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AncientChinese scientists and engineers made significant scientific innovations, findings and technological advances across various scientific disciplines including thenatural sciences,engineering,medicine,military technology,mathematics,geology andastronomy.
Among the earliestinventions were theabacus, thesundial, and theKongming lantern.[citation needed] TheFour Great Inventions – thecompass,gunpowder,papermaking, andprinting – were among the most important technological advances, only known to Europe by the end of theMiddle Ages 1000 years later. TheTang dynasty (AD 618–906) in particular was a time of great innovation.[citation needed] A good deal of exchange occurred between Western andChinese discoveries up to theQing dynasty.
TheJesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, while undergoing its ownscientific revolution, at the same time bringing Chinese knowledge of technology back to Europe.[1][2] In the 19th and 20th centuries the introduction of Western technology was a major factor in the modernization of China. Much of the early Western work in thehistory of science in China was done byJoseph Needham and his Chinese partner,Lu Gwei-djen.
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TheWarring States period began 2500 years ago at the time of the invention of thecrossbow.[3] Needham notes that the invention of the crossbow "far outstripped the progress in defensive armor", which made the wearing of armor useless to the princes and dukes of the states.[4] At this time, there were also many nascent schools of thought in China—theHundred Schools of Thought (諸子百家), scattered among many polities. The schools served as communities which advised the rulers of these states.Mo Di (墨翟 Mozi, 470 BCE–c. 391 BCE) introduced concepts useful to one of those rulers, such as defensive fortification. One of these concepts,fa (法 principle or method)[5] was extended by theSchool of Names (名家Ming jia,ming=name), which began a systematic exploration of logic. The development of a school of logic was cut short by the defeat ofMohism's political sponsors by theQin dynasty, and the subsumption offa as law rather than method by theLegalists.
Needham further notes that theHan dynasty, which conquered the short-lived Qin, were made aware of the need for law byLu Jia and byShusun Tong, as defined by the scholars, rather than the generals.[4]
You conquered the empire on horseback, but from horseback you will never succeed in ruling it.
Derived fromTaoist philosophy, one of the newest longstanding contributions of the ancient Chinese are inTraditional Chinese medicine, including acupuncture andherbal medicine. The practice of acupuncture can be traced back as far as the 1st millennium BC and some scientists believe that there is evidence that practices similar to acupuncture were used inEurasia during the earlyBronze Age.[7]
Using shadow clocks and the abacus (both invented in the ancientNear East before spreading to China), the Chinese were able to record observations, documenting the first recorded solar eclipse in 2137 BC, and making the first recording of any planetary grouping in 500 BC.[8] These claims, however, are highly disputed and rely on much supposition.[9][10] TheBook of Silk was the first definitive atlas of comets, writtenc. 400 BC. It listed 29comets (referred to assweeping stars) that appeared over a period of about 300 years, with renderings of comets describing an event its appearance corresponded to.[8]
In architecture, the pinnacle of Chinese technology manifested itself in theGreat Wall of China, under the firstChinese EmperorQin Shi Huang between 220 and 200 BC. Typical Chinese architecture changed little from the succeeding Han dynasty until the 19th century.[citation needed] The Qin dynasty also developed the crossbow, which later became the mainstream weapon in Europe. Several remains of crossbows have been found among the soldiers of theTerracotta Army in the tomb of Qin Shi Huang.[11]
TheEastern Han dynasty scholar and astronomerZhang Heng (78–139 AD) invented the first water-powered rotatingarmillary sphere (the first armillary sphere having been invented by theGreekEratosthenes), and catalogued 2,500 stars and over 100 constellations. In 132, he invented thefirst seismological detector, called the "Houfeng Didong Yi" ("Instrument for inquiring into the wind and the shaking of the earth").[12] According to theHistory of Later Han Dynasty (25–220 AD), this seismograph was an urn-like instrument, which would drop one of eight balls to indicate when and in which direction an earthquake had occurred.[12] On June 13, 2005, Chineseseismologists announced that they had created a replica of the instrument.[12]
The mechanical engineerMa Jun (c. 200–265 AD) was another impressive figure from ancient China. Ma Jun improved the design of the silkloom,[13] designed mechanicalchain pumps toirrigate palatial gardens,[13] and created a large and intricate mechanicalpuppettheatre forEmperor Ming of Wei, which was operated by a large hiddenwaterwheel.[14] However, Ma Jun's most impressive invention was thesouth-pointing chariot, a complex mechanical device that acted as a mechanicalcompass vehicle. While the exact mechanism is unclear, scholars think it incorporated the use of adifferential gear in order to apply equal amount oftorque to wheels rotating at different speeds, a device that is found in all modernautomobiles.[15]
Sliding calipers were invented in China almost 2,000 years ago.[citation needed] The Chinese civilization was the earliest civilization to experiment successfully withaviation, with thekite andKongming lantern (protoHot air balloon) being the firstflying machines.
The "Four Great Inventions" (simplified Chinese:四大发明;traditional Chinese:四大發明;pinyin:sì dà fāmíng) are thecompass,gunpowder,papermaking andprinting. Paper and printing were developed first. Printing was recorded inChina in theTang dynasty, although the earliest surviving examples of printed cloth patterns date to before 220.[16] Pin-pointing the development of the compass can be difficult: the magnetic attraction of a needle is attested by theLouen-heng, composed between AD 20 and 100,[17] although the first undisputed magnetized needles inChinese literature appear in 1086.[18]
By AD 300, Ge Hong, analchemist of theJin dynasty, conclusively recorded the chemical reactions caused when saltpetre, pine resin and charcoal were heated together, inBook of the Master of the Preservations of Solidarity.[19] Another early record of gunpowder, a Chinese book from c. 850 AD, indicates:[20]
Some have heated togethersulfur,realgar andsaltpeter withhoney; smoke and flames result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house where they were working burned down.
These four discoveries had an enormous impact on the development of Chinese civilization and a far-ranging global impact. Gunpowder, for example, spread to the Arabs in the 13th century and thence to Europe.[21] According toEnglishphilosopherFrancis Bacon, writing inNovum Organum:
Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first inliterature, the second inwarfare, the third innavigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries.
— [22]
One of the most important military treatises of all Chinese history was theHuo Long Jing written byJiao Yu in the 14th century. For gunpowder weapons, it outlined the use offire arrows androckets,fire lances andfirearms,land mines andnaval mines,bombards andcannons,two stage rockets, along with different compositions of gunpowder, including 'magic gunpowder', 'poisonous gunpowder', and 'blinding and burning gunpowder' (refer to his article).
For the 11th century invention of ceramicmovable type printing byBi Sheng (990–1051), it was enhanced by the wooden movable type ofWang Zhen in 1298 and the bronze metal movable type ofHua Sui in 1490.
Among the engineering accomplishments of early China werematches,dry docks, the double-actionpiston pump,cast iron, theironplough, thehorse collar, the multi-tubeseed drill, thewheelbarrow, thesuspension bridge, theparachute,natural gas as fuel, theraised-relief map, thepropeller, thesluice gate, and thepound lock. TheTang dynasty (AD 618–907) andSong dynasty (AD 960–1279) in particular were periods of great innovation.[citation needed]
In the 7th century, book-printing was developed in China, Korea andJapan, using delicate hand-carved wooden blocks to print individual pages.[citation needed] The 9th centuryDiamond Sutra is the earliest known printed document.[citation needed] Movable type was also used in China for a time, but was abandoned because of the number of characters needed; it would not be untilJohannes Gutenberg that the technique was reinvented in a suitable environment.[citation needed]
In addition to gunpowder, the Chinese also developed improved delivery systems for theByzantine weapon ofGreek fire,Meng Huo You andPen Huo Qi first used in Chinac. 900.[23] Chinese illustrations were more realistic than in Byzantine manuscripts,[23] and detailed accounts from 1044 recommending its use on city walls and ramparts show the brass container as fitted with a horizontal pump, and a nozzle of small diameter.[23] The records of a battle on theYangtze nearNanjing in 975 offer an insight into the dangers of the weapon, as a change of wind direction blew the fire back onto the Song forces.[23]
TheSong dynasty (960–1279) brought a new stability for China after a century of civil war, and started a new area of modernisation by encouraging examinations andmeritocracy. Thefirst Song Emperor created political institutions that allowed a great deal of freedom of discourse and thought, which facilitated the growth ofscientific advance, economic reforms, and achievements in arts and literature.[24] Trade flourished both within China and overseas, and the encouragement of technology allowed the mints atKaifeng andHangzhou to gradually increase in production.[24] In 1080, the mints ofEmperor Shenzong had produced 5 billion coins (roughly 50 per Chinese citizen), and the first banknotes were produced in 1023.[24] These coins were so durable that they would still be in use 700 years later, in the 18th century.[24]
There were many famous inventors and early scientists in the Song dynasty period. The statesmanShen Kuo is best known for his book known as theDream Pool Essays (1088 AD). In it, he wrote of use for adrydock to repair boats, the navigational magneticcompass, and the discovery of the concept oftrue north (with magnetic declination towards theNorth Pole). Shen Kuo also devised a geological theory for land formation, orgeomorphology, and theorized that there wasclimate change in geological regions over an enormous span of time.
The equally talented statesmanSu Song was best known for his engineering project of theAstronomicalClock Tower ofKaifeng, by 1088 AD. The clock tower was driven by a rotating waterwheel andescapement mechanism. Crowning the top of the clock tower was the large bronze, mechanically driven, rotatingarmillary sphere. In 1070, Su Song also compiled theBen Cao Tu Jing (Illustrated Pharmacopoeia, original source material from 1058 to 1061 AD) with a team of scholars. Thispharmaceutical treatise covered a wide range of other related subjects, includingbotany,zoology,mineralogy, andmetallurgy.
Chinese astronomers were the first to record observations of asupernova, the first being theSN 185, recorded during theHan dynasty. Chinese astronomers made two more notable supernova observations during the Song dynasty: theSN 1006, the brightest recorded supernova in history; and theSN 1054, making theCrab Nebula the first astronomical object recognized as being connected to a supernova explosion.[25]
During the early half of theSong dynasty (960–1279), the study ofarchaeology developed out of theantiquarian interests of theeducated gentry and their desire to revive the use of ancient vessels in state rituals and ceremonies.[26] This and the belief that ancient vessels were products of 'sages' and not common people was criticized by Shen Kuo, who took aninterdisciplinary approach to archaeology, incorporating his archaeological findings into studies on metallurgy, optics, astronomy, geometry, and ancientmusic measures.[26] His contemporaryOuyang Xiu (1007–1072) compiled an analytical catalogue of ancient rubbings on stone and bronze, which Patricia B. Ebrey says pioneered ideas in earlyepigraphy and archaeology.[27] In accordance with the beliefs of the laterLeopold von Ranke (1795–1886), some Song gentry—such asZhao Mingcheng (1081–1129)—supported the primacy of contemporaneous archaeological finds of ancient inscriptions over historical works written after the fact, which they contested to be unreliable in regard to the former evidence.[28] Hong Mai (1123–1202) used ancient Han dynasty era vessels to debunk what he found to be fallacious descriptions of Han vessels in theBogutu archaeological catalogue compiled during the latter half ofHuizong's reign (1100–1125).[28]
In addition to his studies in meteorology, astronomy, and archaeology mentioned above, Shen Kuo also made hypotheses in regards togeology andclimatology in hisDream Pool Essays of 1088, specifically his claims regardinggeomorphology andclimate change. Shen believed that land was reshaped over time due to perpetualerosion, uplift, and deposition ofsilt, and cited his observance of horizontal strata of fossils embedded in acliffside at Taihang as evidence that the area was once the location of an ancient seashore that had shifted hundreds of miles east over an enormous span of time.[29][30][31] Shen also wrote that since petrified bamboos were found underground in a dry northern climate zone where they had never been known to grow, climates naturally shifted geographically over time.[31][32]
Until the Song dynasty, Chinese medicine classified drugs under the system of theZhenghe bencao (Herbal of the Zhenghe Era):
These early forms of drugs were made using primitive methods, usually just simple dried herbs, or unprocessed minerals. They were developed into combinations known as "elixirs of immortality". These early magical practices, supported by the imperial courts ofQin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE) andEmperor Wu (156–87 BCE) eventually led to the first observations of chemistry in ancient China. Chinese alchemists searched for ways to makecinnabar, gold and other mineralswater soluble so they could be ingested, such as using a solution ofpotassium nitrate in vinegar . Solubilzation of cinnabar was found to occur only if an impurity (chlorideion) was present. Gold also was soluble wheniodate was present in crude niter deposits.[33]
Mongol rule under theYuan dynasty saw technological advances from an economic perspective, with the first mass production of paperbanknotes byKublai Khan in the 13th century.[citation needed] Numerous contacts between Europe and the Mongols occurred in the 13th century, particularly through the unstableFranco-Mongol alliance. Chinese corps, expert in siege warfare, formed an integral part of the Mongol armies campaigning in the West. In 1259–1260 military alliance of the Franks knights of the ruler ofAntioch,Bohemond VI and his father-in-lawHetoum I with theMongols underHulagu, in which they fought together for the conquests of MuslimSyria, taking together the city ofAleppo, and laterDamascus.[34]William of Rubruck, an ambassador to the Mongols in 1254–1255, a personal friend ofRoger Bacon, is also often designated as a possible intermediary in the transmission ofgunpowder know-how between the East and the West.[35] Thecompass is often said to have been introduced by the Master of theKnights TemplarPierre de Montaigu between 1219 and 1223, from one of his travels to visit the Mongols inPersia.[36]
Chinese andArabic astronomy intermingled under Mongol rule.Muslim astronomers worked in the ChineseAstronomical Bureau established by Kublai Khan, while some Chinese astronomers also worked at thePersianMaragha observatory.[37] Before this, in ancient times,Indian astronomers had lent their expertise to the Chinese court.[38]
As Toby E. Huff notes, pre-modern Chinese science developed precariously without solidscientific theory, while there was a lacking of consistent systemic treatment in comparison to contemporaneous European works such as theConcordance and Discordant Canons byGratian ofBologna (fl. 12th century).[39] This drawback to Chinese science was lamented even by the mathematicianYang Hui (1238–1298), who criticized earlier mathematicians such asLi Chunfeng (602–670) who were content with using methods without working out their theoretical origins or principle, stating:
The men of old changed the name of their methods from problem to problem, so that as no specific explanation was given, there is no way of telling their theoretical origin or basis.
— [40]
Despite this, Chinese thinkers of the Middle Ages proposed some hypotheses which are in accordance with modern principles of science. Yang Hui provided theoretical proof for the proposition that the complements of theparallelograms which are about the diameter of any given parallelogram are equal to one another.[40] Sun Sikong (1015–1076) proposed the idea thatrainbows were the result of the contact between sunlight and moisture in the air, whileShen Kuo (1031–1095) expanded upon this with description ofatmospheric refraction.[41][42][43] Shen believed that rays of sunlight refracted before reaching the surface of the Earth, hence the appearance of the observed Sun from Earth did not match its exact location.[43] Coinciding with the astronomical work of his colleagueWei Pu, Shen and Wei realized that the old calculation technique for the mean Sun was inaccurate compared to the apparent Sun, since the latter was ahead of it in the accelerated phase of motion, andbehind it in the retarded phase.[44] Shen supported and expanded upon beliefs earlier proposed byHan dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) scholars such asJing Fang (78–37 BCE) andZhang Heng (78–139 CE) thatlunar eclipse occurs when the Earth obstructs the sunlight traveling towards the Moon, asolar eclipse is the Moon's obstruction of sunlight reaching Earth, the Moon is spherical like a ball and not flat like a disc, and moonlight is merely sunlight reflected from the Moon's surface.[45] Shen also explained that the observance of a full moon occurred when the Sun's light was slanting at a certain degree and that crescentphases of the moon proved that the Moon was spherical, using a metaphor of observing different angles of a silver ball with white powder thrown onto one side.[46][47] Although the Chinese accepted the idea of spherical-shaped heavenly bodies, the concept of aspherical Earth (as opposed to aflat Earth) was not accepted in Chinese thought until the works of Italian JesuitMatteo Ricci (1552–1610) and Chinese astronomerXu Guangqi (1562–1633) in the early 17th century.[48]
There were noted advances intraditional Chinese medicine during the Middle Ages.Emperor Gaozong (reigned 649–683) of theTang dynasty (618–907) commissioned the scholarly compilation of amateria medica in 657 that documented 833 medicinal substances taken from stones, minerals, metals, plants, herbs, animals, vegetables, fruits, and cereal crops.[49] In hisBencao Tujing ('Illustrated Pharmacopoeia'), the scholar-officialSu Song (1020–1101) not only systematically categorizedherbs andminerals according to their pharmaceutical uses, but he also took an interest inzoology.[50][51][52][53] For example, Su made systematic descriptions of animal species and the environmental regions they could be found, such as the freshwatercrabEriocher sinensis found in theHuai River running throughAnhui, in waterways nearthe capital city, as well as reservoirs and marshes ofHebei.[54]
Although theBencao Tujing was an important pharmaceutical work of the age, Su Song is perhaps better known for his work inhorology. His bookXinyi Xiangfayao (新儀象法要; lit. 'Essentials of a New Method for Mechanizing the Rotation of an Armillary Sphere and a Celestial Globe') documented the intricate mechanics of hisastronomical clock tower inKaifeng. This included the use of anescapement mechanism and world's first knownchain drive to power the rotatingarmillary sphere crowning the top as well as the 133 clock jack figurines positioned on a rotating wheel thatsounded the hours by banging drums, clashing gongs, striking bells, and holding plaques with special announcements appearing from open-and-close shutter windows.[55][56][57][58] While it had been Zhang Heng who applied the firstmotive power to the armillary sphere viahydraulics in 125 CE,[59][60] it wasYi Xing (683–727) in 725 CE who first applied an escapement mechanism to a water-powered celestial globe and striking clock.[61] The early Song dynasty horologistZhang Sixun (fl. late 10th century) employedliquid mercury in his astronomical clock because there were complaints that water would freeze too easily in the clepsydra tanks during winter.[62]
Shen Kuo's written work of 1088 also contains the first written description of the magnetic needlecompass, the first description in China of experiments withcamera obscura, the invention ofmovable type printing by the artisanBi Sheng (990–1051), a method of repeated forging ofcast iron under a cold blast similar to the modernBessemer process, and the mathematical basis forspherical trigonometry that would later be mastered by the astronomer and engineerGuo Shoujing (1231–1316).[63][64][65][66][67][68][69] While using a sighting tube of improved width to correct the position of thepole star (which had shifted over the centuries), Shen discovered the concept oftrue north andmagnetic declination towards theNorth Magnetic Pole, a concept which would aid navigators in the years to come.[70][71]
In addition to the method similar to the Bessemer process mentioned above, there were other notable advancements in Chinese metallurgy during the Middle Ages. During the 11th century, the growth of the iron industry caused vastdeforestation due to the use ofcharcoal in the smelting process.[72][73] To remedy the problem of deforestation, the Song Chinese discovered how to producecoke frombituminous coal as a substitute for charcoal.[72][73] Although hydraulic-poweredbellows for heating theblast furnace had been written of sinceDu Shi's (d. 38) invention of the 1st century CE, the first known drawn and printed illustration of it in operation is found in a book written in 1313 byWang Zhen (fl. 1290–1333).[74]
Qin Jiushao (c. 1202–1261) was the first to introduce thezero symbol into Chinese mathematics.[75] Before this innovation, blank spaces were used instead of zeros in the system ofcounting rods.[76]Pascal's triangle was first illustrated in China by Yang Hui in his bookXiangjie Jiuzhang Suanfa (详解九章算法), although it was described earlier around 1100 byJia Xian.[77] Although theIntroduction to Computational Studies (算学启蒙) written byZhu Shijie (fl. 13th century) in 1299 contained nothing new in Chinesealgebra, it had a great impact on the development ofJapanese mathematics.[78]
In their pursuit for anelixir of life and desire to create gold from various mixtures of materials,Taoists became heavily associated withalchemy.[79]Joseph Needham labeled their pursuits as proto-scientific rather than merelypseudoscience.[79] Fairbank and Goldman write that the futile experiments ofChinese alchemists did lead to the discovery of new metalalloys,porcelain types, anddyes.[79] However,Nathan Sivin discounts such a close connection between Taoism andalchemy, which somesinologists have asserted, stating that alchemy was more prevalent in the secular sphere and practiced by laymen.[80]
Experimentation with various materials and ingredients in China during the middle period led to the discovery of many ointments, creams, and other mixtures with practical uses. In a 9th-century Arab workKitāb al-Khawāss al Kabīr, there are numerous products listed that were native to China, including waterproof and dust-repelling cream or varnish for clothes and weapons, aChinese lacquer, varnish, or cream that protected leather items, a completely fire-proof cement for glass and porcelain, recipes forChinese and Indian ink, a waterproof cream for the silk garments of underwater divers, and a cream specifically used for polishing mirrors.[81]
The significant change that distinguishedMedieval warfare toearly Modern warfare was the use ofgunpowder weaponry in battle.A 10th-century silken banner fromDunhuang portrays the first artistic depiction of afire lance, a prototype of the gun.[82] TheWujing Zongyao military manuscript of 1044 listed the first known written formulas for gunpowder, meant for light-weight bombs lobbed from catapults or thrown down from defenders behind city walls.[83] By the 13th century, the iron-cased bomb shell,hand cannon,land mine, androcket were developed.[84][85] As evidenced by theHuolongjing ofJiao Yu andLiu Bowen, by the 14th century the Chinese had developed the heavycannon, hollow and gunpowder-packedexploding cannonballs, thetwo-stage rocket with abooster rocket, thenaval mine andwheellock mechanism to ignite trains of fuses.[86][87]
TheJesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. One modern historian writes that in late Ming courts, the Jesuits were "regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography."[88] TheSociety of Jesus introduced, according toThomas Woods, "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible."[1] Another expert quoted by Woods said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when science was at a very low level in China:
[The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out the first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture.
— [2]
Johann Adam Schall published Yuan Jing Shuo, Explanation of the Telescope, in 1626, in Latin and Chinese. Schall's book referred to the telescopic observations of Galileo.[89][90]
Conversely, the Jesuits were very active in transmitting Chinese knowledge to Europe.Confucius's works were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China.Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and Father Prospero Intorcetta published the life and works of Confucius intoLatin in 1687.[91] It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among theDeists and other philosophical groups of theEnlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius intoChristianity.[92][93]
The followers of the FrenchphysiocratFrançois Quesnay habitually referred to him as "the Confucius of Europe", and he personally identified himself with the Chinese sage.[94] The doctrine and even the name of "Laissez-faire" may have been inspired by the Chinese concept ofWu wei.[95][96] However, the economic insights of ancient Chinese political thought had otherwise little impact outside China in later centuries.[97]Goethe, was known as "the Confucius ofWeimar".[98]
One question that has been the subject of debate among historians has been why China did not develop ascientific revolution and why Chinese technology fell behind that of Europe. Many hypotheses have been proposed ranging from the cultural to the political and economic.John K. Fairbank, for example, argued that the Chinese political system was hostile to scientific progress. As for Needham, he wrote that cultural factors prevented traditional Chinese achievements from developing into what could be called "science." It was the religious and philosophical framework of the Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to believe in the ideas of laws of nature:
It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime. TheTaoists, indeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and complexity of the universe as they intuited it.
— [99]
Another prominent historian of science,Nathan Sivin, has argued that China did indeed experience a scientific revolution in the 17th century; however, it must be understood in the context of its time and culture, rather than through aWestern lens as an analog of Europe's revolution.[100]
There are also questions about the philosophy behind traditional Chinese medicine, which, derived partly from Taoist philosophy, reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. Because its theory predates use of thescientific method, it has received various criticisms based on scientific thinking. PhilosopherRobert Todd Carroll, a member ofThe Skeptics Society, deemed acupuncture apseudoscience because it "confuse(s) metaphysical claims with empirical claims".[101]
More recent historians have questioned political and cultural explanations and have put greater focus on economic causes.[citation needed] Mark Elvin'shigh level equilibrium trap is one well-known example of this line of thought. It argues that the Chinese population was large enough, workers cheap enough, and agrarian productivity high enough to not require mechanization: thousands of Chinese workers were perfectly able to quickly perform any needed task.[citation needed] Other events such asHaijin, the Opium Wars and the resulting hate of European influence prevented China from undergoing an Industrial Revolution; copying Europe's progress on a large scale would be impossible for a lengthy period of time. Political instability underCixi rule (opposition and frequent oscillation between modernists and conservatives), the Republican wars (1911–1933), the Sino-Japanese War (1933–1945), the Communist/Nationalist War (1945–1949) as well as the laterCultural Revolution isolated China at the most critical times.Kenneth Pomeranz has made the argument that the substantial resources taken from theNew World to Europe made the crucial difference between European and Chinese development.[citation needed]
In his bookGuns, Germs, and Steel,Jared Diamond postulates that the lack of geographic barriers within much of China—essentially a wide plain with two large navigable rivers and a relatively smooth coastline—led to a single government without competition. At the whim of a ruler who disliked new inventions, technology could be stifled for half a century or more. In contrast, Europe's barriers of the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the various defensible peninsulas (Denmark, Scandinavia, Italy, Greece, etc.) and islands (Britain, Ireland, Sicily, etc.) led to smaller countries in constant competition with each other. If a ruler chose to ignore a scientific advancement (especially a military or economic one), his more-advanced neighbors would soon usurp his throne. This explanation, however, ignores the fact thatChina had beenpolitically fragmentedin the past, and was thus not inherently disposed to political unification.[102]
TheRepublic of China (1912–1949) saw the introduction in earnest of modern science to China. Large numbers of Chinese students studied abroad in Japan and in Europe and the US. Many returned to help teach and to found numerous schools and universities. Among them were numerous outstanding figures, includingCai Yuanpei,Hu Shih,Weng Wenhao,Ding Wenjiang,Fu Ssu-nien, and many others. As a result, there was a tremendous growth of modern science in China. As the Communist Party took over China's mainland in 1949, some of these Chinese scientists and institutions moved to Taiwan. The central science academy,Academia Sinica, also moved there.
Participants in theMay Fourth Movement of 1919 advocated that science (nicknamed, "Mr. Science"), along with Democracy ("Mr. Democracy") could save China.[103]: 356 Belief in the idea of "saving China through science" (kexue jiuguo) increased during the ROC period.[103]: 356
After the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949, China reorganized its science establishment alongSoviet lines. Although the country regressed scientifically as a result of government policies which led to famine during theGreat Leap Forward and political chaos during theCultural Revolution, scientific research in nuclear weapons and satellite launching still gained great success.
China began a formal computing development program in 1956 when it launched the Twelve-Year Science Plan and formed the Beijing Institute of Computing Technology under theChinese Academy of Sciences (CAS).[104]: 100 In 1958, China completed its firstvacuum-tube computer.[104]: 100 Over the next several years, Chinese researchers expanded on these efforts with extrapolation from Soviet models.[104]: 100–101
Following theSino-Soviet split, China continued to develop domestic computing and electronic institutions, including the Beijing Institute of Electronics in 1963.[104]: 101
Beginning in 1964, China through theThird Front construction built a self-sufficient industrial base in its hinterlands as a strategic reserve in the event of war with the Soviet Union or the United States.[105]: 1 The Third Front construction was primarily carried out in secret, with the location for Third Front projects following the principle of “close to the mountains, dispersed, and hidden” (靠山, 分散, 隐蔽;kàoshān, fēnsàn, yǐnbì).[106]: 179 From 1964-1974, China invested more than 40% of its industrial capacity in Third Front regions.[107]: 297–298 AfterNixon's China trip in 1972, investment to the Third Front region gradually declined.[105]: 225–229 Rapprochement between the United States and China decreased the fear of invasion which motivated the Third Front construction.[106]: 180 Through its distribution of infrastructure, industry, and human capital around the country, the Third Front created favorable conditions for subsequent market development and private enterprise.[106]: 177
In 1964, CAS debuted China's first self-developed largedigital computer, the 119.[104]: 101 The 119 was a core technology in facilitating China's first successful nuclear weapon test (Project 596), also in 1964.[104]: 101
In 1966, China transitioned from vacuum-tube computers to fullytransistorized computers.[104]: 101 In the mid-1960s through the late 1960s, China began asemiconductor program and was producingthird-generation computers by 1972.[104]: 101
From 1975, science and technology was one of theFour Modernizations, and its high-speed development was declared essential to all national economic development byDeng Xiaoping. Other civilian technologies such as superconductivity and high-yield hybrid rice led to new developments due to the application of science to industry and foreigntechnology transfer.
In March 1986, China launched a large-scale technology development plan, the863 Project.[108]: 88
As the People's Republic of China becomes better connected to theglobal economy, the government has placed more emphasis on science and technology. This has led to increases in funding, improved scientific structure, and more money for research. These factors have led to advancements inagriculture,medicine,genetics, andglobal change. In 2003, theChinese space program allowed China to become the third country to send humans into space, and ambition to put a man on mars by 2030. In the 2000s and 2010s, China became a top scientific and industrial power in more advanced fields such assuper computing,artificial intelligence,bullet trains,aeronautics,nuclear physics researches and other fields.
In 2014, theChina Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund was established in an effort to reduce dependence on foreignsemiconductor companies.[109]: 274
In 2016, China became the country with the highest science output, as measured in publications. While the US had been the biggest producer of scientific studies until then, China published 426,000 studies in 2016 while the US published 409,000.[110] However, the numbers are somewhat relative, as it also depends how authorship on international collaborations is counted (e.g. if one paper is counted per person or whether authorship is split among authors).[110] In 2022, China passed both the US and the European Union in the number of high-impact papers published.[111] As of 2024, theNature Index ranks seven Chinese universities or institutions in the global top ten for volume of research output.[111] TheLeiden Ranking rates six in the global top ten.[111]
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