Thehistory of science and technology in Mexico spans many years.
IndigenousMesoamerican civilizations developed mathematics, astronomy, and calendrics, and solved technological problems of water management for agriculture and flood control in Central Mexico.
Following the Spanish conquest in 1521,New Spain (colonial Mexico) was brought into the European sphere of science and technology. TheRoyal and Pontifical University of Mexico, established in 1551, was a hub of intellectual and religious development in colonial Mexico for over a century. During theSpanish American Enlightenment inMexico, the colony made considerable progress in science, but following the war of independence and political instability in the early nineteenth century, progress stalled.
During the late 19th century under the regime ofPorfirio Díaz, the process of industrialization began in Mexico. Following theMexican Revolution, a ten-year civil war, Mexico made significant progress in science and technology. During the 20th century, new universities, such as theNational Polytechnical Institute,Monterrey Institute of Technology and research institutes, such as those at theNational Autonomous University of Mexico, were established in Mexico.
According to theWorld Bank, Mexico is Latin America's largest exporter of high-technology goods (High-technology exports are manufactured goods that involve high R&D intensity, such as in aerospace, computers, pharmaceuticals, scientific instruments, and electrical machinery) with $40.7 billion worth of high-technology goods exports in 2012.[1] Mexican high-technology exports accounted for 17% of all manufactured goods in the country in 2012 according to the World Bank.[2]
TheOlmec, a Pre-Columbian civilization living in the tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, calendar system required an advanced understanding of mathematics. The Olmec number system was based on 20 instead of decimal and used three symbols- a dot for one, a bar for five, and a shell-like symbol for zero. The concept ofzero is one of the Olmecs' greatest achievements. It permitted numbers to be written by position and allowed for complex calculations. Although the invention of zero is often attributed to theMayans, it was originally conceived by the Olmecs.
To predict planting and harvesting times, early peoples studied the movements of the sun, stars, and planets. They used this information to make calendars. TheAztecs created two calendars- one for farming, and one for religion. The farming calendar let them know when to plant and to harvest crops. AnAztec calendar stone dug up inMexico City in 1790 includes information about the months of the year and pictures of the sun god at the center.
After theViceroyalty of New Spain was founded, the Spanish brought the scientific culture that dominated Spain to the Viceroyalty of New Spain.[3]
TheFranciscan order founded the first school of higher learning in the Americas, theColegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in 1536, at the site of an Aztec school.[4]
The municipal government (cabildo) of Mexico City formally requested the Spanish crown to establish a university in 1539.[5] TheRoyal and Pontifical University of Mexico (Real y Pontificia Universidad de México) was established in 1551. The university was administered by the clergy and it was the official university of the empire. It provided quality education for the people, and it was a hub of intellectual and religious development in the region. It taught subjects such as physics and mathematics from the perspective ofAristotelian philosophy.Augustinian philosopherAlonso Gutiérrez in 1553 he became the first professor of theUniversity of Mexico. He wrotePhysical speculation, the first scientific text in the Americas, in 1557. By the late 18th century, the university had trained 1,162 doctors, 29,882bachelors, and many lawyers.[3]
Pedro Lopez, a physician to KingPhilip II was sent to New Spain in order to write a medical history of the nation. He spent seven years on his work.[6] He made descriptions and drawings of Novhispanic flora and fauna, and experimented with Indigenous remedies. He returned to Spain with the results of his work in 1577. The book was bound and stored in the archives of theEscorial only to be mostly lost when fire afflicted the palace in 1671. An abridged version however was saved and was published byFederico Cesi. Back in Mexico a Dominican lay brother named Francisco Jiménez translated the abridgement from Latin to Spanish. It was composed of four books: the first three relating to plants, and the fourth relating to animals and minerals.[7]
Alonso López de Hinojosos, the physician at the Royal Hospital of Indians conducted many autopsies during the epidemic of 1576 in order to understand more the nature of theCocoliztli disease. He also wrote textbooks on surgery. During that same epidemic, Juan de la Fuente, professor of medicine at the University of Mexico convoked all of the local physicians in order to further understand the disease.[8]
Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora was a Mexican Jesuit poet, a philosopher, a mathematician, a historian, and antiquarian. He studied astronomy, physics, and mathematics at Tepotzotlán College. He was at one point invited to visit the court ofLouis XIV. He abandonedAristotelianism and adoptedCartesianism. He also advocated a naturalistic explanation for comets, free from superstition.[9]
In 1693Viceory Galve nominated Sigüenza to form part of a scientific expedition tasked with exploring the Gulf of Mexico. Siguena accepted and published his findings in a treatise. He also wrote treatises on astronomy and geometry.[10]
_by_Rafael_Ximeno_y_Planes_-_Museo_Tols%25C3%25A1_-_Palacio_de_Miner%25C3%25ADa_-_Mexico_2024.jpg)
In the early 18th century, theWar of Spanish Succession ended with the rule of Spain passing over from theHouse of Habsburg over to the FrenchHouse of Bourbon. The new ruling family inaugurated a program of government improvements known as theBourbon Reforms which also affected the colonies and inaugurated the era ofSpanish American Enlightenment. Regardless, the 1767expulsion of Jesuits, who had been key in the fields of Mexican science and education, helped to antagonize the Creoles.[11][12] In 1792 the Seminary of Mining was established. Later it became the College of Mining, in which the first modern physics laboratory in Mexico was established.[11]Andrés Manuel del Río andFausto Elhuyar arrived from Spain to join the faculty. It taught courses on topography, geodesy, mineralogy, and other sciences.[13] Shortly before a botanical garden had also been established which also taught a course on botany.[13]
Notable scientists during this era includedJosé Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez andAndrés Manuel del Río.[11] Río discovered thechemical elementvanadium in 1801.[14]
During this eraFrancisco Xavier Gamboa was a jurist who also expressed interest in science. After being tasked with compiling reports for the government of New Spain he studied mathematics and mining and wrote a treatise on mining engineering.[10]
Antonio de León y Gama wrote reports on the moons of Jupiter, the climate of New Spain, and helped to precisely calculate the longitude of Mexico. He also wrote a report on theAztec sun stone.[10]
Joaquín Velázquez de León's scientific reputation earned the praise ofAlexander von Humboldt. He studied the works ofFrancis Bacon andIsaac Newton and specialized in mathematics, geodesy, and astronomy.[10]
Velázquez de León built scientific instruments not available in New Spain and accompaniedJosé de Gálvez on his expedition toSonora. He also made expeditions intothe Californias where the clear skies of those regions allowed him to make many astronomical observations, including atransit of Venus in 1769, which allowed him to measure the distance from the Earth to the Sun. Accompanying him on that occasion wasJean-Baptiste Chappe d'Auteroche, the French priest and geometer. While in the Californias he precisely calculated their longitudes and latitudes. In 1773, he also precisely calculated the longitude and latitude of Mexico City.[15]
Throughtriangulation betweenPeñón de los Baños, toHuehuetoca, Velázquez de León drew up topographical charts for the region. He was also commissioned to work on projects related to mining by the government of New Spain.[15]
José Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez conducted many experiments, regarding electricity and meteorology. In 1789, he recorded observations regarding a rare occurrence of theaurora borealis in Mexico. He was also an avid naturalist, cataloging many Mexican plants and animals, and studying the migration patterns of birds. He however has also been criticized for not using the nascentLinnaean taxonomy.[16]
During the reign ofCharles III,Alejandro Malaspina andDionisio Alcalá Galiano andAntonio Valdés y Fernández Bazán were tasked with carrying out expeditions to explore the northwest coast of New Spain.[17]
José Mariano Mociño studied at the Botanic Garden in 1789.[18] Mociño had accompaniedMartín Sessé y Lacasta in the scientific expedition ordered byCharles IV in 1795 tasked with surveying New Spain's plant life. The expedition lasted eight years. Mociño traveled over three thousand leagues ultimately producing a report titledMexican Flora which was then sent to theReal Jardín Botánico de Madrid. The Swiss naturalistAugustin Pyramus de Candolle was an admirer of the work, and when Mociño travelled to Spain to access his volume, a copy had to be made so that DeCandolle would not have to part with it.[19]
In 1833, PresidentValentín Gómez Farías, himself a physician decreed the establishment of a School of Medical Sciences. It was ultimately not built due to the Gomez Farias administration being overthrown by a coup shortly afterward, but in 1854 a private medical college was established in Mexico City.[20] Gómez Farías also closed the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico in 1833 as part of his anti-clerical measures.
Certain Mexican presidents in this era had come from a background in the sciences. PresidentAnastasio Bustamante had been a physician and during a temporary exile in Europe, he had spent some of his time visiting the anatomical collections ofMontpellier andVienna.[21] PresidentValentín Gómez Farías had started out his professional career practicing medicine inGuadalajara. PresidentManuel Robles Pezuela was a military engineer who had engaged in important geodesic and topographic projects in theIsthmus of Tehuantepec. He was also a member of the Mexican Society of Statistics and of the Paris Geographical Society.[22]
The statesmanLucas Alamán who served under multiple administrations had come from a background of mining engineering, and in his youth he had studied in Europe underRené Just Haüy,Jean-Baptiste Biot, andLouis Jacques Thénard.[23] He had also sought to bring to Mexico the technique ofseparating silver and gold through the use ofsulfuric acid in contrast to the old technique of usingnitric acid.[24]
GeneralPedro García Conde studied mathematics, chemistry, and mineralogy, at the Mining College in Mexico, and joined the military as an engineer. In 1834, he was named geometer of the boundary commission. In 1838 he was named director of the Military College.[25]
Conde passed sweeping reforms for the military college, establishing courses on descriptive geometry, applied mechanics, astronomy and geodesy. He was Secretary of War in the years leading up to theMexican American War. He was tasked by a government commission to map the boundary established by theTreaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, and made the effort to try to save as much territory as he could for Mexico.[26]
Francisco Díaz Covarrubias studied at the Mining School, and in 1854 he was appointed professor of topography, geodesy, and astronomy. He was part of the team that made the first detailed hydrographic map of the valley of Mexico, and improved upon the Mexican geographic coordinates made by Alexander von Humboldt.[27]
Leopoldo Río de la Loza studied atSan Ildefonso College and in 1827 received the title of surgeon. He did not enjoy the field and began studying to work as a pharmacist. He graduated in 1833 and played a role in the efforts against the cholera epidemic which broke out that year. He published articles on mineral and drinking waters, on medication, on Lake Texcoco, and other matters related to public hygiene.[28]
Miguel F. Jiménez after attending medical school began teaching anatomy in 1838. He published an landmark study onspotted fever colloquially known astabardillo, in 1846. He continued to publish various treatises on illnesses and conditions throughout his career.[19]
The first industrial exhibition in Mexico opened on November 1, 1849, in Mexico City.[29] In 1849, the exclusive concession to establish telegraph lines was granted toJuan de la Granja, and in December 1851 the first telegram in Mexico was transmitted from Mexico City to Puebla. The line was extended to Vera Cruz the following year.[30]
During the period of theSecond Mexican Empire,Emperor Maximilian organized anacademy of science and literature.[31] Among its scientific faculty wereLeopoldo Río de la Loza,Miguel F. Jiménez, head of the school of medicine,Joaquin de Mier y Teran professor of mathematics at the College of Mining, and the mining engineerAntonio del Castillo.[32]
Maximilian's Minister of Public Works Luis Robles Pezuela presented the government a report on the state of Mexico's telegraphic network which then included three lines. One connectingVeracruz toTehuacán, and two private lines: one of them connectingBagdad toMatamoros. Maximilian also had a private line built, connecting theChapultepec Castle to theNational Palace. The Emperor made efforts to expand this network.[33]
A railroad connecting Veracruz to Mexico City was first proposed in 1830. The government granted an ill-fated concession to begin the project in 1837.[34] After more ill-fated efforts substantial progress was finally made in 1857 after a concession had been granted toAntonio Escandon, but it was interrupted by the nation's ongoing civil wars.[34] Engineers commissioned by Emperor Maximilian completed 134 miles before the fall of the Second Mexican Empire in 1867.[35] The long-awaited Mexico City to Veracruz railroad line was finally inaugurated on January 1, 1873.[35]
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Porfirio Díaz' ascension to the presidency in 1876 brought an end to the Mexican civil wars which had repeatedly broken out since independence had first been achieved. Mexico entered upon a period of stability and industrialization which also contributed to advances in science and technology. The influence of FrenchPositivism led to a renaissance of scientific activity in Mexico.
Chief among the positivists wasGabino Barreda who founded theEscuela Nacional Preparatoria and became its first director.[36][37] The medical faculty would eventually include the physiciansManuel Carmona y Valle,Eduardo Liceaga, andRafael Lavista y Rebolla, the oculistJoaquín Vértiz, and the pediatricianMiguel Otero y Arce.[38] The faculty of physical scientists would eventually include the chemistAndrés Almaraz, and the engineerMariano de la Bárcena.[38] The faculty of mathematics would eventually includeJose Joaquin Terrazas, and the engineerLeandro Fernández Imas.[38]
A national observatory at Chapultepec was decreed in December 1876 and inaugurated on May 1878. Its first director wasFrancisco Díaz Covarrubias. The observatory included a meteorological and magnetic observatory and maintained correspondence with international observatories and scientific organizations.[39] In 1877 a meteorological observatory was established which also maintained correspondence with international observatories.[39] Covarrubias was appointed president over a scientific commission tasked with travelling to Japan to observe the1874 transit of Venus.[40] A geological society was established in 1875.[39]
The Federal Telegraphic Office during this time provided meteorological observations.[41] The Academy of Medicine annually awarded prizes to the authors of the best scientific reports. A Pedro Escobedo Society also awarded prizes for scientific accomplishments. The Mexican government made efforts to reward scientific discovery by sending relevant scientists to Europe so that they could gain more attention for their work.[41]
The proliferation of railroads stimulated the development of Mexican industry by giving it access to the latest machinery.[42]
A Ministry of Communications and Public Works was established during this time, and began a program of building lighthouses for Mexican ports.[43] The Ministry also commissioned improvements to theVeracruz Harbor.[44] Smaller improvements were made to the Atlantic ports ofProgreso,Campeche, andTuxpam.[45] The only Pacific ports to be improved during this time wereManzanillo andSalina Cruz.[45]
Improvements to the nation's telegraph network continued during this time. A school of telegraphy was established along with workshops to repair the network.[46] Experiments were made in wireless telegraphy in order to bridge theSea of Cortés.[46] By 1902, the network spanned over 40,000 kilometers of wire with 379 stations.[47]
A telephone network began to be built in Mexico during this time. By the beginning of the 20th century telephone networks between cities spanned over 27,000 kilometers of wire and included almost 3000 devices. Every state in Mexico was included in the network.[48]
GeneralManuel Mondragón invented theMondragón rifle during this time. These designs include the straight-pull bolt-action M1893 and M1894 rifles, and Mexico's firstself-loading rifle, the M1908—the first of the designs to see combat use.
During the 20th century, Mexico made significant progress in science and technology. New universities and research institutes were established. TheNational Autonomous University of Mexico (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,UNAM) was officially established in 1910,[49] and the university become one of the most important institutes of higher learning in Mexico.[50] UNAM provides education in science, medicine, and engineering.[51] Many scientific institutes and new institutes of higher learning, such asNational Polytechnic Institute (founded in 1936),[52] were established during the first half of the 20th century. Most of the new research institutes were created within UNAM. Twelve institutes were integrated into UNAM from 1929 to 1973.[53]
Mexican scientists, physicians, and intellectuals were involved in the movement to shape Mexico's population througheugenics. TheSociedad Mexicana de Eugenesia was founded in 1931, and was concerned with mental disabilities, prison reform, tuberculosis, syphilis, alcoholism, sexual education,mestizaje, prostitution,puericulture, (scientific child-rearing), and single mothers. The society advocated for maternal assistance, eradication of juvenile delinquency, and incorporation of its ideas into the functioning of schools, prisons, and public health administration. It succeeding in having established a medical clinic, the Hereditary Health Counseling Center, for workers.[54] The organization published the journalEugenesia until 1954.[55]
In the 1930sManuel Sandoval Vallartaa Mexicanphysicist worked oncosmic ray research and in 1943 to 1946, he divided his time betweenMIT andUNAM as a full-time professor.Alfonso L. Herrera's work laid the foundation for future research in Mexicanbiology andecology. His studies on adaptation and desertecosystems continue to be relevant and influential in the fields of biology and ecology to this day. Often regarded as one of the pioneers of Mexican biology and made valuable contributions to our understanding of the natural world. Known for his significant contributions to the fields ofbotany andzoology.
On August 31, 1946,Guillermo González Camarena sent his first color transmission from his lab in the offices of The Mexican League of Radio Experiments, at Lucerna St. #1, in Mexico City. The video signal was transmitted at a frequency of 115 MHz. and the audio in the 40-meter band. González Camarena was a Mexicanengineer who was theinventor of acolor-wheel type of color television, and who also introduced color television to Mexico.
Mexico was in the forefront of theGreen Revolution, funded by theRockefeller Foundation and developed byNorman Borlaug, who later won theNobel Prize for his work. The aim was to increase the productivity of Mexican agriculture through the development of new strains of seeds. Mexico founded theInternational Maize and Wheat Improvement Center to further this scientific work.[56]
In the 1950s, the wild yam known asbarbasco was discovered to contain steroid hormones that could affect human fertility and led to the development ofThe Pill. A Mexican research company,Syntex was founded and began producing oral contraceptives. The Mexican government under PresidentLuis Echeverría created a state-run company, Proquivemex, to control and regulate the industry.[57]
In 1959, theMexican Academy of Sciences (Academia Mexicana de Ciencias) was established as a non-governmental, non-profit organization of distinguished scientists. The academy has grown in membership and influence, and it represents a strong voice of scientists from different fields, mainly in science policy.[58]
By 1960, science was institutionalized in Mexico. It was viewed as a legitimate endeavor by the Mexican society.[53]Guillermo Haro through his own astronomical research and the formation of new institutions, Haro was influential in the development of modernobservational astronomy in Mexico. Internationally, he is best known for his contribution to the discovery ofHerbig–Haro objects.
In 1961, theCenter for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute was established as a center for graduate studies in subjects such as biology, mathematics, and physics. In 1961, the institute began its graduate programs in physics and mathematics and schools of science were established in Mexican states ofPuebla,San Luis Potosí,Monterrey,Veracruz, andMichoacán. The Academy for Scientific Research was established in 1968 and theNational Council of Science and Technology (CONAHCYT) was established in 1971.[53]
Ricardo Miledi, one of the ten most quotedneuro-biologists of all time, was born in Mexico, D.F. in 1927. His career in science began in 1955 when, just before graduating in medicine at theUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (UNAM), he joined one of the most active research groups in his country, part of the Instituto Nacional de Cardiología (the National Institute of Cardiology).
Many of Professor Miledi's studies and breakthroughs in Neurobiology, especially those related to the mechanisms of synaptic andneuromuscular transmission, are considered to be classic throughout the world. Over 450 publications are the tangible product of forty years of research devoted to the main to the primary functions of the nervous system: the transmission of information between cells. He has been a member of theRoyal Society of London since 1980 and entered theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1986. In 1999 Miledi was awarded thePrince of Asturias Award for Technical and Scientific Research. He has been Professor ofBiophysics at theUniversity of London and distinguished professor of theUniversity of California since 1984. He also leads a neurobiology laboratory in UNAM in Querétaro, México.[59]
In 1985Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican citizen to enter space as part of theSTS-61-B mission.[60]
In 1995 Mexican chemistMario J. Molina shared theNobel Prize in Chemistry withPaul J. Crutzen, andF. Sherwood Rowland for their work inatmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition ofozone.[61] Molina, an alumnus of UNAM, became the first Mexican citizen to win the Nobel Prize in science.[62]
Evangelina Villegas work withmaize led to the development ofquality protein maize (QPM).Surinder Vasal, shared the 2000World Food Prize for this achievement.[63] Villegas was the first woman to ever receive the World Food Prize.[64]
TheLarge Millimeter Telescope was inaugurated on November 22, 2006. It is the world's largest and most sensitive single-aperturetelescope in its frequency range, built for observingradio waves in the wavelengths from approximately 0.85 to 4 mm. Located on top of theSierra Negra. It is a binational Mexican (70%) - American (30%) joint project.
In 1962, the National Commission of Outer Space (Comisión Nacional del Espacio Exterior, CONNE) was established but was dismantled in 1977. On July 30, 2010, the law to create theAgencia Espacial Mexicana (AEM) was published. It is now in the process of defining the National Space Policy and its program of activities.Robotics is a new area under development in Mexico, the Mexone Robot is one of the most advanced robot designs in the world.[65]
Austrade predicts Mexico's IT spending will grow at a compound annual growth rate of 11 percent over 2011–2015.[66]
Based on the information managed byScopus, a bibliographic database for science, the Spanish web portalSCImago places Mexico at 28th in-country scientific ranking with 82,792 publications, and 34th considering its value of 134 for theh-index. Both positions are computed for the period 1996–2007.
Theelectronics industry of Mexico has grown enormously within the last decade. In 2007 Mexico surpassedSouth Korea as the second-largest manufacturer oftelevisions, and in 2008 Mexico surpassedChina, South Korea, andTaiwan to become the largest producer ofsmartphones in the world. There are almost half a million (451,000) students enrolled inelectronics engineering programs.
José Hernández-Rebollar he invented an electronic glove,[67] known as the AcceleGlove, which translates hand movements from theAmerican Sign Language into spoken and written words. His invention already recognizes and translates 300 basic words. His invention has been recognized by theSmithsonian Institution,[68] where he has lectured about the glove,[69] which has attracted media attention.[70]
Mission Colmena (hive) is to find a technology niche for Mexico in thespace sector for the future. In which Mexico can participate together with an international consortia either in scientific exploration or in economic exploitation inner solar system bodiesmoons orasteroids and in particular objects that do not have their surfaces exposed to theinterplanetary medium. The hives mission intends to use a complex systems of properties, the fact that each of the smallrobots will have the ability toautonomously navigate to get to join with as many units as possible and eventually connect electrically.
Mexico was ranked 58th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2025.[71][72]
Since the change in government in December 2018, Mexico's socio-economic policy has pivoted towards a new development model with a focus on social programmes. The government has introduced new instruments to redistribute income. This has contributed to a change in the structure of public expenditure, both in terms of consumption and investment.[73]
Mexico has been affected by the America First doctrine of its northern neighbour and main trading partner, which materialized in a long negotiation for the signing of the USMCA. As a result, Mexico has departed from its previous growth pattern of around 2% per year. In 2019, the economy shrank by 0.1%, although full employment was preserved, with just 3.4% of the population being unemployed at the time.[73]
There is, as yet, little evidence that Mexico's economy will undergo deep structural changes overnight. The absence of any industrial policy suggests that the Mexican economy will remain dependent on oil and manufactured exports associated with global value chains, as well as remittances. Mexico's main targets, as outlined in the National Development Plan for 2019–2024, relate to national challenges such as poverty, inequality, employment and education. Mexico submitted a Voluntary National Review for the Highlevel Political Forum on Sustainable Development in 2018 and the current government has linked the National Development Plan to The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The government is working to connect science better with local challenges. Its new initiative, entitled Strategic National Programmes (PRONACES), allocates funding to research projects with a focus on societal issues at local level.[73]
Programmes include: contaminating processes and the socioenvironmental impact of toxins; the promotion of literacy as a strategy for social inclusion; and the sustainability of socioecological systems.[73]
PRONACES is co-ordinated by the National Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT). In 2019, PRONACES accounted for just 1.1% of CONACYT's budget but recent changes suggest that resources may be reassigned to this new programme. Since 2019, the government has reverted to a linear view of innovation that minimizes the vital role played by the business sector in innovation. One consequence of this policy shift has been that CONACYT no longer funds private business ventures, although it does still engage in other forms of public–private partnership like with the Querétaro Aerospace Cluster.[73]
Since 2019, the government has been gradually winding down the sectoral funds programme, as part of the curb on allocating resources to promote business innovation. In 2019 and 2020, CONACYT did not issue any calls for project proposals, meaning that only those projects having received funding in previous years remain operational.[73]
The Law on Science and Technology (2002) stipulates that CONACYT is entitled to sign agreements with various ministries and other government bodies to cofinance each sectoral fund. Technical committees were set up to assign public resources to priority economic sectors. By 2005, there were 17 of these mission-oriented funds in sectors that included agriculture, energy, environment and health.[73]
The amount of resources allocated to the sectoral funds has always been modest; by 2019, these amounted to 2.1% of CONACYT's budget.[73]
In 2020, the government decided to eliminate sectoral funds altogether without undertaking any robust evaluation to justify their disappearance.[73]
Research intensity has been declining steadily. In 2018, it hit a low of 0.31% of GDP. In 2020, parliament approved a rule prohibiting any further drop in public research expenditure until the 1% target laid out in the Law of Science and Technology is attained.[73]
In 2018, the public sector financed nearly 80% of GERD. To promote basic science, the López Obrador administration has established a new programme called Frontier Science that is co-ordinated by CONACYT.[73]
A draft bill on science, technology and innovation was presented to the president in December. The bill proposes moving from a governance system in which the scientific, technical, academic and business communities at federal and state levels all participate in decision-making bodies towards a concentration of power in CONACYT. Some other normative documents already approved by parliament reflect this gradual centralization of decision-making power and resources in CONACYT. For instance, the new CONACYT Statutes approved in 2020 have eliminated the autonomous character of the body responsible for ensuring linkages between the public sector and the scientific, technical, academic and business communities, the Scientific and Technological Consultative Forum.[73]
TheChicxulub crater is an impactcrater buried underneath theYucatán Peninsula in Mexico. The crater was discovered byAntonio Camargo andGlen Penfield,geophysicists who had been looking forpetroleum in the Yucatán during the late 1970s. TheAlvarez hypothesis posits that themass extinction of thedinosaurs and many other living things during theCretaceous–Paleogene extinction event was caused by theimpact of a largeasteroid on theEarth. Evidence indicates that the asteroid fell in theYucatán Peninsula, at Chicxulub,Mexico. The hypothesis is named after the father-and-son team of scientistsLuis andWalter Alvarez, who first suggested it in 1980.
Ciencias Físico-Matemáticas y Naturales
Tecnología y Diseño
Héctor García-Molina a Mexican-Americancomputer scientist and Professor in the Departments of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering atStanford University was advisor toSergey Brin, the co-founder ofGoogle, from 1993 to 1997 when he was a computer science student at Stanford. In March 2015, Mexican-born engineer Luis Velasco, who works atNASA, designs and engineersrobots for the company. He obtained a scholarship atBrigham Young University inProvo, Utah, and studiedmechanical engineering. Details of amousepad designed by Armando M. Fernandez were published in theXerox Disclosure Journal in 1979.
In February 2015,SpaceX began developing aspace suit for astronauts to wear within theDragon 2 space capsule.[75] Its appearance was jointly designed by Jose Fernandez—a Mexican Hollywoodcostume designer known for his works forsuperhero andscience fiction films—and SpaceX founder and CEOElon Musk.[76][77] According to SpaceX, the spacesuit has key features such as a3D printedSpace suithelmet,touchscreen-compatiblegloves,flame resistant outer layer, andhearing protection during ascent and reentry. Furthermore, each suit "can provide apressurized environment for all crew members aboard Dragon in atypical situations. This suit also routes communications and cooling systems to the astronauts aboard Dragon during regular flight."
TheSpace For Humanity initiative selectedKatya Echazarreta out of over 7,000 applicants to fly to space withBlue Origin NS-21 as a Space for Humanity Ambassador.[78][79][80] Launched on June 4, 2022, she became the first Mexican-born woman in space.
Premio México de Ciencia y Tecnología is an award bestowed in by theCONACYT to Ibero-American (Latin America plus the Iberian Peninsula) scholars in recognition of advances in science and/or technology.
This article incorporates text from afree content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO Text taken from Latin America. In:UNESCO Science Report: the Race Against Time for Smarter Development, Gabriela Dutrénit, Carlos Aguirre-Bastos, Martín Puchet and Mónica Salazar, UNESCO. To learn how to addopen license text to Wikipedia articles, please seethis how-to page. For information onreusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)Crew Dragon carries sufficient breathable gas stores to allow for a safe return to Earth in the event of a leak of up to an equivalent orifice of 0.25 inches in diameter. As an extra level of protection, the crew will wear SpaceX-designed space suits to protect them from a rapid cabin depressurization emergency event of even greater severity. The suits and the vehicle itself will be rated for operation at vacuum.
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