Thehomophile movement is a collective term for the main organisations and publications supporting and representingsexual minorities in the 1950s to 1960s around the world. The name comes from the termhomophile, which was commonly used by these organisations in an effort to deemphasize the sexual aspect of homosexuality. At least some of these organisations are considered to have been more cautious than both earlier and laterLGBT organisations; in theU.S., the nationwide coalition of homophile groups disbanded after older members clashed with younger members who had become more radical after theStonewall riots of 1969.
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Thehomosexual organizations and publications of the 1950s and 1960s, which commonly used the term "homophile", are now known collectively as the homophile movement.[1] The term "homophile" was coined by German psychoanalyst Karl-Günther Heimsoth in 1924, before being popularized by theDutch COC.[1] Proponents of the term hoped to emphasize the romantic rather than sexual aspect of same-sex relationships by replacing the -sexual suffix with the Greek root "philos," meaning love. They hoped to distinguish further by describing people as homophiles, while reserving "homosexual" to describe sexual activity itself.[2]
After the gains made by thehomosexual rights movements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the vibrant homosexual subcultures of the 1920s and 1930s became silent aswar engulfed Europe. Germany was the traditional home of such movements and activists,[a][3] but inNazi Germany,gay literature was burned, gay organizations were dissolved, and many gay men imprisoned inconcentration camps. The Swiss journalDer Kreis ("the circle") was the primary homosexual publication in Europe and the only one to publish during the Nazi era.[4]Der Kreis was edited byAnna Vock, and laterKarl Meier; the group gradually shifted from being female-dominated to male-dominated through the 1930s, as the tone of the magazine simultaneously became less militant.[5]
After the war, organizations began to re-form, such as theDutchCOC in 1946. Other, new organizations arose, includingForbundet af 1948 ("League of 1948"), founded byAxel Axgil inDenmark, withHelmer Fogedgaard [d] publishing an associated magazine calledVennen (The Friend) from January 1949 until 1953.[6][7] Fogedgaard used the pseudonym "Homophilos", introducing the concept of "homophile" in May 1950, unaware that the word had been presented as an alternative term a few months previously byJaap van Leeuwen [es;nl], one of the founders of the Dutch COC. The word soon spread among members of the emerging post-war movement who were happy to emphasize the respectable romantic side of their relationships over genital sexuality.
ASwedish branch of Forbundet af 1948 was formed in 1949 and aNorwegian branch in 1950. The Swedish organization became independent under the nameRiksförbundet för sexuellt likaberättigande (RFSL, "Federation for Sexual Equality") in 1950, led byAllan Hellman [sv].[8] The same year in the United States, theMattachine Society was formed, and other organizations such asONE, Inc. (1952) and theDaughters of Bilitis (1955) soon followed. Daughters of Bilitis was the first lesbian homophile organization in the U.S., and it emerged in the context of alienation felt by women in male-dominated Mattachine Society and ONE.[9] In 1954, nearly 60,000 copies of ONE's magazine were distributed, though its actual readership was likely much higher due to the practice of surreptitiously circulating existing copies.[10][11] Homophile organizations elsewhere includeArcadie (1954) inFrance and theBritishHomosexual Law Reform Society (founded 1958).[12]
These groups are generally considered to have been politically cautious, in comparison to the LGBT movements that both preceded and followed them. Historian Michael Sibalis describes the belief of the French homophile group Arcadie, "that public hostility to homosexuals resulted largely from their outrageous and promiscuous behaviour; homophiles would win the good opinion of the public and the authorities by showing themselves to be discreet, dignified, virtuous and respectable."[13] However, while some were prepared tocome out, they did risk severe persecution, and some figures within the Homophile movement such as the AmericancommunistHarry Hay were more radical.
In 1951, the president and vice-president of the Dutch COC initiated an International Congress of European homophile groups, which resulted in the formation of theInternational Committee for Sexual Equality (ICSE).[2] The ICSE brought together, among other groups, the Forbundet of 1948 (Scandinavia), the Riksförbundet för Sexuellt Likaberättigande (Sweden), Arcadie (France), Der Kreis (Swiss), and, later, ONE (U.S.). Historian Leila Rupp describes the ICSE as a classic example of transnational organizing; "It created a network across national borders, nurtured a transnational homophile identity, and engaged in activism designed to change both laws and minds." However, the ICSE failed to last beyond the early 1960s due to poor attendance at meetings, lack of active leaders, and failure of members to pay dues.[2]
By the early-1960s,lesbian,gay,bisexual, andtransgender people in the United States were forming more visible communities, and this was reflected in the political strategies of American homophile groups.Frank Kameny, an Americanastronomer and gay rights activist, had co-founded the Mattachine Society in Washington D.C.in 1961. While the society did not take much political activism to the streets at first, Kameny and several members attended the 1963March on Washington, where having seen the methods used by Blackcivil rights activists, they then applied them to the Homophile movement. Kameny had also been inspired by the black power movements slogan "Black is Beautiful", coining his own term "Gay is Good".[14] From the mid-1960s, they engaged inpicketing and sit-ins, identifying themselves in public space for the first time. Kameny further implemented the use ofsocial protest methods of advocating for rights through his timeline as an activist. While earlier in his career as an activist, he as well as other organizerspicketed outthe White House. Not only did Kameny continue his work with the Mattachine society, but furthered on to work with other notable gay rights groups likeACT UP, where he continued to usecivil disobedience in his efforts to "...accord gays and lesbians the same rights and privileges enjoyed by all citizens."[15] Formed in 1964, theSan Franciscan Society for Individual Rights (SIR) had a new openness and a more participatory democratic structure. SIR was focused on building community, and sponsoreddrag shows, dinners,bridge clubs,bowling leagues,softball games, field trips, art classes, and meditation groups. In 1966, SIR opened the nation's firstgay and lesbian community center, and by 1968 they had over 1000 members, making them the largest homophile organization in the country. The world's first gay bookstore had opened inNew York the year before. A1965 gay picket held in front of Independence Hall in Philadelphia, according to some historians, marked the beginning of the modern gay rights movement. Meanwhile, in San Francisco in 1966, transgender streetprostitutes in the poor neighborhood ofTenderloin rioted againstpolice harassment at a popular all-night restaurant, theCompton Cafeteria. These and other activities of public resistance to oppression led to a feeling ofGay Liberation that was soon to give a name to a new movement.
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In 1963, homophile organizations in New York City,Philadelphia, andWashington, D.C. joined to formEast Coast Homophile Organizations (ECHO) to more closely coordinate their activities. The success of ECHO inspired other homophile groups across the country to explore the idea of forming a national homophile umbrella group. This was done with the formation in 1966 of theNorth American Conference of Homophile Organizations (NACHO, rhymes with Waco).[16] NACHO held annual conferences, helped start dozens of local gay groups across the country and issuedposition papers on a variety of LGBT-related issues. It organized national demonstrations, including a May 1966 action againstmilitary discrimination that included the country's first gay motorcade.[17] Through its legal defense fund, NACHO challenged anti-gay laws and regulations ranging from immigration issues and military service to the legality of serving alcohol to homosexuals.[18] NACHO disbanded after a contentious 1970 conference at which older members and younger members, radicalized in the wake of the 1969Stonewall riots, clashed.[19]Gay Sunshine magazine declared the convention "the battle that ended the homophile movement".[20] Thegay liberation movement, which emerged around this time, replaced the term "homophile" by a new set of terminology such asgay,lesbian, andbisexual.
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