"Central steppe" is an informal term for the middle part of theEurasian Steppe. It is grassland with somesemi-desert, and becomes drier toward the south. On the east, it is separated fromDzungaria and the eastern steppe by the low mountains along the current Chinese border. On the west, it merges into the western steppe along the narrowing between theUral Mountains and theCaspian Sea. On the north, it is bounded by the forests ofSiberia. The southern boundary has three sections. In the east, theTian Shan mountains ofKyrgyzstan extend about 650 kilometres west and give the steppe a sharp southern boundary. The center is approximately the line of theSyr Darya, which runs from the eastern mountains northwest to theAral Sea. South of the Syr Darya, the steppe grades into semi-desert, but there are cities based on irrigation agriculture which give the area a different history. The western part between the Aral and Caspian Seas is dry and thinly populated. The Syr Darya and the area between the Urals and Caspian were not significant barriers, and the low mountains of Dzungaria were fairly easy to cross. The other boundaries were significant barriers to movement.
The central steppe is far from the areas of literate civilization and is therefore poorly documented. Most of the "peoples" mentioned were some tribe or clan that gained power over its neighbors and became important enough to be noticed by literate historians. Some were definite ethnic groups and some movements were genuine folk migrations, but in most cases it is uncertain. Most dates are approximate because they were processes[clarification needed] or ill-documented. There are two major facts which theorists have not explained. During the last 2,500 years nearly all movements on the steppe have been from east to west. From about 1000 BC all the known peoples of the western and central steppe spokeIranian languages. From about 500 AD theTurkic languages expanded from Mongolia and replaced most of the Iranian languages.
Andronovo and Afanasevo cultures. Omits Yamnaya culture northwest of the Caspian.
The origins ofpastoral nomadism andhorse archery are not clearly understood. At some time in the distant past people of European appearance lived in or crossed the central steppe and left theTarim mummies in the Tarim basin. In the centuries around 3000 BC, the semi-nomadic and probably Indo-EuropeanYamnaya culture emerged west of the central steppe. East of the central steppe was the rather similarAfanasevo culture. The Yamnaya-Afanasevo complex is probably connected to the eastward spread of the Indo-European languages, especiallyTokharian. Between them on the central steppe was the horse-usingBotai culture. After 2000 BC, theAndronovo Culture complex was southeast of the Urals. They had chariots, fortified towns, spread southeast to much of central Asia and are associated with the rise of theIndo-Iranian languages. The usage of iron appears around 1000 BC. Around 500 BC, Herodotus vaguely described the area as inhabited by Massagetae, Issedoneans and others. Around 200 BC, Chinese reports from the east began to appear.
Much of Zhetysu is in theIli River basin. Note the Tien Shan mountains of Kyrgyzstan in the south.
The area north of the Tien Shan needs special treatment because of better documentation and the large number of peoples who moved through it. It is a type of steppe "bay" bounded on the north by the Siberian forests, on the south by the Kyrgyz mountains and on the east by low mountains.Zhetysu is Turkic andSemirechye (Russian:Семиречье) is Russian for "seven rivers".
Sakas (before 200 BC): The Iranian-speaking nomads in the western and central steppe were called Scythians by the Greeks,Sakas by the Persians and Sai by the Chinese; the three words mean about the same thing. The Sakas also occupied the western Tarim basin. Iranian languages extended south to Persia and Afghanistan.
Chinese: Under theHan dynasty the Chinese expanded westward. In 125 BCZhang Qian returned with the first reports of the Western Regions. Around 100 BC to 100 AD, with interruptions, the Chinese controlled the Tarim Basin southeast of the central steppe. Chinese historians have given us the earliest surviving good written information about the central steppe.
Yuezhi (c. 162–132 BC): TheYuezhi were originally a major power inGansu and Mongolia. Around 162 BC, driven west by the Xiongnu, they settled in theIli valley, driving out the Sakas. About 132 BC, they were driven out by the Wusun and moved south and later formed a major state inBactria as theKushans.
Xiongnu (c. 40 BC –c. 155 AD): When the NorthernXiongnu were driven west by the Chinese they occupied Dzungaria and Semirechye, perhaps somewhat north of the Wusun. TheXianbei who defeated them may also have reached this area.
Muslims (c. 750–present): After the Arab conquest ofMerv in 651, there were raids northward. From 705, Muslimsexpanded into the area between the Oxus and Syr Darya. Muslims in Central Asia soon became more Persian than Arab. From around 750, Islam expanded slowly north of the Syr Darya and into the Tarim Basin and Gansu.
Sogdian Merchants (c. 300–840): Merchants fromSogdia controlled most of the trade between China and the west. They had settlements all the way fromBukhara to northern China.
Turgesh (c. 699–766): TheTurgesh were Dulu who restored a kind of Turkic Khaganate. They fought against the Arabs and the Chinese.
Karluks (c. 766–840): The TurkicKarluks drove the Turgesh out of Semirechye and later evolved into the Karakhanids. As a tribe they originated in Dzungaria and existed from at least 644 into Mongol times.
Karakitai (1134–1220): TheKarakitai rulers were refugees from north China. TheManchurianKhitans ruled north China as theLiao dynasty (907–1125). After theJurchens overthrew them, Khitan remnants fled west, conquered Semirechye in 1134, and by 1141, held most of the lands of the Karakhanids. They were non-Muslim, had some degree of Chinese culture and generally left the former rulers in place as vassals. In 1211, aNaiman prince who had fled the Mongols usurped power. The Mongols pursued him and by 1220 conquered most of the Karakitai lands.
Chagataids: When theMongol empire split up, central Asia fell to theChagataids in 1266, but they never formed a strong state and soon adopted Islam and the local language.
This area is far from areas of literate civilization and sources are scattered.
Greek and Persian reports began to appear from circa 500 BC. The so-called "Pointed-Hat"Sakas may have lived along the upper Syr-darya and may have some connection to Ptolemy's Sacaraucae. TheDahae lived between the Caspian and Aral Seas. TheMassagatae probably lived east of the Aral Sea. Herodotus speaks vaguely ofIssedones,Arimaspi,Hyperborians and others.
The first Chinese reports emerged in 125 BC. TheKangju lived along the Syr Darya and theYancai probably north of the Aral Sea. The Yancai were possibly the Greek'sSarmatians, and specifically theAlans. The above peoples were all independent of the Persian and Macedonian Empires to the south.
Huns (before 370 AD): TheHuns formed somewhere in Central Asia, crossed the Volga about 370 AD and raided the Roman Empire. They were probably a mixture of Xiongnu and other peoples.
First Turkic Khaganate (552–659 AD): The first Turkic Khaganate formed in Mongolia and quickly spread to the Volga. It soon split and the central steppe became theWestern Turkic Khaganate. It developed two factions, with theDulu Turks south of lake Balkhash and theNushibi between them and the Kangars east of the Aral Sea.
Circa 1025, Oghuz Pechenegs in the west pushed by the Kipchaks, with main Oghuz moving southwest
Turkic migrations (c. 500–1100):[3] Grouping the Turkic speakers by their language family, they moved west in three waves. The Oghurs disappeared; the Oghuz went southwest and left their languages in Turkmenistan and Turkey; and the Kipchaks occupied the whole central and western steppe. The Karluks stayed home and moved somewhat southwest. Since records refer to the ruling class, it is not known how long Iranian languages survived among the common people on the steppe. South of the Syr Darya,Turkic slave-soldiers began appearing about 800. This and other causes spread Turkic languages south of the Syr Darya, replacing most of the Iranian languages.
Oghur: Circa 500, before the Turkic Khaganate, theOghur may have been north of the Aral Sea and west of the Tiele. They continued west and founded several kingdoms around the western steppe. Their languages have disappeared except for theChuvash language.
Kipchak: Around 700, after the fall of the Turkic Khaganate, theKipchaks emerged in western Dzungaria north of the Karluks. Before 900, they had replaced the Oghuz north ofLake Balkhash and were somehow associated with theKimeks to their north. By 1000 they reached theAral Sea and by 1100 theVolga. They continued west and occupied the whole western steppe where they were known asCumans andPolovtsi. They may have been ruled by the Kimeks at some point and the Cumans may be somewhat different. Starting about 1500 they were pushed off the western steppe by Russians and Ukrainians, but remained on the central steppe and became the Kazakhs.
Maximum extent of the Kipchak
Four peoples on the lower Syr Darya: After the fall of the Gokturks theKangar union (659–750?) was based on the lower Syr Darya. They may have been a revived Kangju under Turkic rule. ThePechenegs (750–790, very uncertain) were either Kangars or replaced them. From about 775 and 783[4] the Oghuz drove them west where they foughtKievan Rus. Circa 790 one of the Oghuz leaders took the title ofYabgu. Around 985 one of his subjects broke with the Yabgu and founded theSeljuks. The so-calledOghuz Yabgu State was overthrown by the Seljuks in 1043. They were followed by theQangli who lasted until the Mongol conquest.
Abul-Khayr (c. 1428–67): As the Golden Horde was breaking up,Abu'l-Khayr Khan, aShaybanid or descendant of Batu's brother, briefly unified the area from the Aral Sea north toward Siberia and east toward Lake Balkash. The termUzbek appears about this time, originally meaning something like Shaybanid and later applied to Turkic speakers along the Oxus.
Approximate areas occupied by the three Kazakh jüz in the early 20th century.
Kazakhs (c. 1460–present): A group ofAbu'l-Khayr's people broke off and settled in Semirechye. They came to be called Uzbek-Kazakhs, meaning something like free Uzbeks. Because of the disturbances following Abu'l-Khayr's death more Uzbeks joined them and the term Kazakh spread all over the central steppe. After about 1718 they divided into threeZhuzes. The Russians slowly gained power from 1730 and in 1845 the title of Khan was formally abolished.Kazakhstan became independent in 1991.
Nogai: Around 1500 the Kipchaks north of the Caspian came to be called theNogai Horde and their name spread to all the Kipchaks west of the Kazakhs. Those on the western steppe were slowly destroyed by the Russians while those on the central steppe seem to have been absorbed by the Kazakhs and Kalmyks.
Kalmyks (1618–1771): TheKalmyks were Buddhist Mongols from Dzungaria. In 1618 they crossed the central steppe and settled north of the Caspian. In 1771 part of them returned to Dzungaria.
^Geography for this section from Yuri Bregel, Historical Atlas of Central Asia, Maps 6–17. Sources for the Turkic migrations are vague and somewhat contradictory.ISBN978-9004123212
^Cristoph Baumer, History of Central Asia, v3, p 60, apparently not in other usual sources. The: 4-volume set (The History of Central Asia) 2018ISBN978-1788310499
Since this is an overview article, sources, footnotes and details are best found in the linked articles.[circular reference] Standard sources for steppe history are:
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