Thehistory of southern India covers a span of over four thousand years, during which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires.
The period of known history of southern India begins with theIron Age (c. 1200 BCE – 200 BCE),Sangam period (c. 600 BCE – 300 CE) and Medieval southern India until the 15th century CE. Dynasties ofChera,Chola,Pandyan,Pallava,Travancore,Cochin,Zamorin,Kolathunadu,Chalukya,Satavahana,Rashtrakuta,Western Ganga,Kakatiya,Hoysala,Seuna,Bhonsle,Gaekwad,Scindia,Holkar,Patwardhan,Sangama,Saluva,Tuluva,Aravidu andBahmani were at their peak during various periods of history.
TheVijayanagara Empire rose in response to the Islamic intervention and covered most of southern India. It acted as a bulwark against theDeccan Sultanate andMughal expansion into the south. When the European powers arrived during the 16th and 18th centuries CE, the southern kingdoms, most notablyTipu Sultan'sKingdom of Mysore, resisted the new threats, but many parts eventually succumbed to British conquest. The British created theMadras Presidency which acted as an administrative centre for the rest of southern India, with them being princely states. AfterIndian independence, southern India was linguistically divided into the states ofAndhra Pradesh,Tamil Nadu,Karnataka,Telangana andKerala.
South India remained in theMesolithic until 2500 BCE.Microlith production is attested for the period 6000 to 3000 BCE. TheNeolithic period lasted from 2500 BCE to 1000 BCE, followed by theIron Age, characterized bymegalithic burials.[1] Comparative excavations carried out inAdichanallur in theTirunelveli district and innorthern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture.[2] TheKrishna Tungabhadra valley[3] was also a place for Megalithic culture in South India.Archaeologists have discovered iron objects at six sites in Tamil Nadu, dating back to 2,953–3,345 BCE, or between 5,000 and 5,400 years old, which suggest that an Iron Age might have begun in Tamil Nadu.
The earliest Iron Age sites in southern India date from c. 1200 to 200 BCE, and some of the sites are contemporary with theSangam period.
Hallur inKarnataka andAdichanallur inTamil Nadu are notable Iron Age sites of ancient southern India.[4]
Evidence in the form of documents and inscriptions do not appear often in the history of ancient southern India. Although there are signs that the history dates back to several centuries BCE, we only have an authentic archaeological evidence from the early centuries of thecommon era. Until about 600 BC, literature composed to the north of theVindhyas do not display any cognizance of the region to the south.[5] During the reign ofAshoka (c. 268–232 BCE) the three Tamil dynasties ofChola,Chera andPandya were ruling the south.
ThePandyas were one of the three ancient Tamil dynasties (theChola andChera being the other two), who ruled the Tamil country from prehistoric times, until the end of the 15th century. They ruled initially from Korkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula, and in later times moved toMadurai. Pandyas are mentioned inSangam literature (c. 400 BCE – 300 CE) as well as byGreek andRoman sources during this period.
The early Pandya dynasty described in Sangam literature went into obscurity during the invasion of theKalabhras. The dynasty revived under Kadungon in the early 6th century CE, pushed the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and ruled from Madurai. They again went into decline with the rise of the Cholas in the 9th century CE, and were in constant conflict with them. The Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing the Chola empire until they found an opportunity for reviving their fortunes during the late 13th century. Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (c. 1251 CE) expanded their empire into the Telugu country and invaded Sri Lanka, conquering the northern half of the island. They also had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires ofSrivijaya and their successors. During their history, the Pandyas were repeatedly in conflict with thePallavas,Cholas,Hoysalas and finally the Muslim invaders from the Delhi Sultanate. The Pandyan Kingdom finally became extinct after the establishment of the Madurai Sultanate in the 14th century CE. The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature. They controlled the pearl fisheries along the south Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced the finest pearls known in the ancient world.
TheCholas were one of the three main dynasties to rule southern India from ancient times.Karikala Chola (late 1st century CE) was the most famous king during the early years of the dynasty and managed to gain ascendency over thePandyas andCheras. The Chola dynasty, however, went into a period of decline from the 4th century CE. This period coincided with the ascendency of theKalabhras, who moved down from the northern Tamil country, displacing the established kingdoms, and ruled over most of southern India for almost 300 years.
Vijayalaya Chola revived the Chola dynasty in 850 CE by conqueringThanjavur, defeatingIlango Mutharaiyar, and making it his capital. His sonAditya defeated the Pallava kingAparajita and extended the Chola territories toTondaimandalam. The centres of the Chola realm were atKanchi (Kanchipuram) andThanjavur. One of the most powerful Chola monarchs wasRaja Raja Chola, who reigned from 985 to 1014 CE. His army defeated the navy of the Cheras atThiruvananthapuram, and annexedAnuradhapura and the northern province ofCeylon.Rajendra Chola I completed the conquest ofSri Lanka, invadedBengal, and undertook a great naval campaign that occupied parts ofMalaya,Burma, andSumatra. The Chola dynasty began declining by the 13th century and ended in 1279 CE. The Cholas were great builders and have left some of the most beautiful examples of early Tamil temple architecture.Brihadisvara Temple inThanjavur is a fine example and has been listed as one of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites.
The Chera kingdom was one of theTamil dynasties who ruled southern India from ancient times until around the 12th century CE. The Early Cheras ruled over theMalabar Coast,Coimbatore,Erode,Namakkal,Karur andSalem Districts in South India, which now form part of the modern day Indian states ofKerala andTamil Nadu. Throughout the reign of the Early Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to their territories, with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to theMiddle East and tosouthern Europe. Evidence of extensive foreign trade from ancient times can be seen throughout the Malabar coast (Muziris), Karur and Coimbatore districts.
The region of Kerala (Cheras) was possibly engaged in trading activities from the 3rd millennium BCE withArabs,Sumerians andBabylonians.[6]Phoenicians,Greeks,Egyptians,Romans, andChinese were attracted by a variety of commodities, especiallyspices andcotton fabrics.[7][8]Arabs andPhoenicians were the first to enterMalabar Coast to tradeSpices.[7] The Arabs on the coasts ofYemen,Oman, and thePersian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and othereastern countries.[7] They must have brought theCinnamon of Kerala to theMiddle East.[7] The Greek historianHerodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.[7]
Muziris,Tyndis, Naura, Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among the principal trading port centres of theChera kingdom.[9]Megasthanes, the Greek ambassador to the court ofMagadhan kingChandragupta Maurya (4th century BCE) mentions Muziris and aPandyan trade centre.Pliny mentions Muziris as India's first port of importance. According to him, Muziris could be reached in 40 days from theRed Sea ports ofEgypt purely depending on thesouth west monsoon winds. Later, the unknown author of thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea notes that "both Muziris andNelcynda are now busy places". There were harbours of Naura nearKannur, Tyndis nearKozhikode, andBarace nearAlappuzha, which were also trading with Rome and Palakkad pass (churam) facilitated migration and trade.Tyndis was a major center of trade, next only toMuziris, between the Cheras and theRoman Empire.[10]
Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple ofAugustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in theTabula Peutingeriana; the only surviving map of the Romancursus publicus.[11][12]Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) states that the port ofTyndis was located at the northwestern border ofKeprobotos (Chera dynasty).[13] TheNorth Malabar region, which lies north of the port atTyndis, was ruled by the kingdom ofEzhimala duringSangam period.[14] The port ofTyndis which was on the northern side ofMuziris, as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere nearKozhikode.[14] Its exact location is a matter of dispute.[14] The suggested locations arePonnani,Tanur,Beypore-Chaliyam-Kadalundi-Vallikkunnu, andKoyilandy.[14]
According to thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea, a region known asLimyrike began atNaura andTyndis. However,Ptolemy mentions onlyTyndis as theLimyrikes starting point. The region probably ended atKanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-dayMalabar Coast. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at 50,000,000sesterces.[15]Pliny the Elder mentioned thatLimyrike was prone by pirates.[16] TheCosmas Indicopleustes mentioned that theLimyrike was a source ofMalabar peppers.[17][18] ContemporaryTamil literature,Puṟanāṉūṟu andAkanaṉūṟu, speak of theRoman vessels and the Roman gold that used to come to the Kerala ports in search ofMalabar pepper and otherspices, which had enormous demand in the West. The contact withMiddle East and Romans might have given rise to small colonies ofCochin Jews,MappilaMuslims, andSyrian Christians in the chief harbour towns of Kerala.
TheŚātavāhana Empire[19] was a royalIndiandynasty based at present-dayAmaravati inAndhra Pradesh as well asJunnar (Pune) and Pratisthana (Paithan) in present-dayMaharashtra. The territory of the empire covered much ofIndia from 300 BCE onward. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates suggest that it lasted about 450 years, until around 220 CE. The Satavahanas are credited for establishing peace in the country, resisting the onslaught of foreigners after the decline ofMauryan Empire.
Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to theMauryans, but declared independence with its decline. They are known for their patronage ofHinduism. The Sātavāhanas were one of the first Indian states to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from theIndo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India.
They had to compete with theShungas and then theKanvas ofMagadha to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect huge swathes of India against foreign invaders like theSakas,Yavanas andPahlavas. In particular their struggles with theWestern Kshatrapaswent on for a long time. The great Satavahana emperorsGautamiputra Satakarni andSri Yajna Sātakarni repulsed foreign invasions from the likes of theWestern Kshatrapas and stopped their expansion. In the 3rd century CE, the empire was split into smaller states.
ThePallavas were a great Indian dynasty who ruled in southern India between the 3rd century CE until their final decline in the 9th century CE. Their capital wasKanchipuram in present-dayTamil Nadu. Theirorigins are not clearly known. However, it is surmised that they were Yadavas and they probably were feudatories of Satavahanas. Pallavas started their rule fromKrishna River valley, known today asPalnadu, and subsequently spread to present-day southernAndhra Pradesh and northernTamil Nadu.Mahendravarman I was a prominent Pallava monarch who began work on the rock-cut temples ofMahabalipuram. His sonNarasimhavarman I ascended to the throne in 630 CE. He defeated the Chalukya emperorPulakeshin II in 632 CE and burned the Chalukyan capital Vatapi. Pallavas andPandyas dominated the southern regions of southern India between the 6th and the 9th centuries CE.
Kadambas were one of the greatest kingdoms which ruled south India. Kadambas ruled during 345–525 CE. Their kingdom spanned the present dayKarnataka state.Banavasi was their capital. They expanded their territories to coverGoa,Hanagal. The dynasty was founded by Mayura Sharma c. 345 CE. They built fine temples in Banavasi,Belgavi,Halsi and Goa. Kadambas were the first rulers to useKannada as an administrative language as proven by theHalmidi inscription (450 CE) and Banavasi copper coin. With the rise of theChalukya dynasty of Badami, the Kadambas ruled as their feudatory from 525 CE for another five hundred years.
The Western Ganga dynasty ruled southern Karnataka region during 350–550 CE. They continued to rule until the 10th century as feudatories ofRashtrakutas andChalukyas. They rose from the region after the fall of the Satavahana empire and created a kingdom for themselves in Gangavadi (south Karnataka) while theKadambas, their contemporaries, did the same innorth Karnataka. The area they controlled was called Gangavadi which included the present-day districts ofMysore,Chamrajanagar,Tumkur,Kolar,Mandya andBangalore. They continued to rule until the 10th century as feudatories ofRashtrakutas andChalukyas. Gangas initially had their capital atKolar, before moving it toTalakad near Mysore. They made a significant contribution toKannada literature with such noted writers as KingDurvinita, KingShivamara II andChavundaraya. The famousJain monuments atShravanabelagola were built by them.
The Chalukyas ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties:Badami Chalukyas,Eastern Chalukyas,Western Chalukyas. The Badami Chalukyas were the earliest dynasty which ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of theKadamba dynasty of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign ofPulakeshin II. After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan region. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Badami Chalukyas before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. The Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century.
One of the first kings of the Chalukyan dynasty wasPulakeshin I. He ruled fromBadami inKarnataka. His sonPulakeshin II became the monarch of the Chalukyan empire in 610 CE and ruled until 642 CE. Pulakeshin II is most remembered for the battle he fought and won against EmperorHarshavardhana in 637 CE. He also defeated the Pallava kingMahendravarman I. The Chalukya empire existed from 543 to 757 CE and an area stretching from Kaveri to Narmada rivers. The Chalukyas created the Chalukyan style of architecture. Great monuments were built inPattadakal,Aihole andBadami. These temples exhibit the evolution of theVesara style of architecture.
TheEastern Chalukyas ruled along the eastern coast of southern India around the present-dayVijayawada. The Eastern Chalukya dynasty was created byKubja Vishnuvardhana, a brother of emperorPulakeshin II. The Eastern Chalukyas continued to rule for over five hundred years and were in close alliance with theCholas.
The Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from Manyaketha inKalaburagi from 735 CE until 982 CE and reached its peak underAmoghavarsha I (reign. 814 – 878 CE), consideredAshoka of South India. The Rashtrakutas came to power at the decline of the Badami Chalukyas and were involved in a three-way power struggle for control of the Gangetic plains with thePrathihara ofGujarat andPalas ofBengal. The Rashtrakutas commissioned some of the beautiful rock-cut temples ofEllora including the Kailasa temple.Kannada language literature flourished during this period ofAdikavi Pampa,Sri Ponna andShivakotiacharya. EmperorAmoghavarsha I wrote the earliestextant Kannada classicKavirajamarga.
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Much of history of the region ofKerala from the 6th to the 8th century is obscure.[21] From theKodungallur line of the Cheras rose theKulasekhara dynasty, which was established byKulasekhara Varman. At its zenith these Later Cheras ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of Kulasekhara period, the southern region fromNagercoil toThiruvananthapuram was ruled byAy kings, who lost their power in the 10th century and thus the region became a part of the Cheras.[22][23] Kerala witnessed a flourishing period of art, literature, trade and theBhakti movement of Hinduism.[24] A Keralite identity, distinct from theTamils, becamelinguistically separate during this period.[25] The origin ofMalayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE.[26][27][28] For the local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Nair Chieftains known asNaduvazhis, with each province comprising a number ofDesams under the control of chieftains, called asDesavazhis.[24] The era witnessed also a shift in political power, evidenced by a gradual increase ofNamboothiri Brahmin settlements, who established thecaste hierarchy in Kerala by assigning different groups separate positions.[29][30] As a result, many temples were constructed across Kerala, which according to M. T. Narayanan "became cornerstones of the socio-economic society".[30]Mamankam festival, which was the largest native festival, was held atTirunavaya nearKuttippuram, on the bank of riverBharathappuzha.[14]Athavanad, the headquarters ofAzhvanchery Thamprakkal, who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of theNambudiriBrahmins of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya.[14]
Sulaiman al-Tajir, aPersian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign ofSthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala andChina at that time, based at the port ofKollam.[31] A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerableMuslim population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such asAl-Masudi ofBaghdad (896–956 CE),Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 CE),Abulfeda (1273–1331 CE), andAl-Dimashqi (1256–1327 CE) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.[32] Some historians assume that theMappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community inSouth Asia.[33][34]
The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century caused two major religions,Buddhism andJainism, to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers ofJainism.[35] The social system became fractured with divisions oncaste lines.[36] The Kulasekhara dynasty was finally subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of thePandyas andCholas.[22] However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southernVenad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India.[citation needed] After his death, in the absence of strong central power, the state was fractured into about thirty small warring principalities under Nair Chieftains; the most powerful of them were the kingdom ofSamuthiri in the north,Venad in the south and Kochi in the middle.[37][38] The port atKozhikode held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, whileKollam (Quilon),Kochi, andKannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.[39]
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The Western Chalukya Empire was created by the descendants of the Badami Chalukya clan and ruled from 973 to 1195 CE. Their capital wasKalyani, present dayBasava Kalyana inKarnataka. They came to power at the decline of the Rashtrakutas. They ruled from the Kaveri in the South to Gujarat in the north. The empire reached its peak underVikramaditya VI. TheKalyani Chalukyas promoted theGadag style of architecture, excellent examples of which are present inGadag,Dharwad,Koppal andHaveri districts of Karnataka. They patronised great Kannada poets such asRanna andNagavarma II and is considered as a golden age ofKannada literature. TheVachanaSahitya style of native Kannada poetry flourished during these times.
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Hoysalas began their rule as subordinates of the Chalukyas of Kalyani and gradually established their own empire. Nripa Kama Hoysala who ruled in the western region of Gangavadi, founded the Hoysala dynasty. His later successor Ballala I reigned from his capital atBelur.Vishnuvardhana Hoysala (1106–1152 CE) conquered theNolamba region earning the titleNolambavadi Gonda. Some of the most magnificent specimens of South Indian temples are those attributed to the Hoysala dynasty of Karnataka.Vesara style reached its peak in their period. Hoysalas period is remembered today as one of the brightest periods in the history of Karnataka. They ruledKarnataka for over three centuries from c. 1000 to 1342 CE. The most famous kings among the Hoysalas wereVishnuvardhana,Veera Ballala II andVeera Ballala III. Jainism flourished during the Hoysala period.Ramanuja, the founder of Shri Vaishnavism orVishishtadvaita Vedanta, came to Hoysala kingdom to spread his school of qualified-monism Hindu thought. Hoysalas encouraged both Kannada andSanskrit literature and earned a great name as builders of temples atBelur,Halebidu,Somanathapura,Belavadi andAmrithapura. Such famous poets asRudrabhatta,Janna,Raghavanka andHarihara wrote many classics in Kannada during this time.
The Kakatiya dynasty rose to prominence in the 11th century with the decline of the Chalukyas. By the early 12th century, the Kakatiya Durjaya clan declared independence and began expanding their kingdom.[40] By the end of the century, their kingdom had reached theBay of Bengal and it stretched between theGodavari and theKrishna rivers. The empire reached its zenith under Ganapatideva who was its greatest ruler, responsible for uniting the upper and lower regions of eastern Deccan that spoke the Telugu language, for the first time. At its largest, the empire included most of modern-dayAndhra Pradesh, Telangana and parts ofOdisha,Tamil Nadu,Chhattisgarh,Maharashtra and Karnataka. Ganapatideva was succeeded by his daughter Rudramba who became the famous warrior-queenRudrama Devi. The Kakatiya dynasty lasted for three centuries, but their existence can be dated back to the 7th century as per inscriptions although they only served as local chieftains to Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas.Warangal was their capital which was founded in the 12th century.Marco Polo visited Warangal in 1289 and wrote extensively on the kingdom, the city, the queen Rudrama Devi, the prosperity and wealth of the kingdom and the way people live. By the early 14th century, the Kakatiya dynasty attracted the attention of theDelhi Sultanate underAlauddin Khalji. Despite defeating the first attempt in 1303, it paid tribute to the Khaljis for a few years from 1310 aftera successful siege byMalik Kafur and was besieged again in1318 by Khusrau Khan. But they refused to pay tribute to the new Tughluq regime in 1320, which prompted annexation of the Telugu country by the SultanGhiyath al-Din Tughluq. The Kakatiyas were eventually conquered by the forces of his successorMuhammad bin Tughluq in 1323.[41][42][43][44] The Kakatiyas were well-versed in administrative duties, military affairs, social policy and diplomatic affairs, developing a unique social structure which differed from other medieval Hindu kingdoms of the subcontinent. Their encouragement of cultural influences from the neighbouring Andhra region in Telangana and vice versa ushered in an era of prosperity and standard of living in both regions. It was made possible due to extensive building of irrigation tanks, artificial lakes and other kinds of small and large reservoirs, interconnected through linking techniques, which helped in converting the dry, arid and rugged areas of Kakatiya territory into a strong, wealthy and stable abode for people who migrated and settled in Telangana. The system of employing capable military officers (nayakas) from any background as part of earning new loyalists for the kings was pursued by them first and then implemented by theVijayanagara Empire. They were egalitarian rulers who despite adhering to the varna system rewarded those who served the kingdom with loyalty. Their encouragement of inland and maritime trade with safety incentives and exemptions for merchants who faced loss in their sea-borne journey greatly developed commerce with other nations and faraway kingdoms, bringing vast amounts of riches. The Kakatiya legacy is preserved in the form of arts, literature and architecture as well as reservoirs which survive in Telangana. Their patronage of artisans, poets and musicians, also followed by subordinate kings, led to an extensive growth of Telugu language, customs and the overall culture associated with it. Their architectural legacy, borrowed from Western Chalukyas and later developing it into a distinctive style identified with the kingdom, is preserved in the form of forts, temples and gateways. Notable among these are theWarangal Fort,Kakatiya Kala Thoranam,Thousand Pillar Temple,Ramappa Temple,Kota Gullu,Elgandal Fort,Medak Fort and the temples at Pillalamarri in Suryapet. They built large reservoirs like thePakhal Lake,Ramappa Lake,Bhadrakali Lake andLaknavaram Lake along with other bigger and smaller yet significant ones. They were also very likely to be the original holders of theKoh-i-Noor diamond which was mined in Kollur, Andhra Pradesh and the existence of diamond trade and markets were also mentioned in the writings of Marco Polo.
The ancient kingdom ofEzhimala inNorthern Kerala had jurisdiction over theNorth Malabar which consisted of twoNadus (regions)- The coastalPoozhinadu and the hilly easternKarkanadu. According to the works ofSangam literature,Poozhinadu consisted much of the coastal belt betweenMangalore andKozhikode.[45]Karkanadu consisted ofWayanad-Gudalur hilly region with parts ofKodagu (Coorg).[46] It is said that Nannan, the most renowned ruler ofEzhimala dynasty, took refuge atWayanad hills in the 5th century CE when he was lost toCheras, just before his execution in a battle, according to theSangam works.[46] Ezhimala kingdom was succeeded byMushika dynasty in the early medieval period, most possibly due to the migration ofTuluva Brahmins fromTulu Nadu. TheMushika-vamsha Mahakavya, written byAthula in the 11th century, throws light on the recorded past of theMushika royal family up until that point.[47] The Indian anthropologistAyinapalli Aiyappan states that a powerful and warlike clan of theBunt community ofTulu Nadu was calledKola Bari and the Kolathiri Raja of Kolathunadu was a descendant of this clan.[48]
The kingdom ofKolathunadu, who were the descendants ofMushika dynasty, at the peak of its power reportedly extended fromNetravati River (Mangalore) in the north[47] toKorapuzha (Kozhikode) in the south with Arabian Sea on thewest andKodagu hills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands ofLakshadweep in Arabian Sea.[45] AnOld Malayalam inscription (Ramanthali inscriptions), dated to 1075 CE, mentioning king Kunda Alupa, the ruler ofAlupa dynasty ofMangalore, can be found atEzhimala near Kannur.[49] TheArabic inscription on a copper slab within theMadayi Mosque in Kannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE.[50] In his book on travels (Il Milione),Marco Polo recounts his visit to the area in the mid 1290s. Other visitors includedFaxian, the Buddhist pilgrim andIbn Batuta, writer and historian ofTangiers. TheKolathunadu in the late medieval period emerged into independent 10 principalities i.e.,Kadathanadu (Vadakara),Randathara or Poyanad (Dharmadom),Kottayam (Thalassery),Nileshwaram, Iruvazhinadu (Panoor),Kurumbranad etc., under separate royal chieftains due to the outcome of internal dissensions.[51] TheNileshwaram dynasty on the northernmost part ofKolathiri dominion, were relatives to both Kolathunadu as well as theZamorin ofCalicut, in the early medieval period.[52] The kingdom ofKumbla in the northernmost region of the modern state of Kerala, who had jurisdiction over theTaluks ofManjeshwar andKasaragod, and parts ofMangalore in SouthernTulu Nadu, were also vassals to the kingdom ofKolathunadu until theCarnatic conquests of the 15th century CE.[47]
According toKerala Muslim tradition, theNorth Malabar region was also home to severaloldest mosques in theIndian subcontinent. According to theLegend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 CE at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) ofChera dynasty, who left fromDharmadom nearKannur toMecca and converted toIslam during the lifetime ofMuhammad (c. 570–632).[53][54][33][55] According toQissat Shakarwati Farmad, theMasjids atKodungallur,Kollam,Madayi,Barkur,Mangalore,Kasaragod, Kannur,Dharmadam,Panthalayani, andChaliyam, were built during the era ofMalik Dinar, and they are among the oldestMasjids in theIndian subcontinent.[56] It is believed thatMalik Dinar died atThalangara inKasaragod town.[57] The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque in the erstwhile Kolathunadu contains anOld Malayalam inscription written in a mixture ofVatteluttu andGrantha scripts which dates back to the 10th century CE.[14] It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by aHindu king (Bhaskara Ravi) to theMuslims of Kerala.[14]
After the downfall ofKakatiya empire, two cousins known as Musunuri Nayaks rebelled against theDelhi Sultanate and recapturedWarangal and brought the whole ofTelugu-speaking areas under their control. Although short lived (50 years), the Nayak rule is considered a watershed in the history of southern India. Their rule inspired the establishment ofVijayanagara empire.
The Reddy dynasty was established by Prolaya Vema Reddy. The region that was ruled by the Reddy dynasty is now in Andhra Pradesh except some areas of Chitoor, Anantapur and Kurnool districts. Prolaya Vema Reddy was part of the confederation that started a movement against the invading Turkic Muslim armies of the Delhi Sultanate in 1323 CE and succeeded in repulsing them from Warangal. Reddys ruled coastal and central Andhra for over a hundred years from 1325 to 1448 CE. At its maximum extent, the Reddy kingdom stretched from Cuttak, Odisha to the north, Kanchi to the south and Srisailam to the west. The initial capital of the kingdom was Addanki. Later, it was moved to Kondavidu and subsequently to Rajahmundry. The Reddis were known for their fortifications. Two major hill forts, one atKondapalli, 20 km north west of Vijayawada and another at Kondaveedu about 30 km west of Guntur stand testimony to the fort building skill of the Reddi kings. The forts ofBellamkonda, Vinukonda andNagarjunakonda in the Palnadu region were also part of the Reddi kingdom.
The dynasty remained in power until the middle of the 15th century and was supplanted by the Gajapatis of Odisha, who gained control of coastal Andhra. TheGajapatis eventually lost control of coastal Andhra after Gajapati Prataprudra Deva was defeated by EmperorKrishna Deva Raya ofVijayanagara. The territories of the Reddi kingdom eventually came under the control of theVijayanagara Empire.
The early medieval period saw the rise of Muslim dynasties in peninsular India. The defeat of theKakatiyas ofWarangal by the forces of theDelhi Sultanate in 1323 CE and the defeat of the Hoysalas in 1333 CE heralded a new chapter in southern Indian history. The grand struggle of the period was between theVijayanagara Empire with its imperial capital inVijayanagara and theBahmani Sultanate based inGulbarga in present-day Karnataka. By the early 16th century, the Bahmani sultanate fragmented into five differentsultanates based inAhmednagar,Berar,Bidar,Bijapur andGolconda, together called theDeccan Sultanates.
On the southwestern coast of India, a new local economic and political power arose into the vacuum created by the disintegration ofChera power. TheZamorins ofCalicut, in collaboration with Arab-Muslim merchants, dominated the maritime trade on Malabar Coast for the next few centuries.
Differing theories have been proposed regarding the Vijayanagara empire's origins. Many historians proposeHarihara I andBukka Raya I, the founders of the empire, wereKannadigas and commanders in the army of theHoysala Empire stationed in theTungabhadra region to ward off Muslim invasions from the Northern India.[58][59][60][61] Others claim that they were Telugu people first associated with theKakatiya kingdom who took control of the northern parts of theHoysala Empire during its decline.[62] Irrespective of their origin, historians agree the founders were supported and inspired byVidyaranya, a saint at theSringeri monastery to fight the Muslim invasions of southern India.[5][63] Writings by foreign travelers during the late medieval era combined with recent excavations in the Vijayanagara principality have uncovered much-needed information about the empire's history, fortifications, scientific developments and architectural innovations.[64][65]
Before the early 14th-century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Indian-Hindu states of the Deccan, theYadava Empire of Devagiri, theKakatiya Kingdom ofWarangal, thePandyan Empire ofMadurai, and the tiny kingdom ofKampili had been repeatedly invaded byMuslims from the north, and by 1336 they had all been defeated byAlauddin Khalji andMuhammad bin Tughluq, theSultans of Delhi. TheHoysala Empire was the sole remaining Hindu state in the path of the Islamic invasion.[5] After the death of Hoysala monarchVeera Ballala III during a battle against the Sultan of Madurai in 1343, the Hoysala Empire merged with the growing Vijayanagara empire.
In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title ofPurvapaschima Samudradhishavara ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom ofArcot, theReddys of Kondavidu, theSultan of Madurai and gained control overGoa in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna Riverdoab in the north.[66][67] The original capital was in theprincipality ofAnegondi on the northern banks of the Tungabhadra River in today'sKarnataka. It was later moved to nearby Vijayanagara on the river's southern banks during the reign of Bukka Raya I.
With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now imperial in stature,Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the empire beyond theKrishna River and brought the whole of southern India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.[68] The next emperor,Deva Raya I, emerged successful against theGajapatis ofOdisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.[69]Deva Raya II (calledGajabetekara)[70] succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of theSangama emperors.[71] He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as theZamorin ofCalicut andQuilon in the south. He conquered the island ofLanka and became overlord of the kings ofBurma atPegu andTanasserim.[72][73][74] The empire was in decline in the late 15th century until the serious attempts by generalSaluva Narasimha Deva Raya in 1485 and by generalTuluva Narasa Nayaka in 1491 to reconsolidate the empire.
After nearly two decades of conflict with rebellious chieftains, the empire eventually came under the rule ofKrishna Deva Raya, the son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka.[75]In the following decades the Vijayanagara empire dominated all of southern India and fought off invasions from the five establishedDeccan Sultanates.[76][77] The empire reached its peak during the reign ofKrishna Deva Raya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious.[78] The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, includingKalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south.[79] Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya.[80]
Krishna Deva Raya was succeeded by his younger brotherAchyuta Deva Raya in 1529 and in 1542 bySadashiva Raya while the real power lay withAliya Rama Raya, the son-in-law of Krishna Deva Raya, whose relationship with the Deccan Sultans who allied against him has been debated.[81]
The sudden capture and beheading ofAliya Rama Raya in 1565 at theBattle of Talikota by his own Muslim generals, against an alliance of the Deccan sultanates, after a seemingly easy victory for the Vijayanagara armies, created havoc and confusion in the Vijayanagara ranks, which were then completely routed. The Sultanates' army later plundered Hampi, razed and reduced the imperial capital to the ruinous state in which it remains; it was never re-occupied.Tirumala Deva Raya, Rama Raya's younger brother who was the sole surviving commander, left Vijayanagara forPenukonda with vast amounts of treasure on the back of 1500 elephants.[82]
The empire went into a slow decline regionally, although trade with the Portuguese continued, and the British were given a land grant for the establishment ofMadras.[83][84] Tirumala Deva Raya was succeeded by his sonSriranga I later followed byVenkata II who was the last monarch of Vijayanagara empire, made his capitalChandragiri andVellore, repulsed more invasions from theDeccan Sultanates and savedPenukonda from being captured.[85]
His successorRama Deva Raya took power and ruled until 1632, after whose deathVenkata III became monarch and ruled for about ten years. The empire was finally conquered by theSultanates ofBijapur andGolkonda.[85] The largest feudatories of the Vijayanagara empire – theNayaks of Gandikota, theMysore Kingdom,Keladi Nayaka,Nayaks of Madurai,Nayaks of Tanjore,Nayakas of Chitradurga andNayak Kingdom ofGingee palegars of gummanayakanapalya – declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of southern India in the coming centuries. These Nayaka kingdoms lasted into the 18th century while the Mysore Kingdom remained a princely state untilIndian Independence in 1947 although they came under theBritish Raj in 1799 after the death ofTipu Sultan.[86]
Historical records regarding the origin of the Samoothiri ofKozhikode is obscure. However, its generally agreed that the Samoothiri were originally theNair chieftains of Eralnadu region of the Later Chera Kingdom and were known as theEradis.[87] Eralnadu (Eranad) province was situated in the northern parts of present-dayMalappuram district and was landlocked by theValluvanad and Polanadu in the west. Legends such asKeralolpathi tell the establishment of a local ruling family atNediyiruppu, near present-dayKondotty by two young brothers belonging to theEradi clan. The brothers, Manikkan and Vikraman were the most trusted generals in the army of theCheras.[88][89]M.G.S. Narayanan, a Kerala-based historian, in his book,Calicut: The City of Truth states that the Eradi was a favourite of the last Later Chera king and granted him, as a mark of favor, a small tract of land on the sea-coast in addition to his hereditary possessions (Eralnadu province). Eradis subsequently moved their capital to the coastal marshy lands and established the kingdom of Kozhikode[90] They later assumed the title ofSamudrāthiri ("one who has the sea for his border") and continued to rule from Kozhikode.
Samoothiri allied with Muslim Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of the wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. They became the most powerful king inthe Malayalam speaking regions during theMiddle Ages. In the 14th century, Kozhikode conquered large parts of central Kerala following the seize ofTirunavaya fromValluvanad, which was under the control of the king ofPerumbadappu Swaroopam. He was forced to shift his capital (c. CE 1405) further south fromKodungallur toKochi. In the 15th century, Cochin was reduced in to a vassal state of Kozhikode. The ruler ofKolathunadu (Kannur) had also came under the influence of Zamorin by the end of the 15th century.[14]
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At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam (Quilon) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam (Koyilandy) in the north.[91][92]Ibn Battuta (1342–1347), who visited the city ofKozhikode six times, gives the earliest glimpses of life in the city. He describes Kozhikode as "one of the great ports of the district of Malabar" where "merchants of all parts of the world are found". The king of this place, he says, "shaves his chin just as the Haidari Fakeers of Rome do... The greater part of the Muslim merchants of this place are so wealthy that one of them can purchase the whole freightage of such vessels put here and fit-out others like them".[93]Ma Huan (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho (Zheng He)[94] states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. He makes note of the 20 or 30 mosques built to cater to the religious needs of the Muslims, the unique system of calculation by the merchants using their fingers and toes (followed to this day), and the matrilineal system of succession.Abdur Razzak (1442–43),Niccolò de' Conti (1445),Afanasy Nikitin (1468–74),Ludovico di Varthema (1503–1508), andDuarte Barbosa witnessed the city as one of the major trading centres in theIndian subcontinent where traders from different parts of the world could be seen.[95][96]
The emperorDeva Raya II (r. 1424 – 1446) of theVijayanagara Empire conquered about the whole of present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century.[97] He defeated theZamorin ofKozhikode, as well as the ruler ofKollam around 1443.[92]Fernão Nunes says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire.[97] Later Kozhikode and Venad seem to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion.[citation needed] As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala.[citation needed] He built a fort atPonnani in 1498.[citation needed]
Venad was a kingdom in the south west tip of Kerala, which acted as a buffer between Cheras and Pandyas. Until the end of the 11th century, it was a small principality in theAy Kingdom. TheAys were the earliest ruling dynasty in southern Kerala, who, at their zenith, ruled over a region fromNagercoil in the south toThiruvananthapuram in the north. Their capital was atKollam. A series of attacks by thePandyas between the 7th and 8th centuries caused the decline of Ays although the dynasty remained powerful until the beginning of the 10th century.[98] When Ay power diminished, Venad became the southernmost principality of theSecond Chera Kingdom[99] Invasion of Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096. However, the Chera capital,Mahodayapuram, fell in the subsequent attack, which compelled the Chera king, Rama varma Kulasekara, to shift his capital to Kollam.[100] Thus, Rama Varma Kulasekara, the last king of Chera dynasty, is probably the founder of the Venad royal house, and the title of Chera kings,Kulasekara, was thenceforth adopted by the rulers of Venad. The end of Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century marks the independence of the Venad.[101] The Venadu King then also was known as Venadu Mooppil Nayar.
In the second half of the 12th century, two branches of the Ay dynasty: Thrippappur and Chirava, merged into the Venad family and established the tradition of designating the ruler of Venad as Chirava Moopan and the heir-apparent asThrippappur Moopan. While Chrirava Moopan had his residence atKollam, the Thrippappur Moopan resided at his palace in Thrippappur, 9 miles (14 km) north of Thiruvananthapuram, and was vested with the authority over the temples of Venad kingdom, especially theSri Padmanabhaswamy temple.[99] The most powerful kingdom of Kerala during the colonial period,Travancore, was developed through the expansion of Venad by MahahrajahMarthanda Varma, a member of the Thrippappur branch of the Ay dynasty who ascended to the throne in the 18th century.
The maritimespice trade monopoly in theIndian Ocean stayed with theArabs during theHigh andLate Middle Ages. However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the EuropeanAge of Discovery. AfterVasco Da Gama's arrival inKappadKozhikode in 1498, thePortuguese began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular.[102][103][104] Following the discovery of sea route fromEurope toMalabar in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas betweenOrmus and theMalabar Coast and south toCeylon.[105][106]
Vasco da Gama was sent by the King of Portugal DomManuel I and landed at Kozhikode in 1497–1499.[107] The Samoothiri Maharaja of Kozhikode permitted the Portuguese to trade with his subjects. Their trade in Kozhikode prospered with the establishment of a factory and fort in his territory. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked the Samoothiri and finally led to conflict.
The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Samoothiri and Rajah ofKochi – they allied with Kochi and whenFrancisco de Almeida was appointed Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, he established his headquarters atKochi. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a number of fortresses along theMalabar Coast.[108] Nonetheless, the Portuguese suffered severe setbacks due to attacks by Samoothiri Maharaja's forces, especially naval attacks under the leadership of admirals of Kozhikode known asKunjali Marakkars, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast.[109][110]
The Portuguese influence got weakened in Kerala when theZamorin defeated them with the help ofDutch East India Company in the early 17th century. In 1664, the municipality ofFort Kochi was established byDutch Malabar, making it the first municipality in theIndian subcontinent, which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.[111] TheDutch Malabar (1661–1795) in turn were weakened by their constant battles withMarthanda Varma of theTravancore royal family, and were defeated at theBattle of Colachel in 1741, resulting in the complete eclipse of Dutch power in Malabar. TheTreaty of Mavelikkara was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvements in the region.
In the meantime, Marthanda Varma annexed many smaller northern kingdoms through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to a position of preeminence in Kerala.[112] Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerfulZamorin ofKozhikode in theBattle of Purakkad in 1763.[113] The region ofMahé came under French control by the 18th century CE.
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Vijayangara empire had established military and administrative governors called Nayakas to rule in the various territories of the empire. After the demise of the Vijayanagara empire, the local governors declared their independence and started their rule. The Nayak of Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, Keladi Nayakas ofShimoga, Nayakas of Chitradurga andKingdom of Mysore were the most prominent of them. Raghunatha Nayak (1600–1645) was the greatest of the Tanjavur Nayaks. Raghunatha Nayak encouraged trade and permitted a Danish settlement in 1620 at Danesborg at Tarangambadi. This laid the foundation of future European involvement in the affairs of the country. The success of the Dutch inspired the English to seek trade with Thanjavur, which was to lead to far-reaching repercussions. Vijaya Raghava (1631–1675 CE) was the last of the Thanjavur Nayaks. Nayaks reconstructed some of the oldest temples in the country and their contributions can be seen even today. Nayaks expanded the existing temples with large pillared halls, and tall gateway towers was a striking feature in the religious architecture of this period. Kantheerava Narasaraja Wodeyar andTipu Sultan from the Kingdom of Mysore, Madhakari Nayaka ofChitradurga Nayaka clan and Venkatappa Nayaka ofKeladi dynasty are the most famous among the post Vijayanagara rulers from Kannada country.
In Madurai,Thirumalai Nayak was the most famous Nayak ruler. He patronised art and architecture creating new structures and expanding the existing landmarks in and around Madurai. His landmark buildings are the Meenakshi Temple Gopurams and Thirumalai Nayak Palace in Madurai. On Thirumalai Nayak's death in 1659 CE, other notable ruler wasRani Mangammal. Shivaji Bhonsle, the great Maratha Ruler, invaded the south, as did Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore and other Muslim Rulers, resulting in chaos and instability and the Madurai Nayak Kingdom collapsed in 1736 following internal strife.
TheTanjavur Nayaks ruled till the late 17th century until their dynasty was put to an end by Madurai Rulers, and the Marathas grabbing the opportunity to install their ruler. The Tanjavur Nayak kings were notable for their contribution to Arts andTelugu literature.
TheMaratha Empire or theMaratha Confederacy was an Indian imperial power that existed from 1674 to 1818. At its peak, the empire covered much of thesubcontinent, encompassing a territory of over 2.8 million km2.
The Marathas were a yeomanHindu warrior group from the westernDeccan (present day Maharashtra) that rose to prominence by establishing 'Hindawi Swarajya'. According to theEncyclopædia Britannica: The Maratha group of castes is a largely rural class of peasant cultivators, landowners, and soldiers. The Marathas became prominent in the 17th century under the leadership ofShivaji Bhosale who revolted against the Bijapur Sultanate, and carved out a rebel territory withRaigad as his stronghold.[114] Known for their mobility, the Marathas were able to consolidate their territory during theDeccan Wars against the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and, later in time, controlled a large part of India.[115]
Shahu, a grandson of Chhatrapati Shivaji, was released by the Mughals after the death of Aurangzeb. Following a brief struggle with his auntTarabai, Shahu became ruler. During this period, he appointedBalaji Vishwanath Bhat and later his descendants as the DeshasthPeshwas (Warriors) or the prime ministers of the Maratha Empire. After the death of the Mughal EmperorAurangzeb, the empire expanded greatly under the rule of the Peshwas. The empire at its peak stretched fromTamil Nadu[116][117] in the south Tanjavur of Tamil Nadu, toPeshawar(modern-dayKhyber Pakhtunkhwa) in the north, andBengal andAndaman Islands in east.[118][119] The rise of Maratha military power under ChatrapathiShivaji and his heirs in the immediate north of what is today considered South India had a profound influence on the political situation of South India, with Maratha control quickly extending as far east asGanjam and as far south asThanjavur. Following the death of Aurangzeb, Mughal power withered, and South Indian rulers gained autonomy from Delhi. TheWodeyar kingdom ofMysore, which was originally in tribute to Vijayanagara and gained in strength over the next few decades, subsequently emerging as the dominant power in the southern part of South India. TheAsaf Jahis of Hyderabad controlled the territory north and east of Mysore, while the Marathas controlled portions ofKarnataka. By the close of the "medieval" period, most of South India was either autonomy under Maratha ruled directly from, or under tribute to the Nayak dynasty or Wodeyars.
TheKingdom of Mysore was a realm insouthern India, traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city ofMysore. From 1799 until 1950, it was aprincely state, until 1947 in asubsidiary alliance withBritish India. It then becameMysore State (later enlarged and renamed toKarnataka) with its ruler remaining asRajapramukh until 1956, when he became the first Governor of the reformed state.
The kingdom, which was founded and ruled for most part by the HinduWodeyar family, initially served as avassal state of theVijayanagara Empire. The 17th century saw a steady expansion of its territory and during the rule ofNarasaraja Wodeyar I andChikka Devaraja Wodeyar, the kingdom annexed large expanses of what is now southernKarnataka and parts ofTamil Nadu to become a powerful state in the southernDeccan. During a briefMuslim rule, the kingdom shifted to a Sultanate style of administration.[120][121]
During this time, it came into conflict with theMarathas, theNizam of Hyderabad, theKingdom of Travancore and theBritish, which culminated in the fourAnglo-Mysore Wars. Success in the first Anglo-Mysore war and a stalemate in the second was followed by defeat in the third and the fourth. Following Tipu's death in the fourth war in thesiege of Seringapatam (1799), large parts of his kingdom were annexed by the British, which signalled the end of a period of Mysorean hegemony over South India. The British restored the Wodeyars to their throne by way of asubsidiary alliance and the diminished Mysore was transformed into aprincely state. The Wodeyars continued to rule the state untilIndian independence in 1947, when Mysore acceded to theUnion of India.
Even as a princely state, Mysore came to be counted among the more developed and urbanised regions of India. This period (1799–1947) also saw Mysore emerge as one of the important centres of art and culture in India. The Mysore kings were not only accomplished exponents of the fine arts and men of letters, they were enthusiastic patrons as well, and their legacies continue to influencerocket science,[122] music, and art even today.
In the middle of the 18th century, the French and the British East India company initiated a protracted struggle for military control of South India. The period was marked by shifting alliances between the two East India companies and the local powers, mercenary armies employed by all sides, and general anarchy in South India. Cities and forts changed hands many times, and soldiers were primarily remunerated through loot. The fourAnglo-Mysore Wars and the threeAnglo-Maratha Wars saw Mysore, the Marathas and Hyderabad aligning themselves in turns with either the British or the French. Eventually, British power in alliance with Hyderabad prevailed and Mysore was absorbed as aprincely state within British India. The Nizam of Hyderabad sought to retain his autonomy through diplomacy rather than open war with the British. The Maratha Empire that stretched across large swathes of central and northern India was broken up, with most of it annexed by the British.
South India during the British colonial rule was divided into theMadras Presidency andHyderabad,Mysore,Thiruvithamcoore (also known as Travancore),Cochin,Vizianagaram and a number of other minor princely states. The Madras Presidency was ruled directly by the British, while the rulers of the princely states enjoyed considerable internal autonomy. British Residents were stationed in the capitals of the important states to supervise and report on the activities of the rulers. British troops were stationed in cantonments near the capitals to prevent rebellion. The rulers of these states accepted the principle of paramountcy of the British Crown. The larger princely states issued their own currency and built their own railroads—with non-standard gauges which would be incompatible with their neighbors. The cultivation ofcoffee andtea was introduced to the mountainous regions of South India during the British period, and both remain important cash crops.
On 15 August 1947, the former British India achieved independence as the new dominions of India and Pakistan. The rulers of India's princely states acceded to the government of India between 1947 and 1950, and South India was organized into a number of new states. Most of South India was included in Madras state, which included the territory of the former Madras Presidency together with the princely states of Banganapalle, Pudukkottai, and Sandur. The other states in South India were Coorg (the erstwhile Coorg province of British India), Mysore State (the former princely state of Mysore) andTravancore-Cochin, formed from the merger of the princely states of Travancore and Cochin. The former princely state of Hyderabad became Hyderabad State, and erstwhile Bombay Presidency becameBombay State.
In 1953, theJawaharlal Nehru government yielded to intense pressure from the northernTelugu-speaking districts of Madras State, and allowed them to vote to create India's first linguistic state.Andhra State was created on 1 November 1953 from the northern districts of Madras State, with its capital inKurnool. Increasing demands for reorganisation of the patchwork of India's states resulted in the formation of a national States Reorganisation Commission. Based on the commission's recommendations, theParliament of India enacted theStates Reorganisation Act of 1956, which reorganized the boundaries of India's states along linguistic lines. Andhra State was renamedAndhra Pradesh, and enlarged by the addition of Telugu-speaking region ofTelangana, formerly part of Hyderabad State. Mysore State was enlarged by the addition of Coorg and theKannada-speaking districts of southwestern Hyderabad State and southern Bombay State. The newMalayalam-speaking state of Kerala was created by the merger of Travancore-Cochin withMalabar andKasargod districts of Madras State. Madras State, which after 1956 included theTamil-majority regions of South India, changed its name toTamil Nadu in 1968, and Mysore State was renamed Karnataka in 1972.Portuguese India, which includedGoa, was annexed by India in 1961, and Goa became a state in 1987. The enclaves ofFrench India were ceded to India in the 1950s, and the southern four were organised into theunion territory ofPuducherry.
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{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)A very powerful and warlike section of the Bants of Tulunad was known as Kola bari. It is reasonable to suggest that the Kola dynasty was part of the Kola lineages of Tulunad.