The humanhistory of the Americas is thought to begin with people migrating to these areas from Asia during the height of anice age. These groups are generally believed to have been isolated from the people of the "Old World" until the coming of Europeans in 1492 with thevoyages of Christopher Columbus.
The ancestors of today'sAmerican Indigenous peoples were thePaleo-Indians; they werehunter-gatherers who migrated into North America. The most popular theory asserts that migrants came to theAmericas viaBeringia, the land mass now covered by the ocean waters of theBering Strait. Smalllithic stage peoples followedmegafauna like bison, mammoth (now extinct), and caribou, thus gaining the modern nickname "big-game hunters." Groups of people may also have traveled into North America on shelf or sheet ice along the northern Pacific coast.
Sedentary societies developed primarily in two regions:Mesoamerica and theAndean civilizations. Mesoamerican cultures includeZapotec,Toltec,Olmec,Maya,Aztec,Mixtec,Totonac,Teotihuacan,Huastec people,Purépecha,Izapa andMazatec.[1] Andean cultures includeInca,Caral-Supe,Wari,Tiwanaku,Chimor,Moche,Muisca,Chavin,Paracas, andNazca.
After thevoyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492,Spanish and laterPortuguese,English,French andDutch colonial expeditions arrived in the New World,conquering and settling the discovered lands, which led to a transformation of the cultural and physical landscape in the Americas. Spain colonized most of the Americas from present-daySouthwestern United States, Florida and theCaribbean to the southern tip of South America. Portugal settled in what is mostly present-dayBrazil while England established colonies on theEastern coast of the United States, as well as theNorth Pacific coast and in most of Canada. France settled inQuebec and other parts of Eastern Canada and claimed an area in what is today the central United States. The Netherlands settled New Netherland (administrative centre New Amsterdam – now New York), some Caribbean islands and parts of Northern South America.
European colonization of the Americas led to the rise of new cultures, civilizations and eventually states, which resulted from the fusion of Native American, European, and African traditions, peoples and institutions. The transformation of American cultures through colonization is evident in architecture, religion, gastronomy, the arts and particularly languages, the most widespread beingSpanish (376 million speakers), English (348 million) andPortuguese (201 million). The colonial period lasted approximately three centuries, from the early 16th to the early 19th centuries, whenBrazil and the largerHispanic American nations declared independence. The United States obtained independence from Great Britain much earlier, in 1776, while Canada formed a federal dominion in 1867 and received legal independencein 1931. Others remained attached to their European parent state until the end of the 19th century, such asCuba andPuerto Rico which were linked to Spain until 1898. Smaller territories such asGuyana obtained independence in the mid-20th century, whileFrench Guiana, theFalkland Islands,Bermuda and several Caribbean islands remain part of a European power to this day.
Thepeopling of the Americas began whenPaleolithichunter-gatherers (Paleo-Indians) enteredNorth America from theNorth AsianMammoth steppe via theBeringia land bridge, which had formed between northeasternSiberia and westernAlaska due to the lowering ofsea level during theLast Glacial Maximum (26,000 to 19,000 years ago).[3] These populations expanded south of theLaurentide Ice Sheet and spread rapidly southward, occupying bothNorth and South America by 12,000 to 14,000 years ago.[4][5][6][7][8] The earliest populations in the Americas, before roughly 10,000 years ago, are known asPaleo-Indians. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to Siberian populations by proposedlinguistic factors, the distribution ofblood types, and ingenetic composition as reflected bymolecular data, such asDNA.[9][10]
While there is general agreement that the Americas were first settled from Asia, the pattern of migration and the place(s) of origin in Eurasia of the peoples who migrated to the Americas remain unclear.[5] The traditional theory is thatAncient Beringians moved when sea levels were significantly lowered due to theQuaternary glaciation,[11][12] following herds of now-extinctPleistocenemegafauna alongice-free corridors that stretched between theLaurentide andCordilleran ice sheets.[13] Another route proposed is that, either on foot or usingboats, they migrated down the Pacific coast toSouth America as far asChile.[14] Any archaeological evidence of coastal occupation during the last Ice Age would now have been covered by thesea level rise, up to a hundred metres since then.[15]
The precise date for the peopling of the Americas is a long-standing open question. While advances inarchaeology,Pleistocenegeology,physical anthropology, andDNA analysis have progressively shed more light on the subject, significant questions remain unresolved.[16][17] The "Clovis first theory" refers to the hypothesis that theClovis culture represents the earliest human presence in the Americas about 13,000 years ago.[18]Evidence of pre-Clovis cultures has accumulated and pushed back the possible date of the first peopling of the Americas.[19][20][21][22] Academics generally believe that humans reached North America south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet at some point between 15,000 and 20,000 years ago.[16][19][23][24][25][26] Some new controversial archaeological evidence suggests the possibility that human arrival in the Americas may have occurred prior to theLast Glacial Maximum more than 20,000 years ago.[19][27][28][29][30][31]
TheLithic stage orPaleo-Indian period, is the earliest classification term referring to the first stage of human habitation in the Americas, covering theLate Pleistocene epoch. The time period derives its name from the appearance of "Lithic flaked" stone tools.Stone tools, particularlyprojectile points andscrapers, are the primary evidence of the earliest well known human activity in theAmericas.Lithic reduction stone tools are used byarchaeologists andanthropologists to classify cultural periods.
Several thousand years after the first migrations, the first complex civilizations arose as hunter-gatherers settled into semi-agricultural communities. Identifiable sedentary settlements began to emerge in the so-called MiddleArchaic period around 6000 BCE. Particulararchaeological cultures can be identified and easily classified throughout the Archaic period.
In the late Archaic, on the north-central coastal region of Peru, a complex civilization arose which has been termed theNorte Chico civilization, also known as Caral-Supe. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas and one of thesix sites where civilization originated independently and indigenously in the ancient world, flourishing between the 30th and 18th centuries BC. It pre-dated the MesoamericanOlmec civilization by nearly two millennia. It was contemporaneous with the Egypt following the unification of its kingdom underNarmer and the emergence of the firstEgyptian hieroglyphics.
Monumental architecture, including earthwork platform mounds and sunken plazas have been identified as part of the civilization. Archaeological evidence points to the use of textile technology and the worship of common god symbols. Government, possibly in the form of theocracy, is assumed to have been required to manage the region. However, numerous questions remain about its organization. In archaeological nomenclature, the culture was pre-ceramic culture of the pre-Columbian Late Archaic period. It appears to have lacked ceramics and art.
Ongoing scholarly debate persists over the extent to which the flourishing of Norte Chico resulted from its abundant maritime food resources, and the relationship that these resources would suggest between coastal and inland sites. The role of seafood in the Norte Chico diet has been a subject of scholarly debate. In 1973, examining the Aspero region of Norte Chico,Michael E. Moseley contended that a maritime subsistence (seafood) economy had been the basis of society and its early flourishing. This theory, later termed "maritime foundation of Andean Civilization" was at odds with the general scholarly consensus that civilization arose as a result of intensive grain-based agriculture, as had been the case in the emergence of civilizations in northeast Africa (Egypt) and southwest Asia (Mesopotamia).
While earlier research pointed to edible domestic plants such assquash,beans,lucuma,guava,pacay, andcamote at Caral, publications by Haas and colleagues have addedavocado,achira, andmaize (Zea Mays) to the list of foods consumed in the region. In 2013, Haas and colleagues reported that maize was a primary component of the diet throughout the period of 3000 to 1800 BC.[32]Cotton was another widespread crop in Norte Chico, essential to the production of fishing nets and textiles. Jonathan Haas noted a mutual dependency, whereby "The prehistoric residents of the Norte Chico needed the fish resources for their protein and the fishermen needed the cotton to make the nets to catch the fish."
In the 2005 book1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus, journalist Charles C. Mann surveyed the literature at the time, reporting a date "sometime before 3200 BC, and possibly before 3500 BC" as the beginning date for the formation of Norte Chico. He notes that the earliest date securely associated with a city is 3500 BC, atHuaricanga in the (inland) Fortaleza area. The Norte Chico civilization began to decline around 1800 BC as more powerful centers appeared to the south and north along its coast, and to the east within the Andes Mountains.
After the decline of the Norte Chico civilization, numerous complex civilizations and centralized polities developed in the Western Hemisphere: TheChavin,Nazca,Moche,Huari,Quitus,Cañaris,Chimu,Pachacamac,Tiahuanaco,Aymara andInca in theAndes; theMuisca,Tairona,Miskito,Huetar, andTalamanca in theIntermediate Area; theTaínos in the Caribbean; and theOlmecs,Maya,Toltecs,Mixtecs,Zapotecs,Aztecs,Purepecha andNicoya in Mesoamerica.
TheOlmec civilization was the first Mesoamerican civilization, beginning around 1600–1400 BC and ending around 400 BC. Mesoamerica is considered one of thesix sites around the globe in which civilization developed independently and indigenously. This civilization is considered the mother culture of the Mesoamerican civilizations. The Mesoamerican calendar, numeral system, writing, and much of the Mesoamerican pantheon seem to have begun with the Olmec.
Some elements of agriculture seem to have been practiced in Mesoamerica quite early. Thedomestication of maize is thought to have begun around 7,500 to 12,000 years ago. The earliest record of lowland maize cultivation dates to around 5100 BC.[33] Agriculture continued to be mixed with a hunting-gathering-fishing lifestyle until quite late compared to other regions, but by 2700 BC, Mesoamericans were relying on maize, and living mostly in villages. Temple mounds and classes started to appear. By 1300/1200 BC, small centres coalesced into the Olmec civilization, which seems to have been a set of city-states, united in religious and commercial concerns. The Olmec cities had ceremonial complexes with earth/clay pyramids, palaces, stone monuments, aqueducts and walled plazas. The first of these centers was at San Lorenzo (until 900 BC). La Venta was the last great Olmec centre. Olmec artisans sculpted jade and clay figurines of Jaguars and humans. Their iconic giant heads – believed to be of Olmec rulers – stood in every major city.
The Olmec civilization ended in 400 BC, with the defacing and destruction of San Lorenzo and La Venta, two of the major cities. It nevertheless spawned many other states, most notably the Mayan civilization, whose first cities began appearing around 700–600 BC. Olmec influences continued to appear in many later Mesoamerican civilizations.
Cities of the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas were as large and organized as the largest in the Old World, with an estimated population of 200,000 to 350,000 inTenochtitlan, the capital of theAztec Empire. The market established in the city was said to have been the largest ever seen by theconquistadors when they arrived. The capital of the Cahokians,Cahokia, located near modernEast St. Louis, Illinois, may have reached a population of over 20,000. At its peak, between the 12th and 13th centuries, Cahokia may have been the most populous city in North America.Monk's Mound, the major ceremonial center of Cahokia, remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoric New World.
These civilizations developed agriculture as well, breedingmaize (corn) from having ears 2–5 cm in length to perhaps 10–15 cm in length.Potatoes,tomatoes,beans (greens),pumpkins,avocados, andchocolate are now the most popular of the pre-Columbian agricultural products. The civilizations did not develop extensive livestock as there were few suitable species, althoughalpacas andllamas were domesticated for use as beasts of burden and sources of wool and meat in theAndes. By the 15th century, maize was being farmed in theMississippi River Valley after introduction fromMexico. The course of further agricultural development was greatly altered by the arrival ofEuropeans.
Cahokia was a major regionalchiefdom, with trade and tributary chiefdoms located in a range of areas from bordering theGreat Lakes to theGulf of Mexico.
TheIroquois League of Nations or "People of the Long House", based in present-day upstate and westernNew York, had aconfederacy model from the mid-15th century. It has been suggested that their culture contributed to political thinking during the development of the later United States government. Their system of affiliation was a kind of federation, different from the strong, centralized European monarchies.[34][35][36]
Leadership was restricted to a group of 50sachemchiefs, each representing oneclan within a tribe; theOneida andMohawk people had nine seats each; theOnondagas held fourteen; theCayuga had ten seats; and theSeneca had eight. Representation was not based on population numbers, as the Seneca tribe greatly outnumbered the others. When a sachem chief died, his successor was chosen by the senior woman of his tribe in consultation with other female members of the clan; property and hereditary leadership were passedmatrilineally. Decisions were not made through voting but through consensus decision making, with each sachem chief holding theoreticalveto power. The Onondaga were the "firekeepers", responsible for raising topics to be discussed. They occupied one side of a three-sided fire (the Mohawk and Seneca sat on one side of the fire, the Oneida and Cayuga sat on the third side.)[36]
Long-distance trading did not prevent warfare and displacement among the indigenous peoples, and their oral histories tell of numerous migrations to the historic territories where Europeans encountered them. The Iroquois invaded and attacked tribes in the Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky and claimed the hunting grounds. Historians have placed these events as occurring as early as the 13th century, or in the 17th centuryBeaver Wars.[37]
Through warfare, the Iroquois drove several tribes to migrate west to what became known as their historically traditional lands west of the Mississippi River. Tribes originating in the Ohio Valley who moved west included theOsage,Kaw,Ponca andOmaha people. By the mid-17th century, they had resettled in their historical lands in present-dayKansas,Nebraska,Arkansas andOklahoma. The Osage warred withCaddo-speaking Native Americans, displacing them in turn by the mid-18th century and dominating their new historical territories.[37]
ThePueblo people of what is now occupied by theSouthwestern United States and northernMexico, living conditions were that of large stone apartment likeadobe structures. They live in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, and possibly surrounding areas.
Chichimeca was the name that theMexica (Aztecs) generically applied to a wide range of semi-nomadic peoples who inhabited the north of modern-dayMexico, and carried the same sense as the European term "barbarian". The name was adopted with a pejorative tone by the Spaniards when referring especially to the semi-nomadichunter-gatherer peoples of northern Mexico.
TheOlmec civilization emerged around 1200 BCE in Mesoamerica and ended around 400 BCE. Olmec art and concepts influenced surrounding cultures after their downfall. This civilization was thought to be the first in America to develop a writing system. After the Olmecs abandoned their cities for unknown reasons, the Maya, Zapotec and Teotihuacan arose.
ThePurepecha civilization emerged around 1000 CE in Mesoamerica. They flourished from 1100 CE to 1530 CE. They continue to live on in the state ofMichoacán. Fierce warriors, they were never conquered and in their glory years, successfully sealed off huge areas from Aztec domination.
Maya history spans 3,000 years. TheClassic Maya may have collapsed due to changing climate in the end of the 10th century.
TheToltec were a nomadic people, dating from the 10th–12th century, whose language was also spoken by the Aztecs.
Teotihuacan (4th century BCE – 7/8th century CE) was both a city, and an empire of the same name, which, at its zenith between 150 and the 5th century, covered most of Mesoamerica.
TheAztec having started to build their empire around 14th century found their civilization abruptly ended by the Spanish conquistadors. They lived in Mesoamerica, and surrounding lands. Their capital city Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities of all time.
The Valdivia culture is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas. It emerged from the earlierLas Vegas culture and thrived along the coast ofSanta Elena peninsula inSanta Elena Province ofEcuador between 3500 BCE and 1500 BCE.[citation needed]
One of the oldest known civilization of the Americas was established in theNorte Chico region of modern Peru. Complex society emerged in the group of coastal valleys, between 3000 and 1800 BCE. TheQuipu, a distinctive recording device among Andean civilizations, apparently dates from the era of Norte Chico's prominence.[citation needed]
TheChavín established a trade network and developed agriculture by as early as (or late compared to the Old World) 900 BCE according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modernPeru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned from 900 BCE to 300 BCE.[citation needed]
TheUpano Valley sites in present-day eastern Ecuador predate all known complex Amazonian societies, spanning from approximately 500 BCE to 300-600 CE.[38]
Holding their capital at the great city ofCusco, theInca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533.Known asTawantinsuyu, or "the land of the four regions", inQuechua, the Inca culture was highly distinct and developed. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain.Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successfultrepanation of the skull in Inca civilization.
Around 1000, theVikings establisheda short-lived settlement inNewfoundland, now known asL'Anse aux Meadows.Speculations exist about other Old World discoveries of the New World, but none of these are generally or completely accepted by most scholars.
Spain sponsored a major exploration led by Italian explorerChristopher Columbus in 1492; it quickly led to extensiveEuropean colonization of the Americas. The Europeans brought Old World diseases which are thought to have caused catastrophic epidemics and a hugedecrease of the native population. Columbus came at a time in which many technical developments in sailing techniques and communication made it possible to report his voyages easily and to spread word of them throughout Europe. It was also a time of growing religious, imperial and economic rivalries that led to a competition for the establishment of colonies.
15th to 19th century colonies in the New World:
The formation of sovereign states in the New World began with theUnited States Declaration of Independence of 1776. TheAmerican Revolutionary War lasted through the period of theSiege of Yorktown—its last major campaign—in the early autumn of 1781, with peace being achievedin 1783. In 1804, after the French ofNapoleon Bonaparte were defeated during theHaitian Revolution under the black leadership ofJean-Jacques Dessalines declare the colony ofSaint-Domingue independence of theHaitian Declaration of Independence as he renamed the countryAyiti meaning (Land of Mountains),Haiti became the world'sfirst black-led republic in the New World, the firstCaribbean state as well as the firstLatin American country and the second oldest independent nation in theWestern Hemisphere after the United States to win independence fromBritain in 1783.
The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in theSpanish American wars of independence.Simón Bolívar andJosé de San Martín, among others, led their independence struggle. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of Latin America politically allied, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as theParaguayan War and theWar of the Pacific. (SeeLatin American integration.) In the Portuguese colonyDom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the PortuguesekingDom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's firstEmperor. This was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal, upon compensation.
Slavery has had a significant role in the economic development of theNew World after the colonization of the Americas by the Europeans. Thecotton,tobacco, andsugarcane harvested by slaves became important exports for the United States and the Caribbean countries.
As a part of theBritish Empire, Canada immediately entered World War I when it broke out in 1914. Canada bore the brunt of several major battles during the early stages of the war, including the use ofpoison gas attacks atYpres. Losses became grave, and the government eventually brought inconscription, despite the fact this was against the wishes of the majority ofFrench Canadians. In the ensuingConscription Crisis of 1917, riots broke out on the streets ofMontreal. In neighboring Newfoundland, the new dominion suffered a devastating loss on 1 July 1916, theFirst day on the Somme.
The United States stayed out of the conflictuntil 1917, when it joined the Entente powers. The United States was then able to play a crucial role at theParis Peace Conference of 1919 that shapedinterwar Europe. Mexico was not part of the war, as the country was embroiled in the Mexican Revolution at the time.
The 1920s brought an age of great prosperity in the United States, and to a lesser degree Canada. But theWall Street crash of 1929 combined withdrought ushered in a period of economic hardship in the United States andCanada. From 1926 to 1929, there was a popular uprising against the anti-Catholic Mexican government of the time, set off specifically by the anti-clerical provisions of theMexican Constitution of 1917.
Once again, Canada found itself at war before its neighbors, with numerically modest but significant contributions overseas such as the Battle of Hong Kong and the Battle of Britain. The entry of the United States into the war helped to tip the balance in favour of theallies. Two Mexican tankers, transporting oil to the United States, were attacked and sunk by the Germans in theGulf of Mexico waters, in 1942. The incident happened in spite of Mexico's neutrality at that time. This led Mexico to enter the conflict with a declaration of war on the Axis nations. The destruction of Europe wrought by the war vaulted all North American countries to more important roles in world affairs, especially the United States, which emerged as a "superpower".
The early Cold War era saw the United States as the most powerful nation in a Western coalition of which Mexico and Canada were also a part. In Canada, Quebec was transformed by theQuiet Revolution and the emergence ofQuebec nationalism. Mexico experienced an era of huge economic growth after World War II, a heavy industrialization process and a growth of its middle class, a period known in Mexican history as"El Milagro Mexicano" (the Mexican miracle). The Caribbean saw the beginnings ofdecolonization, while on the largest island theCuban Revolution introduced Cold War rivalries into Latin America.
Thecivil rights movement in the U.S. endedJim Crow and empowered black voters in the 1960s, which allowed black citizens to move into high government offices for the first time since Reconstruction. However, the dominantNew Deal coalition collapsed in the mid-1960s in disputes over race and theVietnam War, and the conservative movement began its rise to power, asthe once dominant liberalism weakened and collapsed. Canada during this era was dominated by the leadership ofPierre Elliot Trudeau. In 1982, at the end of his tenure, Canada enshrined a new constitution.
Canada'sBrian Mulroney not only ran on a similar platform but also favored closer trade ties with the United States. This led to theCanada-United States Free Trade Agreement in January 1989. Mexican presidentsMiguel de la Madrid, in the early 1980s andCarlos Salinas de Gortari in the late 1980s, started implementing liberal economic strategies that were seen as a good move. However, Mexico experienced a strong economic recession in 1982 and the Mexican peso suffered a devaluation. In the United States presidentRonald Reagan attempted to move the United States back towards a hard anti-communist line in foreign affairs, in what his supporters saw as an attempt to assert moral leadership (compared to the Soviet Union) in the world community. Domestically, Reagan attempted to bring in a package ofprivatization andregulation to stimulate the economy.
The end of the Cold War and the beginning of the era of sustained economic expansion coincided during the 1990s. On 1 January 1994, Canada, Mexico and the United States signed theNorth American Free Trade Agreement, creating the world's largest free trade area. In 2000,Vicente Fox became the first non-PRI candidate to win the Mexican presidency in over 70 years. The optimism of the 1990s was shattered by the9/11 attacks of 2001 on the United States, which prompted military intervention inAfghanistan, which also involved Canada. Canada did not support the United States' later move toinvade Iraq, however.
In the U.S. theReagan Era of conservative national policies, deregulation and tax cuts took control with the election ofRonald Reagan in 1980. By 2010, political scientists were debating whether the election ofBarack Obama in 2008 represented an end of the Reagan Era, or was only a reaction against the bubble economy of the 2000s (decade), which burst in 2008 and became theLate-2000s recession with prolonged unemployment.
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| Country or Territory withflag | Area (km2)[39] (sq mi) | Population (2021 est.)[40][41] | Population density per km2 (per sq mi) | Capital |
|---|---|---|---|---|
 Bermuda (United Kingdom) | 54 km2 (21 sq mi) | 64,185 | 1,189/km² (3,079/sq mi) | Hamilton |
 Canada | 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) | 39,858,480 | 3.99/km² (10.33/sq mi) | Ottawa |
 Clipperton Island (France) | 8.9 km2 (3.4 sq mi) | Uninhabited | 0/km² (0/sq mi) | N/A |
 Greenland (Denmark) | 2,166,086 km2 (836,330 sq mi) | 56,583 | 0.026/km² (0.067/sq mi) | Nuuk |
 Mexico | 1,972,550 km2 (761,610 sq mi) | 129,875,529 | 65.8/km² (170.4/sq mi) | Mexico City |
 Saint Pierre and Miquelon (France) | 242 km2 (93 sq mi) | 6,008 | 24.8/km² (64.2/sq mi) | Saint-Pierre |
 United States | 3,796,742 km2 (1,465,930 sq mi) | 336,997,624 | 88.8/km² (230/sq mi) | Washington, D.C. |
| Total | 17,920,353 km2 (6,919,087 sq mi) | 506,807,509 | 28.3/km2 (73.2/sq mi) |
Despite the failure of a lasting political union, the concept ofCentral American reunification, though lacking enthusiasm from the leaders of the individual countries, rises from time to time. In 1856–1857 the region successfully established a military coalition to repel an invasion by United States adventurerWilliam Walker. Today, all five nations flyflags that retain the old federal motif of two outer blue bands bounding an inner white stripe. (Costa Rica, traditionally the least committed of the five to regional integration, modified its flag significantly in 1848 by darkening the blue and adding a double-wide inner red band, in honor of the French tricolor).
In 1907, aCentral American Court of Justice was created. On 13 December 1960, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua established theCentral American Common Market ("CACM"). Costa Rica, because of its relative economic prosperity and political stability, chose not to participate in the CACM. The goals for the CACM were to create greater political unification and success ofimport substitution industrialization policies. The project was an immediate economic success, but was abandoned after the 1969 "Football War" between El Salvador and Honduras. ACentral American Parliament has operated, as a purely advisory body, since 1991. Costa Rica has repeatedly declined invitations to join the regional parliament, which seats deputies from the four other former members of the Union, as well as fromPanama and theDominican Republic.
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| Country or Territory withflag | Area (km2)[39] (sq mi) | Population (2021 est.)[40][41] | Population density per km2 (per sq mi) | Capital |
|---|---|---|---|---|
 Belize | 22,970 km2 (8,870 sq mi) | 441,471 | 19.22/km² (49.78/sq mi) | Belmopan |
 Costa Rica | 51,100 km2 (19,700 sq mi) | 5,044,197 | 98.7/km² (255.6/sq mi) | San José |
 El Salvador | 21,041 km2 (8,124 sq mi) | 6,602,370 | 314/km² (813/sq mi) | San Salvador |
 Guatemala | 108,889 km2 (42,042 sq mi) | 17,980,803 | 165/km² (427/sq mi) | Guatemala City |
 Honduras | 112,492 km2 (43,433 sq mi) | 9,571,352 | 85.1/km² (220.4/sq mi) | Tegucigalpa |
 Nicaragua | 130,375 km2 (50,338 sq mi) | 6,359,689 | 48.8/km² (126.4/sq mi) | Managua |
 Panama | 75,417 km2 (29,119 sq mi) | 4,337,768 | 57.5/km² (148.9/sq mi) | Panama City |
| Total | 522,284 km2 (201,655 sq mi) | 50,337,650 | 96.4/km2 (249.6/sq mi) |
In the 1960s and 1970s, the governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay were overthrown or displaced by U.S.-aligned military dictatorships. These dictatorships detained tens of thousands ofpolitical prisoners, many of whom were tortured and/or killed (on inter-state collaboration, seeOperation Condor). Economically, they began a transition toneoliberal economic policies. They placed their own actions within the United StatesCold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from aninternal conflict (seeTúpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement andShining Path). Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued.
International indebtedness became a notable problem, as most recently illustrated byArgentina'sdefault in the early 21st century. In recent years, South American governments have drifted to the left, withsocialist leaders being elected in Chile,Bolivia, Brazil,Venezuela, and a leftist president in Argentina andUruguay. Despite the move to the left, South America is still largely capitalist. With the founding of theUnion of South American Nations, South America has started down the road of economic integration, with plans for political integration in theEuropean Union style.
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| Country or Territory withflag | Area (km2)[39] (sq mi) | Population (2021 est.)[40][41] | Population density per km2 (per sq mi) | Capital |
|---|---|---|---|---|
 Argentina | 2,766,890 km2 (1,068,300 sq mi) | 45,276,780 | 16.4/km² (42.5/sq mi) | Buenos Aires |
 Bolivia | 1,098,580 km2 (424,160 sq mi) | 12,079,472 | 11.0/km² (28.5/sq mi) | Sucre;La Paz[42] |
 Brazil | 8,514,877 km2 (3,287,612 sq mi) | 214,326,223 | 25.2/km² (65.3/sq mi) | Brasília |
 Chile[43] | 756,950 km2 (292,260 sq mi) | 19,493,184 | 25.8/km² (66.8/sq mi) | Santiago |
 Colombia | 1,138,910 km2 (439,740 sq mi) | 51,516,562 | 45.2/km² (117.1/sq mi) | Bogotá |
 Ecuador | 283,560 km2 (109,480 sq mi) | 17,797,737 | 62.8/km² (162.7/sq mi) | Quito |
 Falkland Islands (United Kingdom)[44] | 12,173 km2 (4,700 sq mi) | 3,398[45] | 0.28/km² (0.73/sq mi) | Stanley |
 French Guiana (France) | 91,000 km2 (35,000 sq mi) | 294,071[46] | 3.23/km² (8.37/sq mi) | Cayenne |
 Guyana | 214,999 km2 (83,012 sq mi) | 804,567 | 3.74/km² (9.69/sq mi) | Georgetown |
 Paraguay | 406,750 km2 (157,050 sq mi) | 6,831,306 | 16.8/km² (43.5/sq mi) | Asunción |
 Peru | 1,285,220 km2 (496,230 sq mi) | 33,715,471 | 26.2/km² (67.9/sq mi) | Lima |
 South Georgia andSouth Sandwich Islands (United Kingdom)[47] | 3,093 km2 (1,194 sq mi) | 20 | 0.01/km² (0.03/sq mi) | King Edward Point |
 Suriname | 163,270 km2 (63,040 sq mi) | 612,985 | 3.75/km² (9.71/sq mi) | Paramaribo |
 Uruguay | 176,220 km2 (68,040 sq mi) | 3,477,780 | 19.7/km² (51/sq mi) | Montevideo |
 Venezuela | 916,445 km2 (353,841 sq mi) | 28,199,867 | 30.8/km² (79.8/sq mi) | Caracas |
| Total | 17,828,937 km2 (6,883,791 sq mi) | 434,429,423 | 24.4/km2 (63.2/sq mi) |
Throughout the 20th century, several island countries, such asJamaica andBarbados gained independence from British rule. As a result, many of the English-speaking states and territories shifted their economies to tourism and offshore bank industries.
During the Cold War, the Caribbean has faced a series of military interventions from the United States, such as theBanana Wars and theCuban Missile Crisis.
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| Country or Territory withflag | Area (km2)[39] (sq mi) | Population (2021 est.)[40][41] | Population density per km2 (per sq mi) | Capital |
|---|---|---|---|---|
 Anguilla (United Kingdom) | 102 km2 (39 sq mi) | 15,753 | 154.4/km² (399.9/sq mi) | The Valley |
 Antigua and Barbuda | 442 km2 (171 sq mi) | 93,219 | 210.9/km² (546.2/sq mi) | St. John's |
 Aruba (Netherlands) | 180 km2 (69 sq mi) | 106,537 | 591.9/km² (1,533/sq mi) | Oranjestad |
 The Bahamas | 13,943 km2 (5,383 sq mi) | 407,906 | 29.3/km² (75.9/sq mi) | Nassau |
| Bajo Nuevo Bank (United States / Colombia / Jamaica) | 100 km2 (39 sq mi) | Uninhabited | 0.0/km² (0/sq mi) | N/A |
 Barbados | 430 km2 (170 sq mi) | 287,025 | 667.5/km² (1,729/sq mi) | Bridgetown |
 Bonaire (Netherlands) | 294 km2 (114 sq mi) | 20,104 | 68.4/km² (177.2/sq mi) | Kralendijk |
 British Virgin Islands (United Kingdom) | 151 km2 (58 sq mi) | 31,122 | 206.1/km² (533.8/sq mi) | Road Town |
 Cayman Islands (United Kingdom) | 264 km2 (102 sq mi) | 68,136 | 258.1/km² (668.5/sq mi) | George Town |
 Cuba | 109,886 km2 (42,427 sq mi) | 11,256,372 | 102.4/km² (265.2/sq mi) | Havana |
 Curaçao (Netherlands) | 444 km2 (171 sq mi) | 190,338 | 428.7/km² (1,110/sq mi) | Willemstad |
 Dominica | 751 km2 (290 sq mi) | 72,412 | 96.4/km² (249.7/sq mi) | Roseau |
 Dominican Republic | 48,671 km2 (18,792 sq mi) | 11,117,873 | 228.4/km² (591.6/sq mi) | Santo Domingo |
 Federal Dependencies of Venezuela (Venezuela) | 342 km2 (132 sq mi) | 2,155 | 6.3/km² (16.3/sq mi) | N/A |
 Grenada | 344 km2 (133 sq mi) | 124,610 | 362.2/km² (938.1/sq mi) | St. George's |
 Guadeloupe (France) | 1,620 km2 (630 sq mi) | 396,051 | 244.5/km² (633.3/sq mi) | Basse-Terre |
 Haiti | 27,750 km2 (10,710 sq mi) | 11,447,569 | 412.5/km² (1,068/sq mi) | Port-au-Prince |
 Jamaica | 10,991 km2 (4,244 sq mi) | 2,827,695 | 257.3/km² (666.4/sq mi) | Kingston |
 Martinique (France) | 1,128 km2 (436 sq mi) | 368,796 | 326.9/km² (846.7/sq mi) | Fort-de-France |
 Montserrat (United Kingdom) | 102 km2 (39 sq mi) | 4,417 | 43.3/km² (112.1/sq mi) | Plymouth;Brades |
| Navassa Island (United States / Haiti) | 5 km2 (1.9 sq mi) | Uninhabited | 0.0/km² (0/sq mi) | Lulu Town |
 Puerto Rico (United States) | 8,870 km2 (3,420 sq mi) | 3,256,028 | 367.1/km² (950.8/sq mi) | San Juan |
 Saba (Netherlands) | 13 km2 (5.0 sq mi) | 1,537 | 118.2/km² (306.1/sq mi) | The Bottom |
 Saint Barthélemy (France) | 21 km2 (8.1 sq mi) | 7,448 | 354.7/km² (918.7/sq mi) | Gustavia |
 Saint Kitts and Nevis | 261 km2 (101 sq mi) | 47,606 | 182.4/km² (472.4/sq mi) | Basseterre |
 Saint Lucia | 539 km2 (208 sq mi) | 179,651 | 333.3/km² (863.2/sq mi) | Castries |
 Saint Martin (France) | 54 km2 (21 sq mi) | 29,820 | 552.2/km² (1,430/sq mi) | Marigot |
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 389 km2 (150 sq mi) | 104,332 | 268.2/km² (694.6/sq mi) | Kingstown |
| Serranilla Bank (United States / Colombia / Honduras) | 100 km2 (39 sq mi) | Uninhabited | 0.0/km² (0/sq mi) | N/A |
 Sint Eustatius (Netherlands) | 21 km2 (8.1 sq mi) | 2,739 | 130.4/km² (337.7/sq mi) | Oranjestad |
 Sint Maarten (Netherlands) | 34 km2 (13 sq mi) | 44,042 | 1,296/km² (3,357/sq mi) | Philipsburg |
 Trinidad and Tobago | 5,130 km2 (1,980 sq mi) | 1,525,663 | 297.4/km² (770.3/sq mi) | Port of Spain |
 Turks and Caicos Islands (United Kingdom) | 948 km2 (366 sq mi) | 45,144 | 47.6/km² (123.3/sq mi) | Cockburn Town |
 United States Virgin Islands (United States) | 347 km2 (134 sq mi) | 100,091 | 288.4/km² (747.1/sq mi) | Charlotte Amalie |
| Total | 234,667 km2 (90,605 sq mi) | 44,182,191 | 188.3/km2 (487.6/sq mi) |
New data drawn from coprolites, pollen records, and stone tool residues, combined with 126 radiocarbon dates, demonstrate that maize was widely grown, intensively processed, and constituted a primary component of the diet throughout the period from 3000 to 1800 B.C.
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