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The relationship betweenreligion and homosexuality has varied greatly across time and place, within and between differentreligions anddenominations, with regard to different forms ofhomosexuality andbisexuality. The present-day doctrines of the world'smajor religions and their denominations differ in their attitudes toward thesesexual orientations. Adherence to anti-gay religious beliefs and communities is correlated with the prevalence of emotional distress and suicidality in sexual minority individuals, and is a primary motivation for seekingconversion therapy.[1]
Among the religious denominations which generally reject these orientations, there are many different types of opposition, ranging from quietly discouraging homosexual activity, explicitly forbidding same-sex sexual practices among their adherents and actively opposing social acceptance of homosexuality, supporting criminal sanctions up tocapital punishment, and even to condoning extrajudicial killings.Religious fundamentalism often correlates with anti-homosexual bias.[2] Psychological research has connected religiosity with homophobic attitudes[3] and physical antigay hostility,[4] and has traced religious opposition to gay adoption to collectivistic values (loyalty, authority, purity) and low flexibility in existential issues, rather than to high prosocial inclinations for the weak.[5] Attitudes toward homosexuality have been found to be determined not only by personal religious beliefs, but by the interaction of those beliefs with the predominant national religious context—even for people who are less religious or who do not share their local dominant religious context.[6] Many argue that it is homosexual actions which are sinful, rather than same-sex attraction itself. To this end, some discourage labeling individuals according to sexual orientation.[7] Several organizations assert thatconversion therapy can help diminish same-sex attraction.
Some adherents ofmany religions view homosexuality and bisexuality positively, and some denominations routinely blesssame-sex marriages and supportLGBT rights, a growing trend as much of thedeveloped world enacts laws supporting LGBT rights.
Historically, some cultures and religions accommodated, institutionalized, or revered same-sex love and sexuality;[8][9] suchmythologies and traditions can be found around the world.[10] While Hinduism does not condemn homosexuality exclusively, it does often have a negative view on sexual activity generally (especially for the upper class of monks and priests),[11] and one can find numerous portrayals of homosexuality in Hindu literature and artworks. Also there is an important point to note that Hindus have a god or a symbol called Hari Hara which resembles both men and women. i.e Half man and half woman.[12] Sikh wedding ceremonies are non-gender specific, and so same-sex marriage is possible withinSikhism.[13]
Regardless of their position on homosexuality, many people of faith look to bothsacred texts andtradition for guidance on this issue. However, the authority of various traditions or scriptural passages and the correctness oftranslations and interpretations are continually disputed.
Individuals who went against the traditionalgender binary were heavily involved in the cult ofInanna, an ancient Mesopotamian goddess.[14][15] During Sumerian times, a set of priests known asgala worked in Inanna's temples, where they performed elegies and lamentations.[14] Men who becamegala sometimes adopted female names and their songs were composed in the Sumerianeme-sal dialect, which, in literary texts, is normally reserved for the speech of female characters. Some Sumerian proverbs seem to suggest thatgala had a reputation for engaging inanal sex with men.[16] During the Akkadian Period,kurgarrū andassinnu were servants of Ishtar whodressed in female clothing and performed war dances in Ishtar's temples.[16] Several Akkadianproverbs seem to suggest that they may have also had homosexual proclivities.[16] Gwendolyn Leick, an anthropologist known for her writings on Mesopotamia, has compared these individuals to the contemporary Indianhijra.[14] In one Akkadian hymn, Ishtar is described as transforming men into women.[16] Some modern pagans include Inanna in their worship.[17]
TheAbrahamic religions ofJudaism,Christianity andIslam, have traditionally forbiddensodomy, believing and teaching that such behavior issinful.[18][19] Today some denominations within these religions are accepting of homosexuality and inclusive of homosexual people, such asReform Judaism, theUnited Church of Christ and theMetropolitan Community Church. SomePresbyterian,Anglican, Lutheran, and Methodist churches welcome members regardless of same-sex sexual practices, with some provinces allowing for the ordination and inclusion of gay and lesbian clerics, and affirmation of same-sex unions.[20][21] Reform Judaism incorporates lesbian and gay rabbis and same-sex marriage liturgies, whileReconstructionist Judaism and Conservative Judaism in the US allows for lesbian and gay rabbis and same-sex unions.[22]
TheTorah (first five books of theHebrew Bible) is the primary source for Jewish views on homosexuality. It states that: "[A man] shall not lie with another man as [he would] with a woman, it isתועבה (to'eba, "abomination")" (Leviticus 18:22).[23] (Like many similar commandments, the stated punishment for willful violation is thedeath penalty, although in practicerabbinic Judaism no longer believes it has the authority to implement death penalties.)
Orthodox Judaism views homosexual acts as sinful. In recent years, there have been approaches[24] claiming that only the sexual anal act is forbidden and considered an abomination by the Torah, while sexual orientation and even other sexual activities are not considered a sin.Conservative Judaism has engaged in an in-depth study of homosexuality since the 1990s, with various rabbis presenting a wide array ofresponsa (papers with legal arguments) for communal consideration. The official position of the movement is to welcome homosexual Jews into theirsynagogues, and also campaign against any discrimination incivil law and public society, but also to uphold a ban on anal sex as a religious requirement.
Reform Judaism andReconstructionist Judaism inNorth America andLiberal Judaism in theUnited Kingdom view homosexuality to be acceptable on the same basis asheterosexuality. Progressive Jewish authorities believe either that traditional laws against homosexuality are no longer binding or that they are subject to changes that reflect a new understanding of human sexuality.[25] Some of these authorities rely on modern biblical scholarship suggesting that the prohibition in the Torah was intended to ban coercive or ritualized male-male sex, such as those practices ascribed toEgyptian andCanaanitefertility cults andtemple prostitution.[26][27]
TheHebrew Bible/Old Testament and its traditional interpretations inJudaism andChristianity have historically affirmed and endorsed apatriarchal andheteronormative approach towardshuman sexuality,[28][29] favouring exclusivelypenetrative vaginal intercourse between men and women within the boundaries ofmarriage over all other forms ofhuman sexual activity,[28][29] includingautoeroticism,masturbation,oral sex,non-penetrative andnon-heterosexual sexual intercourse (all of which have been labeled as "sodomy" at various times),[30] believing and teaching that such behaviors are forbidden because they are consideredsinful,[28][29] and further compared to or derived from the behavior of the alleged residents ofSodom and Gomorrah.[31][28]
Christian denominations hold a variety of views onhomosexual sex, ranging from outright condemnation to complete acceptance. Throughout the majority ofChristian history, mostChristian theologians and denominations have considered homosexual sex asimmoral orsinful.[31][32] Most Christian denominations welcome people attracted to the same sex, but teach that homosexual sex issinful.[33][34][32] These denominations include theRoman Catholic Church,[34] theEastern Orthodox church,[35] theOriental Orthodox churches,[36]Confessional Lutherandenominations such as theLutheran Church–Missouri Synod[37][38] and theWisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod,[39][40] and some othermainline denominations, such as theReformed Church in America[41] and theAmerican Baptist Church,[42] as well asConservative Evangelical organizations and churches, such as theEvangelical Alliance,[43] andfundamentalist groups and churches, such as theSouthern Baptist Convention.[44][45][46]Pentecostal churches such as theAssemblies of God,[47] as well asRestorationist churches, likeIglesia ni Cristo, theJehovah's Witnesses andthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, also take the position that homosexual sexual activity is sinful.[48][49]
Liberal Christians are generally supportive of homosexuals. Some Christian denominations do not viewmonogamous same sex relationships as bad orevil. These include theUnited Church of Canada, theUnited Church of Christ,[50] theEpiscopal Church,[51] thePresbyterian Church (U.S.A.),[52] the churches of theOld Catholic Union of Utrecht, theEvangelical Lutheran Church in America, theEvangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, theChurch of Sweden,[53][54] the Lutheran, reformed and united churches inEvangelical Church of Germany, theChurch of Denmark,[55] theIcelandic Church,[56] theChurch of Norway[57] and theProtestant Church of the Netherlands. In particular, theMetropolitan Community Church, a denomination of 40,000 members, was founded specifically to serve the Christian LGBT community, and is devoted to being open and affirming toLGBTQ people. The United Church of Christ, theUnited Methodist Church (UMC)[58][59] and theAlliance of Baptists also condonegay marriage, and some parts of theAnglican andLutheran churches allow for the blessing of gay unions. Within the Anglican communion there are openly gay clergy; for example,Gene Robinson andMary Glasspool are openly homosexual bishops in the US Episcopal Church andEva Brunne in Lutheran Church of Sweden. The Episcopal Church's recent actions vis-a-vis homosexuality have brought about increased ethical debate and tension within theChurch of England and worldwide Anglican churches. In the United States and many other nations, the religious people are becoming more affirming of same-sex relationships. Even those in denominations with official stances are liberalizing, though not as quickly as those in more affirming religious groups.[60]
Passages from theMosaic Covenant and its broaderOld Testament context have been interpreted to mean that anyone who is engaging in homosexual practices should be punished with death (Leviticus 20:13;[61] cf.Genesis 19:4–25;[62]Judges 19:22–20:48;[63]2 Peter 2:6–10;[64]Jude 7).[65]HIV/AIDS has also been portrayed by someChristian fundamentalists such asFred Phelps andJerry Falwell as a punishment by God against homosexuals.[66] In the 20th century, theologians likeKarl Barth,Jürgen Moltmann,Hans Küng,John Robinson,Bishop David Jenkins,Don Cupitt, andBishop Jack Spong challenged traditional theological positions and understandings of the Bible; following these developments some have suggested that passages have been mistranslated, are taken out of context, or that they do not refer to what is generally understood as "homosexuality."[67][68]
Conservative denominations[69][70][71][72] generally oppose same-sex sexual relations based on Old Testament andNew Testament texts that describe human sexual relations as strictlyheterosexual by God's design.[a] As such, it is argued that sexual desires and actions that contradict God's design are deemed sinful and are condemned by God (e.g.Leviticus 18:22; cf.Leviticus 20:13). Since love does not rejoice in unrighteousness or iniquity (cf.1 Corinthians 13:6),[78] and since homosexual desires and actions are believed to remain contrary to God's design and condemned by God as sinful/iniquity (e.g.in general,Romans 126–27;[79]passively, 1 Corinthians 6:96:9;[80][81]actively, including butnot limited topederasty, 1 Corinthians 6:9;[82]1 Timothy 1:9-11;[83][84][85] considered sexuallyimmoral,Galatians 5:19-21;[86]Colossians 3:5-7;[87]Ephesians 5:3[88][89]), adherents of conservative denominations believe that genuine love for God and humanity is best expressed by following God rather than the world (Acts 5:29;[90] cf.Jeremiah 23:1-40;[91]Romans 12:9[92]).
While the Catholic view is founded on anatural law argument informed by scripture and proposed byThomas Aquinas,[34] the traditional conservative Protestant view is based on an interpretation of scripture alone. Protestant conservatives also see homosexual relationships as an impediment to heterosexual relationships. They interpret some Biblical passages to be commandments to be heterosexually married.[93] Catholics, on the other hand, have accommodated unmarried people as priests, monks, nuns and single lay people for over 1,000 years. A number of self-described gay and 'ex-gay' Christians have reported satisfaction inmixed-orientation marriages.[94][95][96]
TheCatholic Church teaches that those who are attracted to persons of the same sex are called to practicechastity,[34] just like everyone else has to before they get married.[34] The Catholic Church does not regard homosexual activity as an expression of themarital sacrament, which it teaches is only possible within a lifelong commitment of a marriage between a man and a woman. According tothe Church's sexual ethics, homosexual activity falls short in thecomplementarity (male and female organs complement each other) andfecundity (openness to new life) of the sexual act. Few studies of parishioners' individual views are sometimes at variance with the church's non-acceptance of homosexuality.[97]
All homosexual or same-sex sexual activity is forbidden bythe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) in itslaw of chastity, and the church teaches thatGod does not approve ofsame-sex marriage and may punish same-sex sexual behavior with adisciplinary council.[98] Members of the church who experience homosexual attractions, including those whoself-identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual remain in good standing in the church if they abstain from same-sex marriage and all sexual relations outside an opposite-sex marriage,[99][100][101] but all, including those participating in same-sex activity and relationships, are allowed to attend weekly church worship services.[102] However, in order to receivechurch ordinances such asbaptism, and to enter churchtemples, adherents are required to abstain from same-sex relations.[103][104] Additionally, in the church'splan of salvation noncelibate gay and lesbian individuals will not be allowed in the top tier ofheaven to receiveexaltation unless they repent, and a heterosexual marriage is a requirement for exaltation.[105][106]
The LDS Church previously taught that homosexuality was a curable condition[107][108] and counseled members that they could and should change their attractions and provided therapy and programs with that goal.[109][110]: 13–19 [111]: 377–379 From 1976 until 1989 theChurch Handbook called for church discipline for members attracted to the same sex equating merely being homosexual with the seriousness of acts of adultery and child molestation—even celibate gay people were subject to excommunication.[112]: 16, 43 [111]: 382, 422 [113]: 139 Church publications now state that "individuals do not choose to have such attractions", its church-run therapy services no longer providessexual orientation change efforts, and the church has no official stance on thecauses of homosexuality.[114][115][116] These current teachings and policies leave homosexual members with the options of entering amixed-orientation opposite-sex marriage, or living acelibate lifestyle without any sexual expression (includingmasturbation).[117][118]: 11 [119]: 20–21
Classical Islamic jurists did not deal with homosexuality as a sexual orientation, since the latter concept is modern and has no equivalent in traditional law, which dealt with it under the technical terms ofliwata andzinā.[121] Most legal schools treat homosexual intercourse with penetration similarly to unlawful heterosexual intercourse under the rubric ofzinā, but there are differences of opinion with respect to methods of punishment, as evident from an eleventh-century discussion among the scholars ofBaghdad, some scholars argued that homosexual desires are natural, but only allowed in the afterlife.[122]: 152 Some gay individuals undergo sex reassignment surgery to transition into the opposite gender to legally marry.[123]
The discourse on homosexuality in Islam is primarily concerned with activities between men. There are, however, a few hadiths that mention homosexual behavior among women.[124] Although punishment for lesbianism is rarely mentioned in the histories,al-Tabari records an example of the execution in the year 170 AH (786 or 787 AD) of a pair of lesbian slavegirls in theharem ofal-Hadi in a collection of highly critical anecdotes pertaining to thatCaliph's actions as ruler.[125]
Some jurists viewed sexual intercourse as possible only for an individual who possesses aphallus,[126] hence those definitions of sexual intercourse that rely on the entry of as little as thecorona of the phallus into a partner's orifice.[126] Since women do not possess a phallus and, in this interpretation, cannot have intercourse with one another, they are therefore physically incapable of committingzinā.[126]
TheBaháʼí Faith considers same-sex sexual behavior and same-sex marriage to be againstGod's will.[127]: 381 [128][129] Sex is only permitted in amarriage between a man and a woman for Baháʼís.[130][129][127]: 381 Lesbian, gay, and bisexual members who engage in any same-sex sexual behavior are subject to sanctions from the Baha’i administration, including being excluded from community gatherings and denied participation in organizational elections.[131][132] Baháʼís have been discouraged from both promoting or opposing efforts to legalizesame-sex marriage.[133]
Among thereligions that originated in ancient and medieval India, includingHinduism,Buddhism,Jainism andSikhism, teachings regarding homosexuality are less clear than among the Abrahamic traditions, and religious authorities voice diverse opinions.Sikhism has no specific teachings abouthomosexuality and the Sikh holy scripture, theGuru Granth Sahib, does not explicitly mentionheterosexuality, homosexuality orbisexuality. The universal goal of a Sikh is to have no hate or animosity to any person, regardless of factors like race, caste, color, creed or gender.[134] Hinduism is diverse, with no supreme governing body, but the majority ofswamis opposed same-sex relationships in a 2004 survey, and a minority supported them.[135] Ancient religious texts such as theVedas do not restrict homosexuality and often refer to people of athird gender, who are neither female nor male.[136] Some see this third gender as an ancient parallel tolesbian,gay,bisexual,transgender andintersex identities.
Hinduism does not have a central authority. Many Hindu sects have taken various positions on homosexuality, ranging from positive to neutral or antagonistic. Referring to the nature ofSamsara, theRigveda, one of the four canonical sacred texts of Hinduism says 'Vikruti Evam Prakriti' (Perversity/diversity is what nature is all about, or,What seems unnatural is also natural).[137] A "third gender" has been acknowledged within numerous Hindu texts. Several Hindu texts, such asManu Smriti[138] andSushruta Samhita, assert that some people are born with either mixed male and female natures, or sexually neuter, as a matter of natural biology (while at the same time there are examples of speaking negatively in regards to male homosexuality as shown by the Manu Smriti and Arthashastra). In addition, each Hindu denomination had developed distinct rules regarding sexuality, as Hinduism is not unified and is decentralized in essence.
Hindu groups are historically not unified regarding the issue of homosexuality, each one having a distinct doctrinal view.[139][140][141]
The IndianKama Sutra, written around 150 BC,[142] contains passages describingeunuchs or "third-sex" males performingoral sex on men.[143][144] The text describesKama as one of the three objectives to be achieved in life.[145] Though it forbids the educated Brahmins, bureaucrats and wisemen from practicingAuparishtaka (oral sex).[146]
Similarly, some medieval Hindu temples and artifacts openly depict both male homosexuality and lesbianism within their carvings, such as the temple walls atKhajuraho. Some infer from these images that at least part of the Hindu society and religion were previously more open to variations in human sexuality than they are at present.
Ayoni sex, which includes oral and anal sex, never came to be viewed as much of a sin like in Christianity nor a serious crime and could be practiced in some cases. Close friendship between people of same genders has also been seen as permissible in Hindu texts.[147]
Several Hindu priests have performed same-sex marriages, arguing that love is the result of attachments from previous births and that marriage, as a union of spirit, is transcendental to gender.[148][149]
The most common formulation of Buddhist ethics are theFive Precepts and theEightfold Path, one should neither be attached to nor crave sensual pleasure. The third of the Five Precepts is "To refrain from committing sexual misconduct."[150] However, "sexual misconduct" is a broad term, and is subjected to interpretation relative to the social norms of the followers. The determination of whether or notsame-gender relations are appropriate for a layperson is not considered a religious matter by many Buddhists.[151]
According to thePāli Canon andĀgama (the Early Buddhist scriptures), there is not any saying that same or opposite gender relations have anything to do with sexual misconduct,[152][153] and someTheravada monks express that same-gender relations do not violate the rule to avoid sexual misconduct, which means not having sex with someone under age (thus protected by their parents or guardians), someone betrothed or married or who has taken vows of religious celibacy.[154][155][156]
Some later traditions gradually began to add new restrictions on sexual misconduct, like non-vagina sex, though some academics argue it usually involves situations seen as coerced sex.[157][158][159] This non-vagina sex as sexual misconduct view is not based on Buddha's teachings, but from laterAbhidharma texts.[160][161]
Buddhism is often characterized as distrustful of sensual enjoyment and sexuality in general.[162] Traditionally, sex and lust are seen as hindering to spiritual progress in most schools of Buddhism; as suchmonks are expected to refrain from all sexual activity, and theVinaya (the first book of theTripitaka) specifically prohibitssexual intercourse, then further explain that anal, oral, and vaginal intercourse amount to sexual intercourse, which will result in permanent exclusion from Sangha.[163] A notable exception in the history of Buddhism occurred in Japan during theEdo period, in which male homosexuality, or more specifically, love between young novices and older monks, were celebrated.[164]
References topandaka, aeunuch/impotence category that is sometimes interpreted to include homosexual males, can be found throughout thePali canon as well as otherSanskrit scriptures.[165][166] In the Chinese version ofSarvastivada Vinaya, the pandaka is mentioned as also trying to have sex with women, not just men.[167] Leonard Zwilling refers extensively toBuddhaghosa'sSamantapasadika, wherepandaka are described as being filled with defiled passions and insatiable lusts, and are dominated by theirlibido. Some texts of theAbhidharma state that apandaka cannot achieve enlightenment in their own lifetime, (but must wait for rebirth) and Asanga and Vasubandhu discussed if a pandaka was able to be enlightened or not. According to one scriptural story,Ananda—Buddha's cousin and disciple—was apandaka in one of his many previous lives.
Some later classic Buddhist masters and texts disallow contact between monks/Bodhisattva andpandakas/women and classify non-vagina sex as sexual misconduct, including for lay followers.[174]
The third of thefive precepts of Buddhism states that one is to refrain fromsexual misconduct; this precept has sometimes been interpreted to include homosexuality. TheDalai Lama of theGelug sect of Tibetan Buddhism previously interpreted sexual misconduct to include lesbian and gay sex, and indeed any sex other than penis-vagina intercourse, including oral sex, anal sex, and masturbation or other sexual activity with the hand; the only time sex is acceptable is when it performed for its purpose of procreation.[175][176][177] In 2009, when interviewed by Canadian TV news anchor Evan Solomon onCBC News: Sunday about whether or not homosexuality is acceptable in Buddhism, the Dalai Lama responded that "it is sexual misconduct."[178] However, the Dalai Lama supports human rights for all, "regardless of sexual orientation."[179] In the most recent interview on this topic (March 10, 2014), the Dalai Lama said gay marriage is "OK", provided it is not in contradiction with the values of one's chosen religion.[180][181] Also in an Indian and Tibetan tradition, theNalandabodhisangha has stated that they are welcoming of all sexual orientations.[182]
InThailand, some accounts propose that "homosexuality arises as akarmic consequence of violating Buddhist proscriptions against heterosexual misconduct. These karmic accounts describe homosexuality as a congenital condition which cannot be altered, at least in a homosexual person's current lifetime, and have been linked with calls for compassion and understanding from the non-homosexual populace."[162] However, Buddhist leaders in Thailand have also condemned homosexuality,[162] ousted monks accused of homosexual acts, and bannedkathoey from ordination. In 2009, Senior monk Phra Maha Wudhijaya Vajiramedh introduced a "good manners" curriculum for novices in the monkhood, stating to the BBC that he was concerned by "the flamboyant behaviour of gay and transgender monks, who can often be seen wearing revealingly tight robes, carrying pink purses and having effeminately-shaped eyebrows."[183] However, in Thailand, several leaders in the Theravada tradition including Phra Payom Kalayano have expressed support for LGBT rights.[184][185][186]
A later popular Japanese legend attributed the introduction of monastic homosexuality to Japan to Shingon founderKukai, although scholars now dismiss the veracity of this assertion, pointing out his strict adherence to the Vinaya.[187][188][189] Nonetheless, the legend served to "affirm same sex relation between men and boys in seventeenth century Japan."[189][190] However, Japanese Buddhist scholar and author of "Wild Azaleas" Kitamura Kigin argued that there was a tendency in monasteries to avoid heterosexuality and to encourage homosexuality.[191]
Although Mahayana Buddhism has some texts against homosexuality (from later Abhidharma texts andBuddhist apocrypha), the majority of its teachings assert that all beings who correctly practice the dharma may reach enlightenment, since all possess an innate Buddha nature. Enlightenment being achievable even in a single life.[192][193] Some Mahayana Buddhist leaders were active in the movement for same-sex marriage rights in Taiwan which legalized same-sex marriages in 2019.[194][195][196][197]
Well known Zen Buddhist,Thich Nhat Hanh, notes the spirit of Buddhism is inclusiveness and states "when you look at the ocean, you see different kinds of waves, many sizes and shapes, but all the waves have water as their foundation and substance. If you are born gay or lesbian, your ground of being is the same as mine. We are different, but we share the same ground of being."[198]
The capacity of Buddhism to reform itself and its great variety of distinct beliefs and schools, provide many liberal streams of Buddhism, which are accepting of all sexual orientations. Reformists of Buddhism are mainly predominant in cosmopolitan cities. In global traditions, there is a widescale support for LGBT rights including the European Buddhist Union,[199] the Buddhist Churches of America,[200][201][202] many Shin Buddhist groups,[203] and Zen leaders such as Thich Nhat Hanh.[204] The Federation of Australian Buddhist Councils (FABC), representing Buddhist laypeople, and the Australian Sangha Association vocally supportedsame-sex marriage in Australia.[205] Soka Gakkai International-USA (SGI-USA) is the most diverse Buddhist community in the United States with more than 500 chapters and some 100 centers throughout the country supports LGBT rights.[206] In a PEW research poll, 88% of American Buddhists stated that homosexuality should be accepted.[207] This was a higher level of support than any other religious group studied.[207]
Sikhism has no specific teachings abouthomosexuality and the Sikh holy scripture, theGuru Granth Sahib, does not explicitly mentionheterosexuality,homosexuality orbisexuality. The universal goal of a Sikh is to have no hate or animosity to any person, regardless of factors like race, caste, color, creed or gender.[134]
Akal Takhat, the highest religious authority of the Sikhs, issued an edict (hukamnaama) in 2005 against any homosexual marriage in front of Sikh Scriptures (11th Guru of the Sikhs—Shri Guru Granth Sahib). This was again reiterated when one couple performed anAnand Karaj (Sikh religious marriage) of two homosexual men in 2020 inCalifornia. The couple was thrown out of the Sikh religion for this violation.[208]
Gurbani based view:
...... much of Sikh teaching is couched in metaphors from family life. Even the adoration of God is explored in terms of the closest relationship that humans can comprehend—that between a man and a woman. The heterosexual relationship is defined as sacred in Sikhism; an honest family life is described as the first duty—the primary religion of humans.
— Dr I J Singh "Same Sex Unions"[209]
In Sikh Scripture
InGuru Granth Sahib, marriage is seen as a union of souls. In Sikhism, the soul is seen as genderless, and the outward appearance of human beings (man, woman) is a temporary state.Same-sex marriage advocates refer to this fact.[210]
The man that lies with mankind as man lies with womankind, or as woman lies with mankind, is a man that is a Daeva [demon]; this man is a worshipper of the Daevas, a male paramour of the Daevas
— Vendidad
TheVendidad, one of the laterZoroastrian texts composed in the Artificial YoungAvestan language, has not been dated precisely. It is thought that some concepts of law, uncleanliness,dualism, andsalvation were shared between the religions, and subsequent interactions between the religions are documented by events such as the release of the Jews from theBabylonian captivity by ZoroastrianCyrus the Great in 537 BC, and the Biblical account of theMagi visiting the infantJesus.
The Vendidad generally promotes procreation: "the man who has a wife is far above him who lives in continence; he who keeps a house is far above him who has none; he who has children is far above the childless man; he who has riches is far above him who has none." It details the penance for a worshipper who submits tosodomy under force as "Eight hundred stripes with the Aspahe-astra, eight hundred stripes with the Sraosho-charana." (equal to the penalty for breaking a contract with the value of an ox),[211] and declares that for those participating voluntarily "For that deed there is nothing that can pay, nothing that can atone, nothing that can cleanse from it; it is a trespass for which there is no atonement, for ever and ever". However, those not practicing theReligion of Mazda were pardoned for past actions upon conversion.[212] It has been argued that, in ancient times, those prohibitions against sodomy did not apply toeunuchs.[213]
Among theTaoic religions ofEast Asia, such asTaoism, passionate homosexual expression is usually discouraged because it is believed to not lead to human fulfillment.[214]
ManyNat Kadaws in traditional Burmese folk religion are members of the LGBT community.[215][216][217]
Tu'er Shen, also known as the Rabbit God, is a gayChinese deity.[218][219] In 2006, Lu Wei-ming founded a temple for Tu'er Shen and Taoist worship inYonghe District in theNew Taipei City inTaiwan.[220][221][222] About 9,000 pilgrims visit the temple each year praying for a suitable (same-sex) partner.[223] The Wei-ming temple also performs love ceremonies for gay couples.[224][225] It is the world's only religious shrine for homosexuals.[226]
Confucianism, being primarily a social and political philosophy, focused little on sexuality; whether homosexual or heterosexual. However, the ideology did emphasize male friendships, andLouis Crompton has argued that the "closeness of the master-disciple bond it fostered may have subtly facilitated homosexuality".[227]Homosexuality is not mentioned in theAnalects of Confucius.[228]
In Vietnam, many LGBT people find a safe community within theĐạo Mẫu religion, which is worship of the mother god.[229][230] Many LGBT people act as mediums duringĐạo Mẫu rituals.[231]
Historically,Shinto "had no special code of morals and seems to have regarded sex as a natural phenomenon to be enjoyed with few inhibitions."[232] WhileShinto beliefs are diverse, Japanese Shinto does not condemn homosexuality,[232] and the formally organizedKonkokyo sect is fully affirming.[233][234][235] Multiple Shinto leaders advocated in support ofgay marriage in Hawaii.[236]
There is no single official position on homosexuality in Taoism, as the term Taoism is used to describe a number of disparate religious traditions encompassing a variety of views. Although Taoist alchemy generally emphasized that ejaculation in heterosexual relationships represented a draining of the male's "life essence," this concept was not generally extended to non-heterosexual sex.
In a similar way to Buddhism, Taoist schools sought throughout history todefine what would be sexual misconduct. Broadly speaking, the precept against "sexual misconduct" in Taoism relates to extramarital sex. The term for a married couple (夫婦) usually in Chinese suggests a male with a female, though Taoist scripture itself does not explicitly say anything against same-sex relations.[237][238] Many sorts of precepts mentioned in theYunji Qiqian (雲笈七籤), The Mini Daoist Canon, does not explicitly say anything against same-gender relations as well.[239]
Homosexuality is not unknown in Taoist history, such as during the Tang dynasty when Taoist nuns exchanged love poems.[240] As a sexual misconduct however would depend on what sect or school they were from as some traditions considered homosexuality to be misconduct and others did not mention it at all. There are also certaintalismans recorded in different traditions that claim to "cure" a person of the "homosexual disease/desire". Attitudes about homosexuality within Taoism often reflect the values and sexual norms of broader Chinese society and what region of China the sect resided in (seeHomosexuality in China).
WithinCandomblé, asyncretic religion found primarily in Brazil, there is widespread (though not universal) support for gay rights, many members are LGBT, and have performed gay marriages.[241][242][243] In Candomblé, homosexuality is usually accepted and explained by the sex of one's orisha.[244] Homosexuality would be more probable in a man with a female orisha, a woman with a male orisha, or any of them with an androgynous orisha (such asOlokun).
Homosexuality is religiously acceptable inHaitian Vodou.[245][246][247] The lwa or loa (spirits) Erzulie Dantor and Erzulie Freda are often associated with and viewed as protectors of queer people.[248][249] The laoGhede Nibo is sometimes depicted as an effeminate drag queen and inspires those he inhabits to lascivious sexuality of all kinds.[250][251]
Practitioners ofSantería, primarily found in Cuba, generally (though not universally) welcome LGBT members and include them in religious or ritual activities.[252][253]
Also a Brazilian syncretic religion,Umbanda houses generally support LGBT rights and have performed gay marriages.[254][243][241][255]
Antoinism, anew religious movement founded in Belgium in 1910, does not provide any prescription on issues such as sexuality,[256] as it considers that this is not related to spirituality; homosexuality is not deemed a sin and there is nothing wrong to be gay and antoinist.[257]
Eckankar, an Americannew religious movement founded byPaul Twitchell in 1965, says on its website that "where legally recognized,same-sex marriages are performed, in the form of the ECK Wedding Ceremony, by ordained ministers of Eckankar".[258]
TheOrder of Bards, Ovates and Druids is a worldwide group dedicated to practicing, teaching, and developing modernDruidry and has more than 25,000 members in 50 countries. The Order is LGBT-affirming within a larger framework of support for civil rights, love of justice, and the love of all existences.[259]
Raëlism, an internationalnew religious movement andUFO religion which was founded in France in 1974,[260][261] promotes apositive outlook towards human sexuality, including homosexuality.[260][261][262][263] Its founderRaël recognised same-sex marriage, and a Raëlian press release stated that sexual orientation is genetic and it also likeneddiscrimination against gay people toracism.[264] Some Raëlian leaders have performed licensed same-sex marriages.[265]
The cult ofSanta Muerte is anew religious movement[266] centered on the worship of Santa Muerte, acult image,female deity, andfolk saint which is popularly revered inMexicanNeopaganism andfolk Catholicism.[267][268] Apersonification of death, she is associated with healing, protection, and safe delivery to theafterlife by her devotees.[269] Santa Muerte is also revered and seen as a saint and protector of thelesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) communities in Mexico,[270][271][272][273][274] since LGBTQ+ people are considered and treated as outcasts by theCatholic Church,evangelical churches, and Mexican society at large.[270][271] Many LGBTQ+ people ask her for protection from violence, hatred, disease, and to help them in their search for love. Her intercession is commonly invoked insame-sex marriage ceremonies performed in Mexico.[275][276] TheIglesia Católica Tradicional México-Estados Unidos, also known as the Church of Santa Muerte,recognizes gay marriage and performs religious wedding ceremonies for homosexual couples.[277][278][279][280] According to R. Andrew Chesnut,Ph.D. inLatin American history andprofessor ofReligious studies, the cult of Santa Muerte is the single fastest-growing new religious movement in the Americas.[266]
TheChurch of Scientology opposes same-sex marriage[281] and its founderL. Ron Hubbard called homosexuality a dangerous perversion.[285] TheChurch of Scientology's perspectives on homosexuality are based on the writings of its founder, and his statements about homosexuality have led critics to assert thatScientology promoteshomophobia, and being gay or accused of being gay is viewed as negative in the Scientology community.[286][287] According to a 2018 source, currently used, updated editions of Hubbard'scanonical book,[288]: 21 Dianetics, continue to useheteronormative andanti-gay language and list gay people as perverts who are physically ill and extremely dangerous to society.[282]: 78 [289] Some critics have stated that the church tried tochange their gay attractions through forms of therapy.[284][290]
Many Nations had respected ceremonial, religious, and social roles for gender nonconformingNative American andFirst Nations communities, and these roles still exist.[291][292][293][294][295] Homosexual and gender-variant individuals were also common among other pre-conquest civilizations inLatin America, such as theAztecs,Mayans,Quechuas,Moches,Zapotecs, and theTupinambá of Brazil and were accepted in their various religions.[296][297]
However, the indigenous peoples of the Americas include hundreds of cultures with varying views on sex, gender, and spirituality. Additionally, First Nations and indigenous views on gender and sexuality may not fall within modern Western categorizations of sex and gender.[298][299][300][301][302]
Filipino shamans, often known asbabaylan held positions of authority as religious leaders or healers in some precolonial Philippine societies.[303] Cross-dressing or gender nonconforming males sometimes took on the role of the female babaylan.[304] Early historical accounts record the existence of malebabaylans who wore female clothes and took the demeanor of a woman.[305][306] Anatomy was not the only basis for gender. Being male or female was based primarily on occupation, appearance, actions and sexuality. A malebabaylan could partake in romantic and sexual relations with other men without being judged by society.[307] A small number of Filipinos practice local indigenous religions today.[308]
TheRadical Faeries are a worldwidequeerspiritual movement, founded in 1979 in theUnited States.
The WiccanCharge of the Goddess, one of the most famous texts inNeopaganism, states in the words of the Goddess, "all acts of love and pleasure are my rituals".[309] In traditional forms of Wicca, such asGardnerian andAlexandrian Wicca, magic is often performed between a man and a woman, and the "Great Rite" is a sex ritual performed between a Priest and Priestess representing the God and Goddess;[310] however, this is not generally seen as excluding homosexuals or magic between same-sex couples. While many groups still insist that initiations be conferred from man to woman or woman to man, Wicca has become a very diverse religion with varying views. As there is no central governing body nor a core authoritative text, individual covens and practitioners often establish their own guidelines. Many self-initiates are LGBTQ+ and form queer-centered covens and traditions.
Both major Satanic traditions,The Satanic Temple and theChurch of Satan,[311] emphasise the right of the individual to free sexual expression.Lucien Greaves, spokesperson of The Satanic Temple, has stated the Temple "will always fight... to the death to ensure that there are equal rights for the gay community."[312]
SomeTheistic Satanists like theOrder of Nine Angles are extremely homophobic, and support and perpetrate hate crimes against gay people, like theKeillers Park murder perpetrated by the ONA groupTemple of the Black Light.[313][314][315] TheLondon nailbomber that targeted the LGBT people and migrants was also inspired by ONA founderDavid Myatt.[316]
The first ordained minister of a major religious sect in the U.S. or Canada tocome out as gay was the UU MinisterJames Stoll in 1969.[317] There have been denominational resolutions supporting LGBTQ people since 1970, when a resolution was passed that condemned discrimination against homosexuals. Unitarian Universalism was the first denomination to accept openlytransgender people as full members with eligibility to become clergy; in 1988 the first openly transgender person was ordained by theUnitarian Universalist Association (UUA).[318][319][320]
The UUA has supported marriage equality since 1996[321] and compared those who resisted such equality to the resistance to theabolition of slavery, women'ssuffrage, and the end of anti-miscegenation laws.[322] Three-quarters of all UU congregations have undertaken a series of organizational, procedural, and practical steps to become acknowledged as a "Welcoming Congregation": a congregation that is intentionally welcoming and inclusive of LGBTQ members.[323] On June 29, 1984, the UUA became the first major denomination "to approve religious blessings on homosexual unions." Unitarian Universalists were in the forefront of the work to make same-sex marriages legal in their local states and provinces, as well as on the national level. In May 2004,Arlington Street Church, Boston, was the site of the first state-sanctioned same-sex marriage in the United States. LGBTQ people are regularly ordained as ministers, and have also served at the highest levels of leadership in the denomination, including as president of the Canadian Unitarian Council, interim co-president of the Unitarian Universalist Association, and co-moderator of the UUA.[324][325][326]
Humanism is a non-religious, non-theistic approach to life that supports full equality for LGBTQ individuals,[327][328] including the right to marry.[329][330]Humanism and Its Aspirations, a statement of humanist principles from theAmerican Humanist Association, states that "humanists are concerned for the well being of all, are committed to diversity, and respect those of differing yet humane views...work to uphold the equal enjoyment of human rights and civil liberties in an open, secular society and maintain it is a civic duty to participate in the democratic process and a planetary duty to protect nature's integrity, diversity, and beauty in a secure, sustainable manner."[331] The American Humanist Association provides an LGBT Humanist Pride award[332] and has funded an LGBT-inclusive prom for Itawamba County Agricultural High School in Mississippi.[333] The organisationLGBT Humanists UK "is a United Kingdom-based not-for-profit that campaigns for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) equality and human rights and promotes Humanism as an ethical worldview." It was formerly an independent group, but since 2012 has been a part of the charityHumanists UK. In 2009 they gaveStephen Fry an award "for his services to humanism and gay rights."[334][335]
Humanists UK Chief ExecutiveAndrew Copson, who is gay, once wrote that "humanists have always been champions of LGBT rights" and cited his organisation's many years campaigning for decriminalisation and LGBT equality in the UK, including legal same-sex marriages. He pointed out the large number of LGBT people in the movement, including Stephen Fry,Christian Jessen, andPeter Tatchell, as well as historical associations with humanism like the writerVirginia Woolf andE M Forster.[336] In a statement following theOrlando nightclub shooting for theInternational Humanist and Ethical Union, of which Copson is also President, he went further, saying "Humanism is the ultimate, long-standing and unfaltering ally of LGBTI people everywhere".[337]
Unification Church views heterosexual marriage which becomes "fruitful" by raising their children as God's ideal. Any other sexual relationship, than between husband and wife, is considered a sin. Unification Church founderSun Myung Moon opposed homosexuality and free sex and in some of his speeches compared such relationships to "dirty dung filled water" and that "Satan and dirty dung-eating dogs go after that".[338] He prophesied that "gays will be eliminated" in a "purge on God's orders".[339]
Opposition tosame-sex marriage andLGBT rights is often associated with conservative religious views. TheAmerican Family Association and other religious groups have promoted boycotts of corporations whose policies support the LGBT community.
In conservative Islamic nations, laws generally prohibit same-sex sexual behaviour, and interpretation ofSharia Law on male homosexuality carries the death penalty.[340] This has been condemned as a violation of human rights by human rights organisationAmnesty International and by the writers of theYogyakarta principles. With the signature of the US in 2009, the proposedUN declaration on LGBT rights has now been signed by every European secular state and all western nations, as well as other countries—67 members of the UN in total. An opposing statement put forward by Muslim nations was signed by 57 member states, mostly in Africa and Asia. 68 out of the total 192 countries have not yet signed either statement. In 2011 theUnited Nations Human Rights Council passed a landmark resolution initiated bySouth Africa supporting LGBT rights (SeeSexual Orientation and Gender Identity at the United Nations).[341][342]
the overwhelming majority of Christian churches have maintained their positions that homosexual sex is sinful
If you experience same-sex attraction, you may choose to use a sexual orientation label to describe yourself. ... If you decide to ... openly identify as gay, you should be supported.
There are three levels to the heaven in which Mormons believe, and to make it to the highest level, one must be married. Perhaps the most sacred church ordinance is the temple marriage, a "sealing" between a man and a woman that is believed to be eternal, according to Richley Crapo, a Utah State University professor. There is no place for homosexuality in Mormon marriages, and no place for noncelibate homosexuals in the top level of Mormon heaven, unless that person has repented accordingly in the afterlife.
In the Mormon cosmos, as presently understood, there is simply no room for same-sex relationships. For Mormons, the afterlife consists of heterosexual pairs of divinized men and women. Often church leaders have counseled Mormons who experience same-sex attraction that their unwelcome feelings will disappear in the afterlife. ... [T]he very structure of heaven can only accommodate opposite-sex marriages.
[Homosexuality] is curable and forgivable. ... Certainly it can be overcome .... [T]o those who say that this practice ... is incurable, I respond: 'How can you say the door cannot be opened until your knuckles are bloody ...? It can be done.'Quoted on page 31 of"Conservative Christian Identity & Same-Sex Orientation: The Case of Gay Mormons."
We know such a disease [homosexuality] is curable.
[S]uch thoughts and feelings, regardless of their causes, can and should be overcome and sinful behavior should be eliminated. ... Change is possible.
The Church does not have a position on the causes of any of ... same-gender attraction. Those are scientific questions ....
Today, [LDS] Family Services says it offers the following: 'We assist individuals and families as they respond to same-sex attraction. Our therapists do not provide what is commonly referred to as 'reparative therapy' or 'sexual orientation change efforts'.'
With substantial evidence of serious harms associated with exposure to [sexual orientation and gender identity change efforts (SOGICE)] particularly for minors, 21 states (and multiple cities and counties) have passed bipartisan laws or regulations prohibiting SOGICE. ... Furthermore, compared with LGBTQ youths with no exposure, those exposed to SOGICE showed 1.76 times greater odds of seriously considering suicide, 2.23 times greater odds of having attempted suicide, and 2.54 times greater odds of multiple suicide attempts in the previous year.
For [Baha'u'llah's] followers, the precepts and counsels found in these teachings represent ... 'the lamps' of God's 'wisdom and loving providence,' and so should be observed .... Baha'u'llah affirms that ... marriage is between a man and a woman ... and that sexual relations are only permissible between a couple who are married to each other.
They are monitored for behavior that might contravene Baha'i law. Baha'is who ... engage in homosexuality ... in such a way that it comes to the attention of their local community have their 'administrative rights' removed and can no longer attend the Nineteen Day Feast—the main worship ceremony—nor can they vote or hold elective office.
Abandoning sensual misconduct, he abstains from sensual misconduct. He does not get sexually involved with those who are protected by their mothers, their fathers, their brothers, their sisters, their relatives, or their Dhamma; those with husbands, those who entail punishments, or even those crowned with flowers by another man
The lay man is told to abstain from sex with "unsuitable partners" defined as girls under age, women betrothed or married and women who have taken vows of religious celibacy. This is clear, sound advice and seems to suggest that sexual misconduct is that which would disrupt existing family or love relationships. This is consonant with the general Buddhist principle that that which causes suffering for oneself or others is unethical behaviour. ("Unskillful behaviour" would be closer to the original.) There is no good reason to assume thathomosexual relations which do not violate this principle should be treated differently.
There are four factors of the third precept (kamesu micchacara): 1.agamaniya vatthu — that which should not be visited (the 20 groups of women). 2. asmim sevana-cittam — the intention to have intercourse with anyone included in the above-mentioned groups. 3. sevanap-payogo — the effort at sexual intercourse. 4. maggena maggappatipatti — sexual contact through that adhivasanam effort.
The Pali scriptures make no mention of homosexuality being unwise sexual conduct. For monastics, all sexual intercourse is a root downfall. It doesn't specify the gender of one's partner. Vasubandhu, a teacher who came several centuries after the Buddha, discouraged homosexuality. Personally speaking, I think what's most important is the motivation behind how we use our sexuality. In other words, if people use their sexuality unkindly or unwisely, it doesn't matter if it is directed to someone of their own sex or the opposite sex.
Now the obvious historical question then becomes this: If the early doctrine of sexual misconduct is so simple and elegant, when and why did it get so complex and restrictive – that is, when do we find the transition to "organ/orifice mode"? The answer to the "when" question is simple. We don't find any examples of the more elaborate formulation of sexual misconduct before the third century CE.
According to one legend, homosexuality was introduced into Japan in the ninth century by Shingon Buddhist monk, Kukai
The Buddha preached that Mount Imose (a metaphor for the love of women) was a place to be avoided, and thus priests of the dharma first entered this way as an outlet for their feelings, since their hearts were, after all, made of neither stone nor wood.
Shinto was principally concerned with propitiatory rites and ceremonies;its mythology fostered nationalism through thecult of divine emperors, but it had no special code of morals and seems to have regarded sex as a natural phenomenon to be enjoyed with few inhibitions.Phallicshrines dotted the countryside. Premarital virginity was not rigidly insisted upon, and freeborn boys did not lose status if they had adult lovers. Early law codes penalized incest and bestiality but nothomosexual relations. Thegods of the Shinto pantheon were themselves highly sexual. In later times, some of them were seen as "guardian deities" ofmale love.
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