opened the floodgates. In the 1990s, Westerners with an eye on "alternative" culture became common sights inChinatown video shops and theaters, and gradually the films became more available in the mainstream video market and even occasionally in mainstream theaters. Western critics and film scholars also began to take Hong Kong action cinema seriously and made many key figures and films part of their canon of world cinema.
From here, Hong Kong came to define a new vocabulary for worldwide action cinema, with the aid of a new generation of North American filmmakers.Quentin Tarantino'sReservoir Dogs (1992) drew inspiration fromCity on Fire and his two-partKill Bill (2003–04) was in large part a martial arts homage, borrowingYuen Woo-Ping as fight choreographer and actor.Robert Rodriguez'sDesperado (1995) and its 2003 sequelOnce Upon a Time in Mexico aped Woo's visual mannerisms. TheWachowski sisters'The Matrix trilogy (1999–2003) of science-fiction-action blockbusters borrowed from Woo and wire fu movies, and also employed Yuen behind the scenes. A number of Hollywood action stars also adopted the Hong Kong practice of training in martial arts and performing their own stunts, such asKeanu Reeves,Uma Thurman andJason Statham.[49]Martin Scorsese's crime filmThe Departed (2006) was a remake of theInfernal Affairs trilogy (2002–2003) byAndrew Lau andAlan Mak.
Theheroic bloodshed genre had a considerable impact onworld cinema, especiallyHollywood.[51] The action, style, tropes and mannerisms established in 1980s Hong Kong heroic bloodshed films were later widely adopted by Hollywood in the 1990s, reshaping the way Hollywood action films were made.[11] Lam'sCity on Fire (1987) inspiredQuentin Tarantino'sReservoir Dogs (1992);[52] Tarantino was an admirer of the heroic bloodshed genre.[53]The Killer also heavily influencedLuc Besson'sLéon: The Professional (1994).[51] Eventually, John Woo himself introduced his brand of heroic bloodshed to Hollywood in the 1990s. By the late 1990s, Woo's style of cinema had become firmly established in Hollywood.[54]
Due to the new-found international awareness of Hong Kong films during the 1980s and early 1990s and a downturn in the industry as the 1990s progressed, many of the leading lights of Hong Kong cinema left forHollywood, which offered budgets and pay which could not be equalled by Hong Kong production companies.
John Woo left for Hollywood after his 1992 filmHard Boiled. His 1997 filmFace/Off was the breakthrough that established his unique style in Hollywood. This effort was immensely popular with both critics and public alike (it grossed over US$240 million worldwide).Mission: Impossible 2 (2000) grossed over US$560 million worldwide. Since these two films, Woo has struggled to revisit his successes of the 1980s and early 1990s.[55]
After over fifteen years of success in Hong Kong cinema and a couple of attempts to crack the U.S. market,Jackie Chan's 1995 filmRumble in the Bronx finally brought him recognition in the U.S. Since then, he has made several highly successful films for U.S. studios includingRush Hour (1998),Shanghai Noon (2000), and their respective sequelsRush Hour 2 (2001),Shanghai Knights (2003), andRush Hour 3 (2007). Between his films for U.S. studios, he still makes films for Hong Kong studios, sometimes in English (Mr. Nice Guy andWho Am I?), often set in western countries like Australia or theNetherlands, and sometimes in Cantonese (2004'sNew Police Story and 2006'sRob-B-Hood). Because of his enormous U.S. popularity, these films are usually released in the U.S., a rarity for Hong Kong films, and generally attract respectable audience numbers.
Jet Li has reduced his Hong Kong output since 1998'sHitman concentrating on Hollywood instead. After a minor role inLethal Weapon 4 (1998), he has gone on to star in several Hollywood films which have performed respectably and made a name for him with American audiences. So far, he has returned to Chinese cinema for only two films:Hero (2002) andFearless (2006). He claimedFearless would be his last traditional kung fu film.
Chow Yun-fat has also moved to Hollywood. After his 1995 filmPeace Hotel, he has made a handful of films in Hollywood which have not seen as much success as those of the aforementioned figures'. These includeThe Replacement Killers (1998),The Corruptor (1999),Anna and the King (1999) andBulletproof Monk (2003). He returned to China for 2000'sCrouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon and 2006'sCurse of the Golden Flower.
The Hong Kong film industry has been in a severeslump since the mid-1990s. The number of local films produced, and their box office takings, are dramatically reduced; American imports now dominate in a way they had not for decades, or perhaps ever. This crisis and increased contact with Western cinema have probably been the biggest recent influences on Hong Kong action cinema.[56]
Luring local and regional youth audiences away from Hollywood is a constant concern. Action movies are now generally headlined by babyfacedCantonese pop music idols, such asEkin Cheng andNicholas Tse, enhanced with wires and digital effects – a trend also driven by the waning of a previous generation of martial arts-trained stars. The late 1990s witnessed a fad for Cantopop stars in high-tech, more American-styled action pictures such asDowntown Torpedoes (1997),Gen-X Cops andPurple Storm (both 1999).
Andrew Lau's wuxia comic-book adaptationThe Storm Riders (1998) earned a record-breaking gross and ushered in an era ofcomputer-generated imagery, previously little used in Hong Kong film.Tsui Hark's lavish CGI-enhanced effortsTime and Tide (2000) andThe Legend of Zu (2001), however, were surprisingly unsuccessful.[clarification needed] Comedy megastar and directorStephen Chow used digital effects to push his typical affectionate parody of martial arts conventions to cartoonish levels inShaolin Soccer (2001) andKung Fu Hustle (2004), each of which also set a new box office record.[citation needed]
Striking a different note were a series of crime films more restrained and actor-driven than the earlier, John Woo-inspired examples. TheMilkyway Image production company was at the vanguard with examples likePatrick Yau'sExpect the Unexpected (1998),Johnnie To'sThe Mission (1999) andRunning Out of Time (1999). Andrew Lau andAlan Mak's blockbusterInfernal Affairs trilogy (2002–2003) has set off a mini-trend of brooding police thrillers.[citation needed]
Collaboration with other industries, particularly that ofMainland China, is another increasingly common survival and recovery strategy. Hong Kong stars and other personnel have been involved in international wuxia successes likeCrouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000),Hero (2002) andHouse of Flying Daggers (2004).
Enter the Dragon struck a responsive chord across the globe. Made for a minuscule $850,000, it would gross $90 million worldwide in 1973 and go on to earn an estimated $350 million over the next forty-five years.
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