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Thehistory of theCaucasus region may be divided by geography into the history of theNorth Caucasus (Ciscaucasia), historically in the sphere of influence ofScythia and ofSouthern Russia (Eastern Europe), and that of theSouth Caucasus (Transcaucasia;Caucasian Albania,Georgia,Armenia,Azerbaijan) in the sphere of influence ofPersia,Anatolia, and (for a very brief time)Assyria.
Throughout history, Southern Caucasus and the Southeastern portion of the North Caucasus have come under the control of various empires, including theAchaemenid,Neo-Assyrian Empire,[1]Parthian,Roman,Sassanian,Byzantine,Mongol,Ottoman, and successiveIranian (Safavid,Afsharid, andQajar). In 1813 and 1828 by theTreaty of Gulistan and theTreaty of Turkmenchay respectively, Qajar Iran officially ceded its territories in the Caucasus in what is now southernDagestan, easternGeorgia,Azerbaijan, andArmenia to theRussian Empire.[2] Russia conquered and annexed the rest of the North Caucasus in the course of the 19th century in theCaucasian Wars (1817–1864).
The North Caucasus became the scene of intense fighting during theSecond World War.Nazi Germany attempted to capture the Caucasus region ofSoviet Union in 1942 bya two-pronged attack towards both the western bank of theVolga (intended to seize the city ofStalingrad) and southeast towardsBaku, amajor center ofoil production. Some parts of the North Caucasus fell under German occupation, but the Axis invasion eventually faltered as it failed to accomplish either goal, and Soviet soldiers drove the Germans back west following theBattle of Stalingrad (1942–1943).
Following thedissolution of the Soviet Union at theend of the Cold War,Armenia,Azerbaijan, andGeorgia became independent nations. The Caucasus region has become the setting of territorial disputes in thepost-Soviet era, which lead to the establishment of unrecognized states ofArtsakh,Abkhazia, andSouth Ossetia.
The Caucasus region gradually enters the historical record during theLate Bronze Age toEarly Iron Age.Hayasa-Azzi was aLate Bronze Age confederation of two kingdoms ofArmenian Highlands,Hayasa located South ofTrabzon andAzzi, located north of theEuphrates and to the south of Hayasa. The Hayasa-Azzi confederation was in conflict with theHittite Empire in the 14th century BC, leading up to thecollapse of Hatti around 1190 BC
Arme-Shupria was a kingdom, known fromAssyrian sources beginning in the 13th century BC, located in what is now known as theArmenian Highlands, to the southwest ofLake Van, bordering onArarat proper. The capital was calledUbbumu.[3] TheDiauehi were a tribal confederation in northeastern Anatolia in thepost-Hittite period, mentioned inUrartian inscriptions.[4] Diauehi is a possible locus ofProto-Kartvelian; it has been described as an "important tribal formation of possible proto-Georgians" byRonald Grigor Suny (1994),[5] although other scholars have suggested that it may have beenproto-Armenian (based on the etymology of the name).[6][7][8] At the same time, during the 13th to 9th centuries BC, theNairi appear in Assyrian and Hittite records. TheBattle of Nihriya (c. 1230 BC) was the culmination of Hittite-Assyrian hostilities.
TheKingdom of Urartu rose to power in the mid-9th century BCand flourished for two centuries before it was absorbed into theMedian Empire in the early 6th century BC, followed by the conquest by theAchaemenid Empire.
The Northern Caucasus enters the historical record later, being in cultural contact with thePontic steppe. TheKoban culture (ca. 1100 to 400 BC) is a lateBronze Age andIron Age culture of the northern and central Caucasus. Its end presumably correlates with theScythian expansion in the region.
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During the Middle AgesBagratid Armenia,Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget,Kingdom of Syunik, andPrincipality of Khachen organized local Armenian population facing multiple threats after the fall of antiqueKingdom of Armenia.
Caucasian Albania maintained close ties with Armenia, and theChurch of Caucasian Albania shared the same Christian dogmas with theArmenian Apostolic Church and had a tradition of their Catholicos being ordained through thePatriarch of Armenia.[9]
By the end of the 15th century, theKingdom of Georgia was fragmented into a number of petty client kingdoms subject to eitherPersia (Kingdom of Kakheti,Kingdom of Kartli) or theOttomans (Kingdom of Imereti).[note 1] Throughout the 16th century, the Caucasus continued to serve as a battleground between Persian and Ottoman forces, with the two great powers attempting to gain control over the region. From the 1530s to the 1550s, several Transcaucasian cities became the focal point of these imperial divides. In 1555, this culminated in thePeace of Amasya, whereby Ottoman and Persian forces agreed to establish formal spheres of influence in the region.[10] As a result of the Treaty, the Safavid Empire (Persia) assumed control over lands East of theSurami Highlands, including the Georgian kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti.[10] The Ottomans received areas West of the Highlands, including the Georgiankingdom of Imereti.[10] The nascentRussian Empire gained territories in the North Caucasus in theRusso-Persian war of 1722/3. These territories were ceded back to Persia a few years later. Following the death ofNader Shah, Kartli and Kakheti were merged into theKingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in 1762; Ereklede facto seceded from Persian overlordship, but stillde jure recognized the Persians as his suzerain. In 1783, KingErekle II concluded theTreaty of Georgievsk with theRussian Empire.Catherine the Great tried to use Georgia as a base of operations against both Iran and the Ottoman Empire. After her death, the Russians withdrew to theNorth Caucasus Line. TheQajar dynasty re-established Persia's traditional suzerainty over the Caucasus. A Persian invasion force defeated the Georgian army in theBattle of Krtsanisi in 1795. In 1801, a few years after the assassination ofAgha Mohammad Khan, capitalizing on the eruption of instability in Iran, the Russiansannexed eastern Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti).
While Georgia and Armenia remained Christian, theChechens gradually adoptedSunni Islam.[11] TheCircassians were mostly Islamized under the influence of theCrimean Tatars and theOttoman Empire in the 17th century.
The khanates that soon emerged after the death ofNader Shah in 1747 were the following:[12][13]
Countries and regions of theCaucasus | |
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1 Partially-recognized states |
