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On 1 October 1949CCP chairmanMao Zedongproclaimed thePeople's Republic of China (PRC) from atopTiananmen, after anear complete victory (1949) by theChinese Communist Party (CCP) in theChinese Civil War. The PRC is the most recent political entity to governmainland China, preceded by theRepublic of China (ROC; 1912–1949) and thousands of years ofmonarchicaldynasties. Theparamount leaders have been Mao Zedong (1949–1976);Hua Guofeng (1976–1978);Deng Xiaoping (1978–1989);Jiang Zemin (1989–2002);Hu Jintao (2002–2012); andXi Jinping (2012 to present).[1]
The origins of the People's Republic can be traced to theChinese Soviet Republic that was proclaimed in 1931 inRuijin (Jui-chin),Jiangxi (Kiangsi), with the backing of theAll-Union Communist Party in theSoviet Union[2][3] in the midst of the Chinese Civil War against theNationalist government only to dissolve in 1937.[4]
Under Mao's rule, China went through a socialist transformation from a traditional peasant society, leaning towardsheavy industries underplanned economy, while campaigns such as theGreat Leap Forward and theCultural Revolution wreaked havoc on the entire country. Since late 1978, theeconomic reforms led by Deng Xiaoping had made China theworld's second-largest and one of the fastest growing economies, with a specialty in high productivity factories and leadership in some areas of high technology. Globally, afterreceiving support from theUSSR in the 1950s, China became abitter enemy of USSR on a worldwide basis untilMikhail Gorbachev's visit to China in May 1989. In the 21st century, the new wealth and technology led to a contest for primacy in Asian affairs versusIndia,Japan and theUnited States, and since 2017 a growingtrade war with the United States.[5]
Following theChinese Civil War andvictory of Mao Zedong'sCommunist forces over theKuomintang forces of GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shek, who fled toTaiwan, Mao Zedongproclaimed the founding of thePeople's Republic of China (PRC) on 1 October 1949. Mao laid heavy theoretical emphasis oncommand economy andclass struggle.
After theKorean War ended in 1953, Mao Zedong launched campaigns to persecute former landlords and merchants, starting theindustrialisation program at the same time. Mao's first goal was a total overhaul of the land ownership system, and extensive land reforms, including the execution of more powerful landlords. China's old system ofgentrylandlord ownership of farmland and tenant peasants was replaced with a distribution system in favor of poor/landless peasants which significantly reducedeconomic inequality. Over a million landlords were executed in theChinese land reform.[6] In Zhangzhuangcun, in the more thoroughly reformed north of the country, most "landlords" and "rich peasants" had lost all their land and often their lives or had fled. The campaign resulted in hundreds of millions of peasants receiving a plot of land for the first time.[7] As a result, "middling peasants", who now accounted for 90% of the village population, owned 91% of the land.[8] Drug trafficking and opium use were largely wiped out. Foreign investments were seized and outsiders were expelled.
At the same time, political movements and class struggles were launched nationwide. TheAnti-Rightist Campaign of 1957–1958 significantly damaged the democracy in China, during which at least 550,000 people were persecuted, most of whom were intellectuals and political dissidents.[9] After the campaign, China entered thede factoone-party state of the Chinese Communist Party. Other major political movements in 1950s included theSuppression of Counter-revolutionaries, theThree-anti and Five-anti Campaigns and theSufan Movement, each of which resulted in a large number of deaths nationwide. Kuomingtang officials and soldiers who remained in mainland China were purged during the Counterrevolutionaries Suppression Campaign (鎮壓反革命運動；1950-1953), where reported over 1 million were executed. It was followed by the Three-Anti & Five-Anti Campaigns (三反五反運動;1951-1952), during which corrupt CCP officials and other "enemies of the people", mostly in cities, were purged or even summarily executed.
Mao Zedong believed thatsocialism would eventually triumph over all other ideologies, and following theFirst Five-Year Plan based on a Soviet-style centrally controlled economy, Mao took on the ambitious project of theGreat Leap Forward in 1958, beginning an unprecedented process ofcollectivisation in rural areas (thePeople's commune). Mao urged the use of communally organised iron smelters to increase steel production, pulling workers off of agricultural labor to the point that large amounts of crops rotted unharvested. Mao decided to continue to advocate these smelters despite a visit to a factory steel mill which proved to him that high quality steel could only be produced in a factory. He thought that ending the program would dampen peasant enthusiasm for his political mobilisation, the Great Leap Forward.
The implementation ofMaoism thought in China may have been responsible for thedeadliest famine in human history, in which 15–55 million people died due to starvation and epidemics.[10][11][12] By the end of 1961, the birth rate was nearly cut in half because of malnutrition.[13] In 1958, theXunhua uprising broke out and in 1959,a major uprising erupted inTibet, resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands of Tibetans, and theDalai Lama went into exile afterwards.[14][15] Meeting criticisms fromMarshalPeng Dehuai and others at theLushan conference over the radical policies, Mao launched the massive "Anti-Right Deviation Struggle" in 1959,[16] during which over 3 million CCP members were labelled as "right-deviationists" or "right-opportunists" and were subsequently purged or penalized.[17] However, Mao's failure with the Leap reduced his power in government, whose administrative duties fell to PresidentLiu Shaoqi andDeng Xiaoping, especially after theSeven Thousand Cadres Conference in early 1962. The power struggle between Mao Zedong and Liu Shaoqi together with Deng Xiaoping began after 1962. TheSocialist Education Movement was launched by Mao from 1963 to 1965, as a result.
Much more successful was the "Two Bombs, One Satellite" program, launched in 1958, with the help at first of Moscow.[18] It used leading scientists who returned to mainland China from abroad, includingQian Xuesen,Deng Jiaxian andQian Sanqiang.[19] China's firstatomic bomb,nuclear missile,hydrogen bomb andartificial satellite were all successfully developed by 1970. However, the program had been seriously affected by the Great Leap Forward and theCultural Revolution.
After the failure of the Great Leap Forward, China's leadership slowed the pace of industrialization.[20]: 3 It invested more on in China's coastal regions and focused on the production of consumer goods.[20]: 3 After an April 1964 General Staff report concluded that the concentration of China's industry in its major coastal cities made it vulnerable to attack by foreign powers, Mao argued for the development of basic industry and national defense industry in protected locations in China's interior.[20]: 4, 54 This resulted in the building of the Third Front, which involved massive projects including railroad infrastructure,[20]: 153–164 aerospace industry including satellite launch facilities,[20]: 218–219 and steel production industry includingPanzhihua Iron and Steel.[20]: 9
Development of the Third Front slowed in 1966 during the Cultural Revolution, but accelerated again after theSino-Soviet border conflict at Zhenbao Island, which increased the perceived risk of Soviet Invasion.[20]: 12, 150 Third Front construction again decreased after United States PresidentRichard Nixon's 1972 visit to China and the resulting rapprochement between the United States and China.[20]: 225–229 When Reform and Opening up began after Mao's death, China began to gradually wind down Third Front projects.[21]: 180 The Third Front distributed physical and human capital around the country, ultimately decreased regional disparities and created favorable conditions for later market development.[21]: 177–182
In 1963, Mao Zedong launched the Socialist Education Movement, which is regarded as the precursor of the Cultural Revolution. To impose socialist orthodoxy and rid China of "Four Olds", and at the same time serving certain political goals, Mao began the Cultural Revolution in May 1966, attempting to return to the center of political power in China. The campaign was far reaching into all aspects of Chinese life. Estimated death toll ranges from millions to 20,000,000.[22][23][24][25]Massacres took place across the country whilemassive cannibalism also occurred.[26][27] Starting from the "Red August" of 1966 in Beijing,Red Guards terrorized the streets as many ordinary citizens were deemed counter-revolutionaries; education and public transportation came to a nearly complete halt.[28]
In 1967,rebel groups beganseizing power from local governments and party branches, establishing newrevolutionary committees in their place meanwhilesmashing the police, procuratorate and judicial systems. These committees often split into rival factions, engaging in the deadlyviolent struggles.[26] Large-scale political purges such asCleansing the Class Ranks andOne Strike-Three Anti Campaign swept across the country; many prominent political leaders, including Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, were purged and deemed "capitalist roaders". Millions of people were labelled as members of theFive Black Categories and were persecuted, while many intellectuals and scientists were labelled as theStinking Old Ninth and went throughstruggle sessions.[26][28] In 1971, theLin Biao Incident shocked Beijing, followed by the rise ofGang of Four. The Revolution would not come to a complete end until thedeath of Mao Zedong and arrest of the Gang of Four in 1976. The second constitution of China, known as the "1975 Constitution", was passed in 1975 during the Cultural Revolution.
On the other hand, by the time of Mao's death, China's unity andsovereignty were assured for the first time in a century, and there was development ofinfrastructure,industry,healthcare,education (only 20% of the population could read in 1949, compared to 65.5% thirty years later),[29] which raisedstandard of living for the average Chinese. There is also an argument thatcampaigns such as the Great Leap Forward – an example of the conceptNew Democracy – and the Cultural Revolution were essential in jumpstarting China's development and "purifying" its culture: even though the consequences of both these campaigns were economically and humanly disastrous, they left behind a "clean slate" on which later economic progress could be built.[30]
Before theSino-Soviet split in the 1960s, the primary foreign policy of the People's Republic of China was to obtain diplomatic recognition in the face of strong American opposition.[31] TheBandung Conference in 1955, at which PremierZhou Enlai led the Chinese delegation, was an important milestone for China's foreign relations.[32]: 80 China developed its foreign relations with many newly independent and soon-to-be independent countries.[32]: 80 China'sFive Principles of Peaceful Coexistence were incorporated into the Ten Principles of Bandung.[32]: 80 In 1964, tensions between Washington and Parisallowed France to open relations.[33]
There were also sporadic military confrontations between the People's Republic of China and theRepublic of China based in Taiwan. Around theDongshan Island inFujian Province, for example, there wereBattle of Dongshan Island in 1950 and theDongshan Island Campaign in 1953 between thePeople's Liberation Army and theRepublic of China Armed Forces, followed by anotherBattle of Dongshan in August 1965.[34][35]
Beijing was very pleased that the success of the Soviet Union in thespace race – the originalSputniks – demonstrated that the international communist movement had caught up in high technology with the Americans. Mao assumed that the Soviets now had a military advantage and should step up theCold War; Khrushchev knew that the Americans were well ahead in military uses of space.[36] The strains multiplied, quickly making a dead letter of the 1950 alliance, destroying the socialist camp unity, and affected the world balance of power. The split started withNikita KhrushchevDe-Stalinization program. It angered Mao, who admired Stalin.[37] In addition, the radical policies of the Great Leap Forward as well asMao's controversial remarks on nuclear wars troubled Moscow.[38] According to Chinese records, the Soviet Union suddenly withdrew 1390 technicians and ended 600 contracts with China in 1960.[39]
Moscow and Beijing became worldwide rivals, forcing communist parties around the world to take sides; many of them split, so that the pro-Soviet communists were battling the pro-Chinese communists for local control of the left-wing forces in much of the world.[40] At the1960 International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties, and later at the22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1961, the Sino-Soviet conflict became out of control and was increasingly fought out in 81 communist parties around the world. Khrushchev personally attacked Mao as an ultra leftist – a left revisionist – and compared him to Stalin for dangerous egotism.[41] China later ridiculed the Russian incompetence in theCuban Missile Crisis of 1962 as adventurism to start with andcapitulationism to wind up on the losing side. Moscow now was increasingly giving priority to friendly relationships and test ban treaties with theUnited States andUnited Kingdom.[42][43][44][45]
A crisis came in 1962, when over 60,000 refugees escaped fromXinjiang inwestern China to Soviet territory to escape persecution, historically known as the "Yi–Ta incident". Meanwhile,border conflicts such as theTielieketi incident quickly escalated between the two countries. The Sino-Soviet conflict culminated after theZhenbao Island Incident in 1969, when the Soviet Union led byLeonid Brezhnev planned tolaunch a large-scale nuclear strike on China, including major cities likeBeijing,Changchun andAnshan, as well as China's nuclear sites includingJiuquan,Xichang andLop Nur.[47][48][49][50] On October 14, 1969, theCentral Committee of the Chinese Communist Party released an urgent evacuation order to theParty and state leaders in Beijing, requiring all leaders to leave Beijing by October 20, with Mao travelling toWuhan andLin Biao travelling toSuzhou.[47][51] Lin also issued the "Order Number One" on October 18, putting allPLA personnel on alert for imminent attack from the Soviet Union.[51][52] Eventually, the Soviet called off the attack due to the intervention from theUnited States.[47][50] Increasingly, Beijing began to consider the Soviet Union, which it viewed asSocial imperialism, as the greatest threat it faced, more so than even the leadingcapitalist power, the United States. In turn, overtures were made between the PRC and the United States, such as in thePing Pong Diplomacy,Panda Diplomacy and the1972 Nixon visit to China.[53]
In 1950,India became one of the first countries to recognize People's Republic of China andestablish formal diplomatic relation. However, India had close ties to the USSR and in 1962, a one-monthSino-Indian war and also a one-monthSecond Sino-Indian war in 1967 broke out along their remote border. Border tensions flared from time to time ever since.[54]
China established formal relationships with several majorwestern countries and Japan, primarily after the Sino-Soviet split in the 1960s. Typically, the other party broke formal relations it had with the government ofRepublic of China (ROC) in Taiwan once it established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC).
Only major disasters are presented below (click to show).
| Time | Disaster | Location | Deaths | Descriptions |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1950 | Assam–Tibet earthquake | Tibet | 4,000 | Around 4000 people died inTibet, while over 1000 died inIndia. |
| 1954 | Yangtze floods | Yangtze River | 33,000 | Mostly inHubei province. |
| 1957–1958 | Asian flu | Worldwide | Thepandemic started inGuizhou in southern China, and killed 1–4 million worldwide.[59] | |
| 1959–1961 | Great Chinese Famine | Nationwide | 15–55 million | Mainly caused by the Great Leap Forward.[60][61] |
| 1966 | Xingtai earthquake | Hebei | 8,064 | Magnitude 6.8Mw. |
| 1968–1969 | Hong Kong flu | Worldwide | The pandemic started inBritish Hong Kong, and killed 1–4 million worldwide.[59] | |
| 1970 | Tonghai earthquake | Yunnan | Over 10,000 | Magnitude 7.1Mw.[62] The earthquake occurred during the height of theCultural Revolution, and it was not widely publicized by the Chinese government for over a decade. |
| 1975 | Haicheng earthquake | Liaoning | 1,328 | Magnitude 7.5Ms.[63] Some claimed the death toll was 2,041. |
| 1975 | The Banqiao Dam failure | Henan | 85,600–240,000 | 62 dams including the largestBanqiao Dam in Henan province collapsed due toTyphoon Nina of 1975, creating thethird-largest flood in history (according to the Chinese government, the death toll was 26,000).[64][65][66][67][68] It was rated No.1 in "The Ultimate 10 Technological Disasters" of the world byDiscovery Channel in May 2005 (the Ultimate 10 show), beating theChernobyl nuclear disaster.[65][67][69] Most of the dams that collapsed in this disaster were built with the help of experts fromSoviet Union or during theGreat Leap Forward.[67][70][71][72] |
| 1976 | Tangshan earthquake | Hebei | At least 242,769 | Magnitude 7.6Mw.[73][74] |
During the Mao era, tens of millions of people died during various political movements as well as during theGreat Chinese Famine, while tens of millions of other people were persecuted and permanently crippled.[11][12][26] China turned into ade factoone-party state after theAnti-Rightist Campaign starting in 1957, during whichdemocracy and therule of law were damaged while at least 550,000 intellectuals and political dissidents were persecuted.[75] Moreover, the Cultural Revolution severely damaged the rule of law as well as traditional Chinese culture and moral values; massacreswere committed across the country and acts ofcannibalism were also committed on a massive scale (e.g.,Guangxi Massacre[27]).[26] Higher education was halted during the Cultural Revolution and scientific research was also seriously affected because many scientists were persecuted, killed or committed suicide. Some doubt statistics or accounts given for death tolls or other damages incurred by Mao's campaigns, attributing the high death toll tonatural disasters, famine, or other consequences of political chaos during the rule ofChiang Kai-shek.[76]
Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) also exported the ideology of socialism and socialist revolution to other parts of the world, especially toSoutheast Asia.[77] Influenced and supported by Mao and the CCP,Pol Pot and theKhmer Rouge conducted theCambodian genocide during which 1.5-2 million people were killed in just three years.[78]
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Mao Zedong's death was followed by a power struggle between theGang of Four,Hua Guofeng, and eventuallyDeng Xiaoping. The third constitution of China, known as the "1978 Constitution", was passed in 1978 under Hua's "Two Whatevers".
In December 1978, with the support ofYe Jianying and other high-ranking officials, Deng eventually replaced Hua and became theparamount leader of China during the3rd plenary session of the 11th Central Committee of CCP. Deng's allies such asHu Yaobang andZhao Ziyang also received promotions.
In September 1977, Deng first proposed the idea ofBoluan Fanzheng, attempting to dismantle thefar-leftMaoist policies associated with theCultural Revolution. In the same year, he resumed theNational College Entrance Examination which was cancelled for ten years due to the Cultural Revolution. Meanwhile, the "1978 Truth Criterion Discussion" triggered a decade-longNew Enlightenment movement in mainland China, promotingdemocracy,humanism anduniversal values such asfreedom,human rights andrule of law, while opposing the ideology of Cultural Revolution.[79]
Within several years starting 1978, victims of more than 3 million "unjust, false, wrongful cases" were rehabilitated by Deng and his allies such asHu Yaobang, thenGeneral Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party.[80][81] However, on the subject of Mao's legacy, Deng coined the famous phrase "7 parts good, 3 parts bad" and avoided denouncing Mao altogether. A major document presented at the September 1979 Fourth Plenum, gave a "preliminary assessment" of the entire 30-year period of Communist rule. At the plenum, partyVice ChairmanYe Jianying declared the Cultural Revolution "an appalling catastrophe" and "the most severe setback to [the] socialist cause since [1949]".[82]
In June 1981, the Chinese government's condemnation of the Cultural Revolution culminated in theResolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China, adopted by the sixth plenary session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party.[61][83] This resolution invalidated the Cultural Revolution as a "domestic havoc", but it stated that "Comrade Mao Zedong was a great Marxist and a great proletarian revolutionary, strategist and theorist. It is true that he made gross mistakes during the "Cultural Revolution", but, if we judge his activities as a whole, his contributions to the Chinese revolution far outweigh his mistakes. His merits are primary and his errors secondary".[84] Today, the public perception of Mao has improved at least superficially; images of Mao and Mao related objects have become fashionable, commonly used on novelty items and even as talismans.
As an aftermath of the Cultural Revolution, nationwide public safety worsened in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and as a result Deng launched the"Strike Hard" Anti-crime Campaign in 1983 which lasted until early 1987. More than 1.7 million people were arrested and received legal punishment during the campaign.[85]
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At theThird Plenum of the Eleventh National Party Congress Central Committee, Deng embarked China on the road toReform and Opening-up (改革开放Gaige Kaifang), policies that began with the de-collectivisation of the countryside, followed with industrial reforms aimed at decentralizing government controls in the industrial sector. In 1979, Deng emphasized the goal of "Four Modernizations" and further proposed the idea of "xiaokang", or "moderately prosperous society".[88][89] Deng laid emphasis onlight industry as a stepping stone to the development of heavy industries. The achievements ofLee Kuan Yew to create an economic superpower inSingapore had a profound effect on the Communist leadership in China. Leaders in China made a major effort, especially under Deng Xiaoping, to emulate his policies of economic growth, entrepreneurship, and subtle suppression of dissent. Over the years, more than 22,000 Chinese officials were sent to Singapore to study its methods.[90]
Deng championed the idea ofSpecial Economic Zones (SEZ), including Shenzhen, Zhuhai andXiamen, areas where foreign investment would be allowed to pour in without strict government restraint and regulations, running on a basicallycapitalist system.[91] On 31 January 1979, theShekou Industrial Zone ofShenzhen was founded, becoming the first experimental area in China to "open up".[92][93] Under the leadership ofYuan Geng, the "Shekou model" of development was gradually formed, embodied in its famous slogan "Time is Money, Efficiency is Life", which then widely spread to other parts of China.[92][94] In January 1984, Deng Xiaoping made his first inspection tour to Shenzhen and Zhuhai, recognizing the "Shenzhen Speed" of development as well as the success of the special economics zones.[95][96] With the help of Yuan Geng, the firstjoint-stockcommercial bank in China – theChina Merchants Bank – and the first joint-stock insurance company in China – thePing An Insurance – were both established inShekou.[97] In May 1984, fourteen coastal cities in China includingShanghai,Guangzhou andTianjin were named "Open Coastal Cities (沿海开放城市)".[98]
Deng recognized the importance ofscience and technology in the "Four Modernizations", pointing out that "science and technology are the primary productive force".[99] In December 1981, he approved the construction of "Beijing Electron–Positron Collider", the first high-energyparticle collider in China, and had several meetings with Nobel laureateTsung-Dao Lee who supported the project.[100] In 1985, theGreat Wall Station, the first Chineseresearch station inAntarctica, was established. In 1986, Deng approved the proposal from four leading Chinese scientists and launched the "863 Program"; in the same year, the nine-yearcompulsory education system was established under law (Law on Nine-Year Compulsory Education).[101][102] In the 1980s,Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant inZhejiang andDaya Bay Nuclear Power Plant in Shenzhen were built, becoming the first twonuclear power plants in China.[103] Deng also approved the appointments of foreign nationals to work in China, including the renownedChinese-American mathematicianShiing-Shen Chern.[104]
Supporters of the economic reforms point to the rapid development of theconsumer andexport sectors of the economy, the creation of an urbanmiddle class that now constitutes 15% of the population, higher living standards (which is shown via dramatic increases inGDP per capita,consumer spending,life expectancy,literacy rate, and total grain output) and a much wider range of personal rights and freedoms for average Chinese as evidence of the success of the reforms. Critics of the economic reforms, both in China and abroad, claim that the reforms have causedwealth disparity,environmental pollution, rampantcorruption, widespreadunemployment associated with layoffs at inefficientstate-owned enterprises, and has introduced often unwelcome cultural influences. Consequently, they believe that China's culture has been corrupted, the poor have been reduced to a hopeless abject underclass, and that the social stability is threatened. They are also of the opinion that various political reforms, such as moves towards popular elections, have been unfairly nipped in the bud.
After all, the path of modernisation and market-oriented economic reforms that China started since the early 1980s appears to be fundamentally unchallenged. Even critics of China's market reforms do not wish to see a backtrack of these two decades of reforms, but rather propose corrective measures to offset some of the social issues caused by existing reforms. On the other hand, in 1979, the Chinese government instituted aone child policy to try to control its rapidly increasing population. The controversial policy resulted in a dramatic decrease in child poverty. The law was eliminated in 2015.[105][106]
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On 18 August 1980, Deng Xiaoping gave a speech titled "On the Reform of the Party and State Leadership System (党和国家领导制度改革)" at an enlarged meeting of thePolitical Bureau of the CCP Central Committee inBeijing, launching the political reforms in China.[107][108][109][110] He called for the end of bureaucracy, centralisation of power as well as patriarchy, proposing term limits to the leading positions in China and advocating the "democratic centralism" as well as the "collective leadership".[108][109][110] In addition, Deng proposed to theNational People's Congress a systematic revision of China's constitution (the1978 Constitution), and emphasized that the Constitution must be able to protect thecivil rights of Chinese citizens and must reflect the principle ofseparation of powers; he also described the idea of "collective leadership" and championed the principle of "one man, one vote" among leaders to avoid the dictatorship of theGeneral Secretary of CCP.[107][110][111] In December 1982, the fourth Constitution of the People's Republic, known as the "1982 Constitution", was passed by the5th National People's Congress, embodying Chinese-styleconstitutionalism with most of its content still being effective as of today.[112][113]
In the first half of 1986, Deng repeatedly called for the revival of political reforms, as further economic reforms were hindered by the original political system while the country had seen an increasing trend ofcorruption andeconomic inequality, aggravated by the manysocial privileges enjoyed by governmental officials and their relatives.[114][115] A five-man research unit for China's political reforms was established in September 1986, and the members includedZhao Ziyang,Hu Qili,Tian Jiyun,Bo Yibo andPeng Chong.[116][117] Deng's intention of political reforms was to boost the administrative efficiency, further separate the responsibilities between the Communist Party and the Government, and to eliminate bureaucracy.[118][119] Although he also mentioned "rule of law" and "democracy", Deng delimited the reforms within theone-party system and opposed the implementation ofWestern-style constitutionalism.[119][120] In October 1987, at the13th National Congress of CCP chaired by Deng,Zhao Ziyang delivered an important talk drafted byBao Tong on the political reforms.[121][122] In his speech titled "Advance Along the Road ofSocialism with Chinese characteristics (沿着有中国特色的社会主义道路前进)", Zhao argued that the socialism in China was still in itsprimary stage and by taking Deng's speech in 1980 as guidelines, Zhao outlined a variety of steps to be taken for the political reforms, including promoting the rule of law and theseparation of powers, imposingde-centralisation, and improving theelection system.[118][121][122] At this Congress, Zhao was elected as the new General Secretary of CCP.[123]
However, after the1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, many leading reformists including Zhao and Bao were removed from their posts, and the majority of the planned political reforms (after 1986) ended drastically.[120][124][125] Left-wing conservatives led byChen Yun, PresidentLi Xiannian and PremierLi Peng took control untilDeng Xiaoping's southern tour in early 1992. On the other hand, many policies due to the political reforms launched by Deng in the early 1980s remain effective after 1989 (such as the new Constitution, term limits, and the democratic centralism), even though some of them have been reversed by CCP general secretaryXi Jinping after 2012.[126][127][128]
In 1983, left-wing conservatives initiated the "Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign".[129]
In 1986, thestudent demonstrations led to the resignation ofHu Yaobang, then General Secretary of CCP and a leading reformist, and the left-wing conservatives continued to launch the "Anti-Bourgeois Liberalisation Campaign".[130] The campaign ended in mid-1987 becauseZhao Ziyang convincedDeng Xiaoping that the conservatives were taking advantage of the campaign to oppose theReforms and Opening-up program.[130]
Although standards of living improved significantly in the 1980s, Deng's reforms were not without criticism. Hard-liners asserted that Deng opened China once again to various social evils, and an overall increase in materialistic thinking, while liberals attacked Deng's unrelenting stance onwider political reforms. Liberal forces began gathering in different forms to protest against the Party's authoritarian leadership. In 1989, the death of Hu Yaobang, a liberal figure, triggered weeks of spontaneous protests in theTiananmen Square. The government imposed martial law and sent in tanks and soldiers to suppress the demonstrations.Western countries and multilateral organisations briefly suspended their formal ties with China's government under PremierLi Peng's leadership, which was directly responsible for the military curfew and bloody crackdown.[131]
In early 1979, China started aone-month war with Vietnam. Furthermore, China continued to supportKhmer Rougeduring Deng Xiaoping's time together with theUnited States,Thailand and several other countries to counter the regional influence of theSoviet Union.[132]
In March 1981, Deng Xiaoping determined that amilitary exercise was necessary for thePeople's Liberation Army (PLA), and in September 1981, theNorth China Military Exercise took place, becoming the largest exercise conducted by the PLA since the founding of the People's Republic.
In 1985, in order to modernise the PLA and to save money, Deng cut 1 million troops from the military (百万大裁军) and ordered further modernisation.[133]
On 1 January 1979, the People's Republic of China formallyestablished its diplomatic relations with the United States.[134] In January 1979, Deng Xiaoping visited the United States, which was first official visit by aparamount leader of China to the United States.[135] In the same year, theChinese Olympic Committee for PRC was recognized by theInternational Olympic Committee. Under the advice ofLee Kuan Yew, Deng Xiaoping agreed to further open up the country and stop exporting communist ideologies and revolutions to other countries like Mao did, and the decisions significantly improved the relations between China and many countries, especially those insouth-east Asia.[136][137]
In 1984,Xu Haifeng, a pistolshooter, won the first Olympic gold medal for China during the1984 Summer Olympics inLos Angeles. In the same year, theSino-British Joint Declaration was signed byChina and theUnited Kingdom, stipulating that the sovereignty and the administrative management ofHong Kong would be handed over back to China on 1 July 1997 under the "one country, two systems" framework. In 1987, theJoint Declaration on the Question of Macau was signed by China and Portugal, stipulating that the sovereignty and the administrative management ofMacau would be handed over back to China 20 December 1999, again under the "one country, two systems" framework.
In 1989, the relation between China and the Soviet Union returned to normal for the first time since theSino-Soviet split in the 1950s.Mikhail Gorbachev, thenGeneral Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, visitedBeijing and met with Deng Xiaoping during theSino-Soviet Summit, which took place amid the Tiananmen Square protests.[138]
After the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, China faced strong backlash from thewestern countries.[139] Deng, as a response, devised a new set of diplomatic strategies for China, which were summarised to be "hide your strength, bide your time, never take the lead".[140][141] In the 1980s and early 1990s, People's Republic of China continued to establish formal diplomatic relations with a number of countries such asUnited Arab Emirates (1984),Qatar (1988),Saudi Arabia (1990),Singapore (1990),Israel (1992) andSouth Korea (1992).[56]
Only major disasters are presented below (click to show).
| Time | Disaster | Location | Deaths | Descriptions |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1977 | Russian flu | Worldwide | Thepandemic started innorthern China andSiberia, during the transition period (1976–78).[142] Around 700,000 deaths worldwide.[143] The virus is widely believed to have been leaked from a lab.[144][145] | |
| 1981 | Dawu earthquake | Sichuan | 150 | Some 300 people were injured. |
| 1982 | Flight 3303 accident | Guangxi | 112 | CAAC Airlines plane crash. |
| 1987 | Black Dragon fire | Daxing'anling Prefecture,Heilongjiang | Over 200 | The fire also spread to theSoviet Union. It was one of the largest wildfires in history.[146][147] |
| 1988 | Flight 4146 accident | Chongqing | 108 | China Southwest Airlines plane crash. |
| 1988 | Lancang earthquake | Yunnan | 748 | Additionally, about 7700 were injured.[148] |
After theCultural Revolution, Deng started theBoluan Fanzheng program to correct theMaoist mistakes, but some of his policies and views were controversial. Deng insisted on praising that Mao had done "7 good and 3 bad" for the Chinese people, while attributing numerous disasters in the Cultural Revolution toLin Biao and theGang of Four.[149] In addition, in order to maintain theone-party state in China for theChinese Communist Party (CCP), Deng proposed the "Four Cardinal Principles" at theCCP Theory Conference in March 1979, which soon became the limit ofpolitical liberalization in mainland China and were incorporated in theConstitution of China (1982).[150]
Moreover, the role that Deng played in the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre was rather controversial.[151][152] In fact, he also cracked down theDemocracy Wall movement as well as theBeijing Spring in early 1980s.[153] Political campaigns such asCampaign against spiritual pollution in 1983 andAnti-Bourgeois Liberalisation Campaign in 1986-1987 were also launched, and manyliberal officials and intellectuals includingHu Yaobang were purged or penalized.[129][130]
To cope with the population crisis after Mao's era, Deng Xiaoping, together with other senior officials includingChen Yun andLi Xiannian, supported the implementation of the "one-child policy".[154] Some of the extreme measures in practice created many controversies such as human rights violations.[155]
After the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, Deng Xiaoping stepped away from public view and fully retired. Power passed to the third generation of leadership led byJiang Zemin, who was hailed as its "core". However, owing to the Tiananmen massacre, theReforms and Opening-up program went into stagnation in early 1990s, and Jiang, supported by left-wing conservatives, was not doing enough to continue the reforms.
In the spring of 1992, Deng made hisfamous tour tosouthern China, which is widely regarded as a critical point in the history of modern China as it saved China's economic reform as well as thecapital market (Shanghai Stock Exchange andShenzhen Stock Exchange), and preserved the stability of the society. Jiang eventually sided with Deng and publicly supported the Reforms and Opening-up program. ConservativeLi Peng was thePremier of China until 1998, when reformistZhu Rongji succeeded as the new Premier.[156]
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Economic growth achieved a sustained high rate by the mid-1990s. Jiang Zemin's macroeconomic reforms furthered Deng's vision for "Socialism with Chinese characteristics". Jiang laid heavy emphasis on scientific and technological advancement in areas such asspace exploration. At the same time, Jiang's period saw a continued rise in social corruption in all areas of life. Unemployment skyrocketed as unprofitableState-owned enterprise (SOE) were closed to make way for more competitive ventures internally and abroad. The ill-equipped social welfare system was put on a serious test.[157] In 2000, Jiang proposed his ideology of "Three Represents", which was ratified by theChinese Communist Party at theSixteenth Party Congress in 2002.
At the same time, PremierZhu Rongji's economic policies held China's economy strong during the1997 Asian financial crisis. Economic growth averaged at 8% annually, pushed back by the1998 Yangtze River Floods. Standards of living improved significantly, although a wide urban-ruralwealth gap was created as China saw the reappearance of themiddle class. Wealth disparity between the Eastern coastal regions and the Western hinterlands continued to widen by the day, prompting government programs to "develop the West", taking on ambitious projects such as theQinghai–Tibet railway. However, rampant corruption continued despite Premier Zhu's anti-corruption campaign that executed many officials. Corruption alone is estimated to amount to the equivalent of anywhere from 10 to 20 per cent of China's GDP.[158]
To sustain the increased electricity consumption, theThree Gorges Dam was built, attracting supporters and widespread criticism. Environmental pollution became a very serious problem as Beijing was frequently hit bysandstorms as a result ofdesertification.[159]
In 1990s,Project 211 andProject 985 were launched forhigher education in China.
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In November 1991, China joined theAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. The 1990s saw the peacefulHandover of Hong Kong andMacau by theUnited Kingdom andPortugal respectively to China.[161] Hong Kong and Macau mostly continued their own governance, retaining independence in their economic, social, and judicial systems until 2019, whenBeijing tried to expand national powers in the face oflarge-scale protests in Hong Kong.[162][163]
Jiang Zemin andBill Clinton exchanged state visits, butSino-American relations took very sour turns at the end of the decade, especially after thethird Taiwan Strait Crisis. On 7 May 1999, during theKosovo War,U.S. aircraft bombed the Chinese embassy in Belgrade. The U.S. government claimed the strike was due to bad intelligence and false target identification.[164] Inside the United States, theCox Report stated that China had been stealing various top United States military secrets.[165] In 2001, a United States surveillance planecollided with a Chinese fighter jet over international waters nearHainan, inciting further outrage with the Chinese public, already dissatisfied with the United States.[166]
After a decade of talks, China was finally admitted into theWorld Trade Organization in 2001. The same year saw the establishment of theShanghai Cooperation Organisation.[167] In August 2002, due to the efforts of the renowned mathematicianShiing-Shen Chern, the quadrennialInternational Congress of Mathematicians was held in Beijing – the first time in adeveloping country, with Chern being the honorary president of the Congress andWu Wenjun being the president.[168]
Only major disasters are presented below (click to show).
| Time | Disaster | Location | Deaths | Descriptions |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1990 | Guangzhou Baiyun airport collisions | Guangdong | 128 | Hijacking of a plane led to runway collision. |
| 1992 | Eastern China flood | East China | At least 431 | At least 267 deaths inAnhui and 164 inJiangsu.[169] Some other sources claim the death toll was over 1,000.[170][171] |
| 1992 | Flight 7552 accident | Jiangsu | 106–109 | China General Aviation plane crash. |
| 1992 | Flight 3943 accident | Guangxi | 141 | China Southern Airlines plane crash. |
| 1994 | Flight 2303 accident | Shaanxi | 160 | China Northwest Airlines plane crash. |
| 1994 | Typhoon Fred | Zhejiang | 1,426[172] | Known as the Typhoon 9417 in China.[172] |
| 1994 | Karamay fire | Xinjiang | 325 | A major controversy was that the students were told to remain seated to allow government officials to escape the fire first.[173] 288 schoolchildren were killed. |
| 1996 | Lijiang earthquake | Yunnan | 309 | Magnitude 6.6Mw. |
| 1996 | Typhoon Herb | Fujian | 779[172] | Known as the Typhoon 9608 in China.[172] |
| 1997 | Asian financial crisis | Asia | Affected China's economy to an extent. | |
| 1998 | Yangtze River floods | Yangtze River and others | 3,000–4,150 | The event was considered the worstNorthern China flood in 40 years.[174][175] |
| 2001 | Shijiazhuang bombings | Hebei | 108 | |
| 2002 | Flight 6136 accident | Liaoning | 112 | China Northern Airlines plane crash. |
On the political agenda, China was once again put on the spotlight for the banning of publicFalun Gong activity in 1999. Silent protesters from the spiritual movement sat outside ofZhongnanhai, asking for dialogue with China's leaders. Jiang saw it as a threat to the political situation and outlawed the group altogether, while using mass media propaganda[176] to denounce it as an "evil cult".[177]
Jiang Zemin, after formally retiring as theparamount leader of China in 2004, was believed to have moved behind the scenes and was still in control of the country even after his late step-down from theChairman of the Central Military Commission in 2005.[178][179][180] TheJiang faction, includingZhou Yongkang,Guo Boxiong andXu Caihou, continued to impact China significantly afterHu Jintao succeeded as the paramount leader of China.[179][180]
Hu Jintao succeeded as theGeneral Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in November 2002.[181] In March 2003, Hu Jintao became the 6thPresident of the People's Republic of China, withWen Jiabao being thePremier of China. In September 2004, Hu Jintao became theChairman of the Central Military Commission.
The economy continued to grow in double-digit numbers as the development of rural areas became the major focus of government policy. In 2010, China overtook Japan as theworld's second-largest economy.[182][183] The assertion of theScientific Perspective to create aSocialist Harmonious Society was the focus of the Hu Jintao – Wen Jiabao administration, as some Jiang Zemin-era excesses were slowly reversed. In late 2002, theSouth–North Water Transfer Project began construction.
In gradual steps to consolidate his power,Hu Jintao removed Shanghai Party secretaryChen Liangyu and other potential political opponents amidst the fight against corruption, and the ongoing struggle against once powerfulShanghai clique. In particular, in 2012, theWang Lijun incident and the scandal ofBo Xilai received widespread attention and media coverage.[184][185]
The continued economic growth of the country as well as its sporting power status gained China the right to host the2008 Summer Olympics. However, this also put Hu Jintao's administration under intense spotlight. While the 2008 Olympics was commonly understood to be a come-out party for People's Republic of China, in light of theMarch 2008 Tibet protests, the government received heavy scrutiny. TheOlympic torch was met with protest en route. Within the country, these reactions were met with a fervent wave ofnationalism with accusations ofWestern bias againstChina.[citation needed]
Continued economic growth during the2008 financial crisis which started in the United States and hobbled the world economy increased China's confidence in its model of development and convinced elites that the global balance of power was shifting.[186] In the Chinese view, the cause of the crisis was Western countries' "inappropriate macroeconomic policies" and "unsustainable modes of development."[187] When Western countries were nearing financial disaster, China created credit for spending on infrastructure.[188] This both helped stabilize the global economy and it also provided an opportunity for China to retool its own infrastructure.[188] China increased its standing as a responsible global actor during the crisis.[188]
Meanwhile, a number of scientific progresses and breakthroughs took place between 2002 and 2012, many of which originated from the863 Program. In 2003, China successfully sent anastronaut,Yang Liwei, to the space viaShenzhou 5, becoming the third country in the world to do so independently after theUnited States and theSoviet Union.[189] In 2010,Jiaolong, the Chinese manned deep-sea researchsubmersible, was deployed. In 2011–2012,BeiDou-2, the Chinesesatellite navigation system, became operational. In 2011,Tiangong-1, the first prototypespace station of China, was successfully launched.[190] In March 2012, results from theDaya Bay Reactor Neutrino Experiment inShenzhen received international attention.[191] In October 2012,Mo Yan became the first Chinese citizen (mainland) to win theNobel Prize in Literature.[192]
China's position in thewar on terror drew the country closer diplomatically to theUnited States. In 2010, theAsian Games was held inGuangzhou, and in 2011, theSummer Universiade was held inShenzhen. In 2010, another international event took place in China—Shanghai held theWorld Expo for the first time.
Thepolitical status and future ofTaiwan remain uncertain, but steps have been taken to improving relations between the Communist Party and several of Taiwan's parties that hold a less antagonistic view towards China, notably former rivalKuomintang.
Hu's critics say that his government was overly aggressive in asserting its new power, overestimated its reach, and raised the ire and apprehension of various neighbours, including Southeast Asian countries, India, and Japan. Such policies are also said to be provocative towards the United States.[193]
Only major disasters are presented below (click to show).
| Time | Disaster | Location | Deaths | Descriptions |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2003 | SARS epidemic | Nationwide | 349 (mainland China) | SARS killed 774 people globally, with 349 inmainland China and 299 inHong Kong.[194][195] |
| 2005 | Sunjiawan mine disaster | Liaoning | 214 | |
| 2005 | Shalan Town flood | Heilongjiang | 117 | 105 students were killed. |
| 2008 | 2008 financial crisis | Global | Affected China's economy to an extent. | |
| 2008 | Chinese winter storms | Southern and central China | At least 129 | |
| 2008 | Zibo train collision | Shandong | 72 | 416 injuries. |
| 2008 | Sichuan earthquake | Sichuan | 69,227 | Magnitude 8.0Ms.[196] |
| 2008 | South China floods | South China | Over 200 | Severe flooding in the provinces ofAnhui,Hunan,Jiangxi,Fujian andGuangdong, with dozens of fatalities and over a million people forced to evacuate. |
| 2008 | Shanxi mudslide | Shanxi | 277 | 4 missing. |
| 2009 | Heilongjiang mine explosion | Heilongjiang | 108 | |
| 2010 | Yushu earthquake | Qinghai | 2,698 | 270 missing. |
| 2010 | China floods | Nationwide | 3,185 | 1060 missing.[197] |
| 2010 | Gansu mudslide | Gansu | 1,557 | |
| 2012 | Beijing flood | Beijing | 79 |
In the years after Hu Jintao's rise to power, respect of basichuman rights in China continued to be a source of concern.Liu Xiaobo,Nobel Peace Prize winner andhuman rights activist, was arrested and sentenced to jail for 11 years in 2010.[198][199] Liu Xiaobo, together with others, authored theCharter 08 and received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010.[198][199] Liu Xiaobo died in 2017.
In Hu Jintao's time, the Chinese Communist Party and the Chinese government created the "50 Cent Party", attempting to "guide" public opinions online in favor of the Communist Party and the Chinese government.[200][201]
Xi Jinping became theGeneral Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party and theChairman of the Central Military Commission, the two most powerful positions on 15 November 2012.[202] And on March 14, 2013, he became the 7thPresident of China.[203]Li Keqiang became thePremier of China in March 2013.
In October 2022,Xi Jinping wasre-elected asGeneral Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party for a precedent-breaking third term ofparamount leader afterMao Zedong's death.[204] In March 2023, Xi continued as the President of China for a third term, whileLi Qiang succeeded Li Keqiang as the new Premier of China.
A massive, long-termanti-corruption campaign has been carried out under Xi Jinping since 2012, mostly targeting Xi Jinping's political rivals such as members of theJiang faction including Party senior leadersZhou Yongkang,Guo Boxiong andXu Caihou.[205][206]
In March 2018, the Party-controlledNational People's Congress passed a set ofconstitutional amendments including the removal ofterm limits for thepresident andvice president, the creation of aNational Supervisory Commission, as well as enhancing the central role of the Communist Party.[207][208] On 17 March 2018, the Chinese legislature re-appointed Xi Jinping as president, nowwithout term limits.[209][210] According to theFinancial Times, Xi Jinping expressed his views of constitutional amendment at meetings with Chinese officials and foreign dignitaries. Xi Jinping explained the decision in terms of needing to align two more powerful posts –General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party andChairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC) – which have no term limits. However, Xi Jinping did not say whether he intended to serve as party general secretary, CMC chairman and state president, for three or more terms.[211]
On the other hand, a series of scientific advances took place. In 2013, theYutu rover was successfully deployed on theMoon after theChang'e 3 lander landed on the Moon.[212] In 2015,Tu Youyou became the first Chinese citizen (mainland) to win theNobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.[213] In December 2015, theDark Matter Particle Explorer, China's firstspace observatory, was successfully launched. TheTiangong-2 space laboratory was successfully launched in 2016, and in the same year theFive-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) was built inGuizhou. In 2018, theHong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge, world's longest sea-crossing bridge, was open to public.[214]
As Xi Jinping continued to consolidate power domestically, he gradually abandoned the diplomatic principles ("hide your strength, bide your time, never take the lead") set byDeng Xiaoping and appeared more as a "strongman" in the global stage.[140][141][215][216] He launched the "One Belt One Road initiative" to make infrastructure investment in dozens of countries, which received widespread attention (both receptions and criticism) from around the world.[217][218]
Since Xi Jinping succeeded as the leader of China, he tried to change "China's passivity" into an assertive strategy to defend China's claims over border and territory disputes such asin the South China Sea and inTaiwan.[219][220] In 2018,China–United States trade war started and significantly affected the global economy.[221][222] In May 2020,China–India skirmishes along the border broke out and resulted in casualties.[223]
On the other hand, after Xi Jinping came to power, a number of international summits were held in China. In 2014, the22nd annual gathering ofAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) leaders was held in Beijing; in 2016,the G20 summit was held inHangzhou; and in 2017,the 9th BRICS summit was held inXiamen. Additionally, in 2015, theMa–Xi meeting inSingapore was the first meeting between the political leaders of the two sides of theTaiwan Strait since the end of theChinese Civil War in 1950.
China refused to condemn theRussian invasion of Ukraine, repeated Russian narratives about the war, opposedeconomic sanctions against Russia, and abstained or sided with Russia in UN votes on the war in Ukraine.[224][225]
Only major disasters are presented below (click to show).
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Since 2012, Xi Jinping together with his allies has rolled back several policies from theBoluan Fanzheng period ofDeng Xiaoping and promotedhis cult of personality asMao Zedong did. For example, in 2018, Xi Jinping eliminated the term limit in China's Constitution for Chinese President, which challenged some of the political legacies of Deng Xiaoping and triggered concerns about a return to a one-man rule similar to Mao.[229][230][231][232]
Domestic human rights violation has deteriorated. In July 2015, hundreds of Chinese lawyers and human rights activists nationwide were detained or arrested during the709 crackdown.[233][234] Moreover, theXinjiang internment camps since 2017, in which over a millionUyghurs and other ethnic minorities are being detained, and themassive protests in Hong Kong since 2019 have received widespread attention and extensive media coverage from around the world.[235][236][237][238] TheHong Kong national security law published on 30 June 2020 also received widespread attention and raised considerable concern worldwide over the breach of the "One Country, Two Systems" principle.[239][240][241]
After Xi Jinping came to power in 2012, theCommunist Party along with theChinese government have significantly strengthenedtheir internet censorship and tightened their control over the Chinese internet environment, blocking Chinese citizens' access to many foreign websites and mobile apps using the "Great Firewall".[242][243][244] At the same time, a large number of "50 Cent Party" members have been recruited to "guide" online narratives around the globe in favor of the Party and the Government.[245][246] During the massive Hong Kong protests, for instance,Twitter andFacebook claimed to have removed or suspended over 200,000 accounts and pages linked with the Chinese government.[247][248] As of 2022, themass surveillance system keeps the whole population under close watch.[5][249]
Globally, the aggressive "wolf warrior diplomacy" undergeneral secretaryship of Xi Jinping has created numerous controversies and backlashes.[250][251][252] Controversies also surround China's handling of the outbreak of anovel coronavirus (COVID-19) as well as its relationship with theWorld Health Organization (WHO) was rather controversial.[253][254][255] There have been a large number ofconspiracy theories and misinformation related to COVID-19, including the origin of the virus.[256] China has also launched its own disinformation campaign globally over the issues of the pandemic, of Hong Kong and Uyghurs, and more, promoting China as a global leader while attacking the United States for instance.[257][258][259] Furthermore, manipulation of economic data by the Chinese government, such as publishing inflated GDP figures over the years, is also a major concern.[260][261][262]
Mao's responsibility for the extinction of anywhere from 40 to 70,000,000 lives brands him as a mass killer greater than Hitler or Stalin, his indifference to the suffering and the loss of humans breathtaking
At least one million died, though some estimates of deaths go as high as 20 million
See, for example, Huo-cheng, Li, "Chinese Communists reveal for the first time the number 20 million deaths for the Cultural Revolution,"Ming Bao (Daily News), 26 10 1981, p. 3
According to a working conference of the Communist Party's Central Committee in 1978, 20 million Chinese died in the revolution, 100 million were persecuted and 800 billion yuan was wasted.
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{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)President insists term extension is necessary to align government and party posts
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
