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Hokum is a particular song type of Americanblues music—a song which usesextended analogies oreuphemistic terms to make humorous,^[1] sexualinnuendos. Thistrope goes back to earlydirty blues recordings, enjoyed huge commercial success in the 1920s and 1930s,^[1] and is used from time to time in modern American blues andblues rock.

An example of hokum lyrics is this sample from "Meat Balls", byLil Johnson, recorded in 1937:^[2]

Got out late last night, in the rain and sleet
Tryin' to find a butcher that grind my meat
Yes I'm lookin' for a butcher
He must be long and tall
If he want to grind my meat
'Cause I'm wild about my meat balls.

"Hokum", originally avaudeville term used for a simple performance bordering onvulgarity,^[3][4] "old and sure-fire comedy",^[5] but hinting at a smartwordplay, was first used to describe the genre of black music in a billing of arace record for Tampa Red's Hokum Jug Band (Tampa Red andGeorgia Tom, 1929).^[6] After producing a big hit, "It's Tight Like That", withVocalion Records (and its sequel) in 1928, the musicians went on toParamount Records where they were calledThe Hokum Boys. Other recording studios joined the fray using similarly named ensembles.^[7] The application of "hokum" to describe the musical approach of these bands was fostered byPapa Charlie Jackson with his "Shake That Thing" (1925).^[3]

The meaning of the stage slang word "hokum" was a subject of an extensive debate in the 1920s ("most discussed word in the entire vernacular", right next to the "jazz").^[5] The term "hokum blues" did not become a formal designation of a style until 1960s.^[8] "Hokum" is also used to describe thelow comedy acts that were used at the turn of the 20th century to lure audiences to musical performances. In the words ofW. C. Handy, a veteran of a minstrel troupe, "Our hokum hooked 'em"^[9] outside the opera house, so that "ticket sellers would go to work".^[10] King applies the term to the early shortslapstick films.^[11]

The sources do not agree on the origins of "hokum": the word is thought to exist since either the late 19th, or early 20th century. It can be derived either by analogy withgap-sealing materialoakum (the reliable gags of hokum were supposed to fill the deficiencies of the stage act), or ablend of "hocus-pocus" and "bunkum" (nonsense).^[5]

Some of the hokum songs are also classified as belonging to the "dirty blues" subgenre of blues. Some sources treat hokum and dirty (also "bawdy") blues as interchangeable terms.^[12][13] However, music researchers point to differences: dirty blues were played before the appearance of hokum,^[14] the innuendo in the dirty blues is earnest and mature, while the hokum was full of sass and humor.^[15] The dirty blues are good for dancing theslow drag,^[15] while hokum, with its bouncy,ragtime-influenced^[16] songs is intended for more lively dance style typical for the "mischievous branch" of music (similar tolundu,maxixe,xote, orsamba).^[15]

Daniel Beaumont points tominstrel shows, vaudeville, andmedicine shows as the origins of humor in blues. These genres influenced theclassic andcountry blues, which in turn fed hokum in the 1930s. Hokum after its heyday influencedrhythm and blues in 1940s andChicago blues in 1950s and 1960s.^[16]

Hokum subgenre evolved from early blues, when in the late 1920s a new generation of bluesmen created a "more urbane product" that in addition to hokum included topical ballads,vaudeville blues,country blues, proto-jive.^[17] Some commentators have argued that hokum "city style" was a degradation of thefolk blues.^[18]

Blues and hokum were inseparable until the very end of hokum era in the mid-1930s.^[19] Hokum is considered to be an immediate predecessor ofurban blues (Muddy Waters,Howlin’ Wolf,Elmore James).^[18]

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While hokum surfaces in early blues music most frequently, there was some significant crossover culturally. When theChattanooga-based "brother duet" theAllen Brothers recorded a hit version of "Salty Dog Blues", refashioned as "Bow Wow Blues" in 1927 forColumbia's 15,000-numbered "Old Time" series the label rushed out several new releases to capitalize on their success, but mistakenly issued them on the 14,000 series instead.

In fact, the Allen Brothers were so adept at performing white blues that in 1927, Columbia mistakenly released their "Laughin' and Cryin' Blues" in the "race" series instead of the "old-time" series. (Not seeing the humor in it, the Allens sued and promptly moved to the Victor label.)^[20]

An early black string band, theDallas String Band withColey Jones, recorded the song "Hokum Blues" on December 8, 1928, inDallas,Texas, featuringmandolin instrumentation. They have been identified both as proto bluesmen and as an early Texascountry band and were likely to have been selling to both black and white audiences.Blind Lemon Jefferson andT-Bone Walker played in the Dallas String Band at various times.Milton Brown and his Musical Brownies, the seminal white Texas swing band, recorded a hokum tune with scat lyrics in the early 1930s, "Garbage Man Blues", which was originally known by the title the jazz composerLuis Russell gave it, "The Call of the Freaks".Bob Wills, who had performed inblackface as a young man, liberally used comic asides, whoops, and jive talk when directing his famousTexas Playboys. TheHoosier Hot Shots,Bob Skyles and the Skyrockets, and other novelty song artists concentrated on the comedic aspects, but for many up-and-coming white country musicians, likeEmmett Miller,Clayton McMichen andJimmie Rodgers, the ribald lyrics were beside the point. Hokum for these white rounders in the South and Southwest was synonymous with jazz, and the "hot"syncopations andblue notes were a naughty pleasure in themselves. Thelap steel guitar playerCliff Carlisle, who was half of another "brother duet", is credited with refining theblue yodel song style afterJimmie Rodgers became the firstcountry musicsuperstar by recording over a dozen blue yodels. Carlisle wrote and recorded many hokum tunes and gave them titles such as "Tom Cat Blues", "Shanghai Rooster Yodel" and "That Nasty Swing". He marketed himself as a "hillbilly", a "cowboy", a "Hawaiian" or a "straight" bluesman (meaning presumably, black), depending on the audience for whom he was playing and where he played.

The radio "barn dances" of the 1920s and 1930s interspersed hokum in their variety show broadcasts. The first blackface comedians at theWSMGrand Ole Opry were Lee Roy "Lasses" White and his partner, Lee Davis "Honey" Wilds, starring in the Friday night shows. White was a veteran of several minstrel troupes, including one organized by William George "Honeyboy" Evans and another led by Al G. Field, who also employedEmmett Miller. By 1920, White was leading his own outfit, the All Star Minstrels. Lasses and Honey joined the Grand Ole Opry cast in 1932. When Lasses moved on to Hollywood in 1936 to play the role of a silver-screen cowboy sidekick, Wilds stayed on in Nashville, corking up and playing blues on his ukulele with his new partner Jam-Up (first played by Tom Woods and subsequently by Bunny Biggs). Wilds organized the first Grand Ole Opry–endorsed tent show in 1940. For the next decade, he ran the touring show, with Jam-Up and Honey as the headliners. Pulling a forty-foot trailer behind a four-door Pontiac and followed by eight to ten trucks, Wilds took the tent show from town to town, hurrying back to Nashville on Saturdays for his Opry radio appearances. Many country musicians, likeUncle Dave Macon,Bill Monroe,Eddy Arnold,Stringbean andRoy Acuff, toured with the Wilds tent shows from April through Labor Day. As Wilds's son David said in an interview,

Music was a part of their act, but they were comedians. They would sing comedic songs, a laHomer and Jethro. They would add odd lyrics to existing songs, or write songs that were intended to be comedic. They were out there to come onstage, do five minutes of jokes, sing a song, do five minutes of jokes, sing another song and say, "Thank you, good night", as their segment of theGrand Ole Opry. Almost every country band during that time had some guy who dressed funny, wore a goofy hat, and typically played slide guitar.^[21]

By the mid-1930s the hokum bands were fading out.Georgia Tom became religious and switched toblack gospel music by 1932, leavingTampa Red to perform solo blues and hokum,Big Bill Broonzy from 1930 occasionally joined theHokum Boys and theFamous Hokum Boys for their recordings with the last one in 1936.Leroy Carr made few hokum recordings with very mild lyrics, but moved to blues again with his rendition of "Sloppy Drunk Blues", originally byLucille Bogan, becoming a blues standard.^[19]

Some hokum songs were absorbed into mainline jazz:^[19]

• "It's Tight Like That" was recorded byJimmie Noone,McKinney's Cotton Pickers, Jimmy Bracken's Toe Ticklers (withJack Teagarden andBenny Goodman);
• Louis Armstrong recorded "Tight Like This" in December 1928 that sounds like a response to the hokum song with his famous trumpet solo improvisation;
• Duke Ellington joined the chorus with his "Who said 'It's Tight Like That'?" in March 1929.

Country music also use the hokum material:^[22]

• Luis Russell, one of the main figures behind theNew Orleans jazz transition toswing, recorded "It's Tight Like That" in January 1929, with "The Call of The Freaks" on the other of the single. In the hands ofMilton Brown the latter one turned into the "Garbage Man Blues";
• In 1936 Brown also recorded a version of "Keep A Knockin'", in May 1938 Bob Willis recorded "Keep Knocking (But You Can't Come In)".

The popularity of hokum rubbed off ontojive talk, with the latter eventually lasting longer than hokum and reaching wider audiences.^[23]

Some scholars resent hokum as an era of purely commercial blues, when producers pushed the musicians to rehash the same slick songs, resembling the times ofTin Pan Alley.^[24]

Schwartz^[25] lists the following examples of hokum in the discography section:

There are a lot of hokum compilations. Some examples include:

• Please Warm My Weiner, Yazoo L-1043 (cover art by Robert Crumb) (1992)
• Hokum: Blues and Rags (1929–1930), Document 5392 (1995)
• Hokum Blues: 1924–1929, Document 5370 (1995)
• Take It Out Too Deep: Rufus & Ben Quillian (Blue Harmony Boys) (1929–30).

Look uphokum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Lott, Eric (1993).Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class. New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-507832-2.
• Toll, Robert C. (1974).Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-8195-6300-5.
• The Souls of Black Folk by W. E. B. DuBois (Penguin Classics, New York: Penguin Books, reprinted April 1996)ISBN 0-14-018998-X.
• Reminiscing with Sissle and Blake by Robert Kimball and William Bolsom (The Viking Press, New York, 1973)
• Demons of Disorder: Early Blackface Minstrels and Their World by Dale Cockrell (Cambridge University Press, 1997)
• The Story of a Musical Life: An Autobiography by George F. Root (Cincinnati: John Church Co., 1891; reprinted by AMS Press, New York, 1973).ISBN 0-404-07205-4.
• We'll Understand It Better By and By: Pioneering African American Gospel Composers edited by Bernice Johnson Reagon. Wade in the Water Series. (Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C, 1993).
• Black Gospel: An Illustrated History of the Gospel Sound by Vic Broughton (Blandford Press, New York, 1985)
• Where Dead Voices Gather by Nick Tosches, 2001, Little, Brown, Boston.ISBN 0-316-89507-5. OnEmmett Miller.
• A Good Natured Riot: The Birth of the Grand Ole Opry by Charles K. Wolfe (Country Music Foundation Press and Vanderbilt University Press, Nashville, Tennessee, 1999)
• Bluegrass Breakdown : The Making of the Old Southern Sound by Robert Cantwell (University of Illinois Press, Chicago, 1984, reprinted 2003).
• It Came from Memphis by Robert Gordon (Pocket Books, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1995).
• Stephen Foster: America's Troubadour by John Tasker Howard. (Thomas Y. Crowell, New York, 1934; 2nd ed., 1953)
• The Encyclopedia of Country Music edited by Paul Kingsbury (Oxford University Press, New York, 1998)
• Minstrel Banjo Style various artists, liner notes,Rounder Records ROUN0321, 1994
• You Ain't Talkin' to Me: Charlie Poole and the Roots of Country Music liner notes by Henry Sapoznik, Columbia Legacy Recordings C3K 92780, 2005
• Good for What Ails You: Music of the Medicine Shows 1926–1937 liner notes by Marshall Wyatt, Old Hat Records CD-1005 (2005)
• Rocha, Alexandre Eleutério (2022).Hokum Blues: erotismo e humor em uma vertente musical silenciada(PDF) (Mestre em Música thesis) (in Portuguese).Universidade de Brasília.
• DeLune, Clair (21 September 2015).South Carolina Blues. Arcadia Publishing. p. 87.ISBN 978-1-4396-5327-2.OCLC 936538023.hokum, which is also called "bawdy" or "dirty" blues
• Wald, Elijah (3 August 2010).The Blues: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 43.ISBN 978-0-19-975079-5.OCLC 1014220088.flood of hokum songs established blues as a medium for [...] comic smut. There had always been dirty blues [...]
• Cunningham, Alexandria (2018). "Make It Nasty: Black Women's Sexual Anthems and the Evolution of the Erotic Stage".Journal of Black Sexuality and Relationships.5 (1):63–89.doi:10.1353/bsr.2018.0015.eISSN 2376-7510.(page 78): dirty blues was a subgenre [...] also referenced as hokum
• Calt, Stephen (1 October 2010).Barrelhouse Words: A Blues Dialect Dictionary. University of Illinois Press. p. 125.ISBN 978-0-252-09071-4.OCLC 1156337352.hokum: Avaudeville term [...] fun bordering on vulgarity and quite obvious [...] descriptive of material by [...]Hokum Boys [...] musical approach [...] fostered byPapa Charlie Jackson
• Larkin, Colin (30 September 2013).The Virgin Encyclopedia of The Blues. Random House.ISBN 978-1-4481-3274-4.'Hokum, with its connotations of verbal cleverness, was first applied to black music [...] in billing of 'Tampa Red's Hokum Jazz Band' [Tampa Red andGeorgia Tom ]
• Hansen, Barry (2000)."A Lot of Hokum".Rhino's Cruise Through the Blues. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 60.ISBN 978-0-87930-625-0.OCLC 39007030.
• Beaumont, Daniel (2004)."Humor". In Komara, E.; Lee, P. (eds.).The Blues Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 476–479.ISBN 978-1-135-95832-9. Retrieved2023-06-09.
• Southern, Eileen (1972).Readings in Black American Music. W. W. Norton.ISBN 978-0-393-02165-3. Retrieved2023-06-27.
• Sotiropoulos, Karen (2009).Staging Race: Black Performers in Turn of the Century America. Harvard University Press.ISBN 978-0-674-04387-9. Retrieved2023-06-27.
• Schwartz, Roberta Freund (2018-10-01). "How Blue Can You Get? "It's Tight Like That" and the Hokum Blues".American Music.36 (3). University of Illinois Press:367–393.doi:10.5406/americanmusic.36.3.0367.ISSN 0734-4392.JSTOR 10.5406/americanmusic.36.3.0367.
• Freund Schwartz, Roberta (2020),"The Blues and the Development of the African American Working Class before World War II",The Bloomsbury Handbook of Popular Music and Social Class, Bloomsbury Publishing Inc, pp. 353–368,doi:10.5040/9781501345395.ch-018,ISBN 978-1-5013-4539-5
• King, Rob (2017).Hokum!: The Early Sound Slapstick Short and Depression-Era Mass Culture. OAPEN Library.University of California Press.doi:10.1525/luminos.28.ISBN 978-0-520-28811-9. Retrieved2023-11-21.
• Birnbaum, L. (2013)."Jug Bands and Hokum".Before Elvis: The Prehistory of Rock 'n' Roll. G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Scarecrow Press. pp. 129–133.ISBN 978-0-8108-8638-4. Retrieved2023-11-21.

• American country music
• Blues music genres
• Hokum blues songs

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