Ho-Chunk
Winnebago
Hoocą́k hoit'éra
Native to	Midwestern United States
Region	Wisconsin,Nebraska,Iowa,South Dakota,Illinois, andMinnesota
Ethnicity	1,650Ho-Chunk (2000 census)[1]
Native speakers	250 (2007)[1] Mainly older adults[2]
Language family	Siouan Western Siouan Mississippi Valley Chiwere–Winnebago Ho-Chunk
Writing system	Latin (Ho-Chunk alphabet), Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics
Language codes
ISO 639-3	win
Glottolog	hoch1243
ELP	Winnebago
Linguasphere	64-AAC-d
Winnebago is classified as Severely Endangered by theUNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.

TheHo-Chunk language (Hoocąk, Hocąk), also known asWinnebago, is the language of theHo-Chunk people of theHo-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin andWinnebago Tribe of Nebraska. The language is part of theSiouanlanguage family and is closely related to otherChiwere Siouan dialects, including those of theIowa,Missouria, andOtoe.

"Winnebago," a name now used for the Ho-Chunk who were forcibly removed toNebraska, is anexonym, anAnglicization of theSauk andFox wordOinepegi.^[3][4] The anglicized form of the endonym is "Ho-Chunk".

Ho-Chunk's vowel sounds are distinguished by nasality and length. That is to say, the use of anasal vowel or along vowel affects a word's meaning. This is evident in examples such aspąą/pãː/'bag' compared topaa/paː/'nose', andwaruc/waˈɾutʃ/'to eat' compared towaaruc/waːˈɾutʃ/'table'.^[5] All of Ho-Chunk's vowels show a length distinction, but only/iau/ have nasal counterparts.

Ho-Chunk's consonants are listed in the following table:

Typical of Mississippi Valley Siouan languages, Ho-Chunk has aspirated/p/ and/k/ phonemes but no aspirated/t/.

In Ho-Chunk, vowels/iau/ always occur as nasalized when they follow nasal consonants/mn/. Nasality spreads to an adjacent vowel if that vowel is nasalizable as well.^[5]Nasality spreads across syllable or word boundaries and can move across consonants/h/ and/w/, but is blocked by all other consonants. Examples includenąįžą/nãĩʒã/'a tree' andha'ųwį/haʔũwĩ/'we (exclusive) do':

Another frequently occurring nasalization pattern is /r/ to [n] alternation: /r/ is pronounced as [n] when it immediately follows a nasal vowel. That is shown in the definite marker /ra/ on the verb 'have'-nį-, which occurs as [nã] in the sentence 'My knife is dull' below:

There is a notable sound law in Ho-Chunk called Dorsey's Law^[9] which dictates the following:

• /ORS/ → [OSRS]

where O is a voiceless obstruent, R is a resonant, and S a syllabic sound. In other words, if there is an underlying voiceless obstruent (in Ho-Chunk, /p/, /c/, /k/, /s/, /š/, and /x/) followed by resonant (/r/, /n/, or /w/), the vowel following the resonant is copied into the proceeding consonant cluster. All Dorsey's Law sequences attested in the language are listed below, with V representing the copied vowel:^[6]

• pVnV
• pVrV
• kVnV
• kVrV
• kVwV
• sVnV
• sVrV
• sVwV
• šVnV
• šVrV
• šVwV
• cVwV
• xVnV
• xVrV
• xVwV

Multiple sources advocate that Dorsey's Law is asynchronic process in the language because of the way that things like stress assignment and the morphological process ofreduplication are affected by it.^[6][7][8]

Dorsey's Law can apply within a single morpheme, as in /pra/ becoming [para] in the wordparas '(be) wide, flat', or across morpheme boundaries, as in /šra/ becoming [šara] in the wordšaraše 'you go there,' whereš is the second person pronominal prefixing to the verbrahe 'to be going there.'

Ho-Chunk is amora counting, but syllable accenting language. The stress placement of words spoken in isolation is extremely regular. Single-syllable words always have a long vowel (two moras), and stress falls on the first mora (e.g.áa 'arm'). Two-syllable words have two moras, and primary stress falls on the second mora (e.g.wajé 'dress'). In words longer than two syllables, primary stress most often falls on the third syllable, with secondary stress on each even numbered vowel after the point of primary stress (e.g.waǧįǧį́ 'ball,' orhocįcį́k 'boy').^[9][10] A few rare examples of words with primary stress not on the third syllable includebooráxux 'you break something into pieces' andgikąnąhé 'to invite somebody.' These and other exceptions are a result of syllable weight affecting stress location.^[10] As seen inbooráxux 'you break something into pieces,' when one of the first two syllables of a multiple-syllable word is a heavy syllable, then the main stress falls on the second syllable

Generally when words are spoken in sequence to form sentences, each retains its own stress domain. However, when two or more words arecompounded, they are treated as a single word and form a new single stress domain in which the aforementioned patterns apply. Examples includehąąbókahi 'every day' (a compound consisting ofhąąp 'day' andhokahí 'every') andwąągwácek 'young man' (wąąk 'man' andwacék 'young').^[10]

Ho-Chunk's stress system is substantially different from that of other Siouan languages, which have main stress on the second syllable or second mora. It is theorized that Ho-Chunk underwent a stress shift one mora to the right at some point in its history.^[10]

The official Ho-Chunkorthography derives from anAmericanist version of theInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). As such, its graphemes broadly resemble those of IPA, and there is a close one-to-one correspondence between graphemes and phonemes. The orthography differs from IPA in that the nasal vowels are indicated using anogonek. Thus, /ĩ/, /ũ/, and /ã/ are written asį,ų, andą, respectively. In addition, the postalveolar and palatal consonants are written asc, j, š, ž, andy (in IPA: /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/ and /j/), the velar fricative /ɣ/ is written asǧ, and theglottal stop is written asʼ .

The diacritic marks can be referred to in Ho-Chunk with the following terms:sįįc 'tail' for the ogonek,wookąnąk 'hat' for the haček, andhiyuša jikere 'sudden start/stop' for the glottal stop.

For a short period of time in the mid to late 1800s, Ho-Chunk was written with an adaptation of the"Ba-Be-Bi-Bo" syllabics system. As of 1994, however, the official alphabet of theHo-Chunk Nation is an adaptation of theLatin script. The Ho-Chunk Nations of Wisconsin and Nebraska represent some sounds differently in the alphabets that they use, as the Wisconsin tribe write a double vowel to mark longer length, and the Nebraska tribe uses a macron over the vowel (compareoo withō for IPA /o:/). These differences, shown with example words, are demonstrated in the chart below. In total, the Ho-Chunk writing system consists of 26 consonant and 16 vowel graphs/digraphs.[1]

Source:^[5]

Ho-Chunk is anagglutinating and somewhatfusional language. Verbs contain severalaffixes to indicate things like person, number, tense, and mood.

Ho-Chunk uses prefixes on a verb stem to markperson,locative case,instrumental case,benefactive case,reflexivity (including possessive reflexivity), andreciprocality.^[11]

Ho-Chunk verbs are inflected with eight pronominal categories marked forperson andclusivity.^[5] Ho-Chunk is apro-drop language; pronouns are used very infrequently, and information on grammatical person is found on the verb in the form of one or moreprefixes.

1. First person singular (abbreviated 1SG)
2. Second person singular (abbreviated 2SG)
3. Third person singular (abbreviated 3SG)
4. First person dual inclusive (abbreviated 1IN.DU)
5. First person inclusive plural (abbreviated 1IN.PL)
6. First person exclusive plural (abbreviated 1EX.PL)
7. Second person plural (abbreviated 2PL)
8. Third person plural (abbreviated 3PL)

Ho-Chunk'stransitive verbs are inflected withagent (actor) andpatient (undergoer)pronominals. The generic paradigm of the pronominal prefixes in transitive verbs^[5] is outlined below. The letter V stands in the place of theverb stem.:

In this table, the null symbol (∅) is used to represent all third person singular actor and patient pronominals. It indicates that there is no overt prefix for those pronominals (in other words, that they arenull morphemes). Some cells are left blank because there are no pronominal affixes associated with that particular person/number combination. In cases like these, the action isreflexive (i.e. I do something to myself, or you (plural) do something to yourselves). Reflexivity in Ho-Chunk is indicated with another prefix,kii-.

The sounds in the prefixes run together in casual speech, often leading to the deletion of the /h/ consonant and thus a long vowel ordiphthong. This is evident in the examplewaakere 'I put them (standing),' in which the third person plural patient prefixwa- merges with the first person actor prefixha-, producingwaa-.

Ho-Chunk'sintransitive verbs fall into three main types: intransitiveactive verbs, intransitivestative verbs, and intransitive 'third person-only' verbs.^[5]

Intransitive active verbs are those which involve only human or animate agent(s). An example isšgaac 'play,' which is inflected for person and number as follows:

Intransitive stative verbs involve an action affecting a patient. This is characteristic of the verbš'aak 'to be old':

Intransitive third-person-only verbs designate states and properties of mostly inanimate things, such as "(to) be delicious" or "(to) be expensive." They can only be inflected for third person singular or third person plural subjects (e.g.ceexi (∅-ceexi) 'it is expensive' orceexire (ceexi-ire) 'they are expensive').

Ho-Chunk has two locative prefixes,ha- 'on' or 'onto,' andho- 'in' or 'into.' These prefixes were first described by William Lipkind in his 1928 grammar of the language^[11] . The prefixes are added to a verb stem as seen in the examples below:

A locative prefix may derive a noun, a verb, or both. This is true forhomįk, which can refer to a verb 'to lie in' or a noun 'bed.' More recent learning materials refer to theha- prefix as asuperessiveapplicative marker, and theho- prefix as aninessiveapplicative marker.^[5]

Ho-Chunk has a set of instrumental prefixes which indicate that an action is accomplished by means of some instrument, force, or special type of instrumental movement. These prefixes are translated into English with such phrases as 'by foot,' 'by hand,' or 'by striking.' Some sources list eight instrumental prefixes in Ho-Chunk,^[5][12] while others recognize a ninthnąą- 'by internal force' (phonologically identical tonąą- 'by foot').^[13][14] These prefixes are listed first with their English translation, then paired with a stemwax 'to break, cut or sever a string-like object':

The instrumental prefixes are identified as 'Inner' or 'Outer' due to their position relative to other prefixes attaching to the verb stem. Inner prefixes are closer to the verb stem, while outer prefixes are farther away on the left edge of the word. Instrumental prefixes are found in all Siouan languages,^[15] and it is theorized that outer instrumentals originated as nouns ornominalized stems.^[16]

Ho-Chunk's suffixes marknumber,tense,mood,negation, andaspect.

Like other Siouan languages, Ho-Chunk's basic word order isSubject-Object-Verb (SOV).An example of a typical sentence isHinųkra wažątirehižą ruwį 'The woman bought a car.' In a sentence with twoobjects, such asHinųkiža hocįcįhižą wiiwagaxhižą hok'ų 'A girl gave a boy a pencil,' the canonical word order is Subject-Indirect Object-Direct Object-Verb. Word order is relatively free in Ho-Chunk; however, while a word order such asWažątirehižą, hinųkra ruwį 'The woman bought a car' is permissabie, the change from the basic neutral word order of SOV requires a prosodic pause indicated by a comma.^[17] Without this pause, an interpretation 'A car bought the woman' is possible, though highly unlikely.

Negative phrases are expressed with a particle, such ashąąke 'not' orhąkaga 'never' paired with the suffix/enclitic -nį 'not.' Both elements are required in such phrases: the particle precedes the verb phrase, while -nį is suffixed to the verb. The following examples demonstrate this construction:^[17]

Although the language is highly endangered, there are currently vigorous efforts underway to keep it alive in Ho-Chunk communities. In Wisconsin, theHocąk Waziija Haci Language Division runs several language classes, an immersion daycare, and a language apprentice program.^[18] Some schools teach the language, or have elements of the language in cultural education. In Nebraska, the Ho-Chunk Renaissance program teaches the language in local and reservation schools. Both tribal governments recognize the importance of technology in language learning, and are active in Facebook and YouTube to reach the younger generation of learners. A "Ho-Chunk (Hoocąk) Native American Language app" is available foriPhone,iPad, and otheriOS devices.^[19] Language is a crucial aspect of Ho-Chunk culture:

"Within a lot of Native American cultures, language and culture go together," Lewis St. Cyr,language program director for the Ho-Chunk, said. "You can't have culture without language and you can't have language without culture. The importance of it is of who we are."^[20]

• Hocąk Teaching Materials (2010).Volume 1: Elements of Grammar/Learner's Dictionary. Helmbrecht, J., Lehmann, C., SUNY Press,ISBN 1-4384-3338-7.Volume 2: Texts and Audio-CD, Hartmann, I., Marschke, C. SUNY Press,ISBN 1-4384-3336-0

• Ho-chunk Nation Official Online Dictionary
• Hoocąk Waaziija Haci Language and Culture Division, Ho-Chunk Nation (of Wisconsin) website, extensive materials about Hoçak language and restoration efforts
• Ho-Chunk and Winnebago Explained
• Hocank Language, Documentation of Endangered Languages website (DOBES in German)
• "Winnebago Grammar" by William Lipkind, published by Wisconsin Historical Society (1945)
• Hocąk-English/English-Hocąk Learner's Dictionary, Second Edition, edited by Johannes Helmbrecht & Christian Lehmann, 2006, University of Erfurt
• Beginning Hocąk on Memrise, based on Wisconsin Hocąk; phrases and vocabulary
• Hoocąk DoReCo corpus compiled by Iren Hartmann. Audio recordings of narrative texts with transcriptions time-aligned at the phone level, translations, and time-aligned morphological annotations.

• Ho-Chunk
• Indigenous languages of Minnesota
• Endangered Siouan-Catawban languages
• Native American language revitalization
• Western Siouan languages
• Endangered indigenous languages of the Americas

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