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The earlydomes of the Middle Ages, particularly in those areas recently underByzantine control, were an extension of earlierRoman architecture. The influence of Byzantine architecture diminishes underCharlemagne, although hisPalatine Chapel is a notable exception, being influenced by Byzantine models fromRavenna andConstantinople. TheDome of the Rock, anUmayyad Muslim religious shrine built inJerusalem, was designed similarly to nearby Byzantinemartyria and Christian churches. Domes were also built as part of Muslim palaces, throne halls, pavilions, and baths, and blended elements of both Byzantine andPersian architecture, using bothpendentives andsquinches. The origin of thecrossed-arch dome type is debated, but the earliest known example is from the tenth century at theGreat Mosque of Córdoba. InEgypt, a "keel" shaped dome profile was characteristic ofFatimid architecture. The use of squinches became widespread in the Islamic world by the tenth and eleventh centuries.Bulbous domes were used to cover large buildings inSyria after the eleventh century, following an architectural revival there, and the present shape of the Dome of the Rock's dome likely dates from this time.
Christian domes inRomanesque church architecture, especially those of theHoly Roman Empire, are generally octagonal on squinches and hidden externally withincrossing towers, beginning around 1050. An example is the church ofSan Michele Maggiore inPavia, Italy.St. Mark's Basilica in Venice, with its five domes on pendentives modeled on the ByzantineChurch of the Holy Apostles, was built from 1063 to 1072. Domes on pendentives, apparently based upon Byzantine models, appear in theAquitaine region ofFrance after the beginning of theCrusades in 1095, such as theabbey church of Fontevrault, whereRichard the Lionheart was buried. A series of centrally planned churches were built by theKnights Templar throughout Europe, modeled on theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre, with the Dome of the Rock at theirTemple Mount headquarters also an influence. Distinctive domes on pendentives were built inSpain during theReconquista. Also built there were Christian crossed-arch domes similar to that of the earlier Great Mosque of Córdoba, such as at theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre [eu] inTorres Del Río.Gothic domes are uncommon due to the use of rib vaults over naves and with church crossings usually focused instead by tallsteeples, but there are examples of small octagonal crossing domes in cathedrals as the style developed from the Romanesque. The octagonal dome ofFlorence Cathedral was a result of the expansion plans for that church from the 14th century, a part of efforts inTuscany to build domes with exposed external profiles.
Themuqarnas dome type may have originated inAbbasidIraq as single brick shells of large squinch-like cells, but it was popular inNorth Africa and Spain with more intricate cell patterns instucco on a wooden inner shell. Two outstanding examples from theMoorish palace of theAlhambra inGranada, Spain, are the 14th centuryHall of the Abencerrajes and Hall of the two Sisters. In 14th century Egypt, theMamluks began building stone domes, rather than brick, for the tombs ofsultans andemirs and would construct hundreds of them over the next two and a half centuries. Externally, their supporting structures are distinguished bychamfered or stepped angles and round windows in a triangular arrangement. A variety of shapes for the domes themselves were used, such as bulbous,ogee, and keel-shaped, and they included carved patterns inspirals,zigzags, andfloral designs. Bulbousminarets from Egypt spread to Syria in the 15th century and would influence the use of bulbous domes in the architecture of northwest Europe, having become associated with the Holy Land by pilgrims. In theLow Countries of northwest Europe, multi-story spires with truncated bulbouscupolas supporting smaller cupolas orcrowns became popular in the sixteenth century.
Although the chronology is uncertain for some examples, domes continued to be built in Italy throughout the Middle Ages. Dome construction appears to have stopped in the city of Rome in the middle of the 5th century, but there are dozens of Italian examples outside of Rome from the next few centuries.[1] Continuing from late antiquity, domes in the early Middle Ages were built over centralized buildings such as baptisteries and martyria.[2] TheAlbenga Baptistery was built as early as the mid-5th century in Italy.[3]
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The building projects ofTheodoric the Great, theOstrogothic king of Italy, largely continued existing architectural conventions. HisArian Baptistry inRavenna (c. 500), for example, closely echoes theBaptistry of Neon built before it.[4] TheMausoleum of Theodoric, however, was understood by contemporaries to be remarkable.[4] Begun in 520, the 36-foot-wide (11 m) dome over the mausoleum was carved out of a single 440-ton slab oflimestone and positioned some time between 522 and 526.[5] The low saucer shape of the monolithic dome, which is estimated to be more than 230 tons ofIstrian stone, may have been chosen to avoid radial cracking.[6] The twelve brackets carved as part of the dome's exterior are thought to have been used to maneuver the piece into place. The choice of large limestone blocks for the structure is significant as the most common construction material in the West at that time was brick. It is likely that foreign artisans were brought to Ravenna to build the structure; possibly fromSyria, where such stonework was used in contemporary buildings.[5]
TheBasilica of San Salvatore inSpoleto was built as early as the end of the 6th century.[3]
Thechurch of Sant'Ilario a Port'Aurea [it] inBenevento was built no later than the 7th century.[3]
The Syria andPalestine area has a long tradition of domical architecture, including wooden domes in shapes described as "conoid", or similar to pine cones. When theArab Muslim forcesconquered the region, they employed local craftsmen for their buildings and, by the end of the 7th century, the dome had begun to become an architectural symbol ofIslam. The rapidity of this adoption was likely aided by the Arab religious traditions, which predate Islam, of both domed structures to cover the burial places of ancestors and the use of a round tabernacle tent with a dome-like top made of red leather for housingidols.[7]
TheChapel of São Frutuoso, nearBraga, Portugal, has a wide range of proposed construction dates, from the 7th century to the beginning of the 11th century. It was a Greek cross plan mausoleum with a central dome, similar to the ByzantineMausoleum of Galla Placidia and theVisigothic churches ofSanta Comba de Bande [pt] andSan Pedro de la Nave.[8] The church ofSanta María de Melque included a dome within a square structure.[9]
Early versions of bulbous domes can be seen in mosaic illustrations in Syria dating to theUmayyad period. They were used to cover large buildings in Syria after the eleventh century.[10]
TheDome of the Rock in Jerusalem, the earliest survivingIslamic building, was completed in 691 by Umayyad caliphAbd Al-Malik.[11] Its design was that of aciborium, or reliquary, such as those common to Byzantine martyria and the major Christian churches of the city.[12] The rotunda of the nearbyChurch of the Holy Sepulchre, in particular, has a similar design and almost the same dimensions.[13] The building was reportedly burned in the eleventh century and then rebuilt, which would still make it one of the oldest timber buildings in the world.[14] The dome, a double shell design made of wood, is 20.44 meters in diameter.[15] The dome's bulbous shape "probably dates from the eleventh century."[10] Several restorations since 1958 to address structural damage have resulted in the extensive replacement of tiles, mosaics, ceilings, and walls such that "nearly everything that one sees in this marvelous building was put there in the second half of the twentieth century", but without significant change to its original form and structure. It is currently covered in gilded aluminum.[16] On the same terrace are theDome of the Chain (also from the reign of Abd Al-Malik), theDome of the Ascension (built by 985 AD), and theDome of the Spirits (possibly the 16th century AD).[17]
Byzantine workmen built theUmayyad Mosque ofDamascus and its hemispherical dome for al Walid in 705. The dome rests upon an octagonal base formed by squinches.[18] The dome, called the "Dome of the Eagle" or "Dome of the Gable", was originally made of wood but nothing remains of it. It is supposed to have rested upon large cross beams.[19]
The placement of a dome in front of the mihrab of a mosque probably began with the rebuilding of theProphet's Mosque inMedina byUmayyad Caliph Al-Walid. This was likely to emphasize the place of the ruler, although domes would eventually become focal points of decoration and architectural composition or indicate the direction of prayer. Later developments of this feature would include additional domes oriented axially to the mihrab dome.[20]
In addition to religious shrines, domes were used over the audience and throne halls of Umayyad palaces, and as part of porches, pavilions, fountains, towers and thecalderia of baths. Blending the architectural features of both the Byzantine andPersian architecture, the domes used both pendentives andsquinches and were made in a variety of shapes and materials.[21] A dome stood at the center of the palace-city of Baghdad and, similarly but on a smaller scale, there are literary accounts of a domed audience hall in the palace ofAbu Muslim inMerv at the meeting point of four iwans arranged along thecardinal directions.[22][23] The green dome at the center of theRound city of Baghdad covered the throne room ofal-Mansur's palace and was topped by a statue of a horseman holding a lance. The dome collapsed in 941, well after the Caliph had moved his court to a suburban estate.[24]
Muslim palaces included domical halls as early as the eighth century, well before domes became standard elements of mosque architecture. The early eighth century palace ofKhirbat al-Minya included a domed gateway. The palace ofQasr Mshatta and a ninth century palace atSamarra included domed throne rooms.[22] At Mshatta, "an elaborate entrance leads through abasilical hall to a domedtriconch hall with anarcuated niche, presumably holding the caliphal throne, at the far end." Thisaxial sequence of gateway, dome, and arcuatedniche is found in early Islamic palaces into the Abbasid era, and the similar sequence of gateway, dome, andmihrab endured even longer in mosque architecture.[25]
A domed structure covered a shallow pool in the main courtyard of the mid eighth century palace ofKhirbat al-Mafjar. Similar examples at mosques, such as the domed fountains at theMosque of Ibn Tulun (destroyed in 987 and replaced with a different structure), atMaarrat al-Numan, inNishapur,Tripoli, and at theMosque of Damascus seem to be related to this element of palace architecture, although they were later used as part ofritual ablution.[26] The palace dome wassupported by terracotta figures where the pendentives or squinches would have been. The dome was over the porch of a great bath or throne room at the bath complex.[27]
The calderia of early Islamic bath complexes at Amra, Sarraj, andAnjar were roofed with stone or brick domes.[21] The caldarium of the early Islamic bath atQasr Amra contains "the most completely preserved astronomical cupola decoration", a decorative idea for bath domes that would long continue in the Islamic world.[28]
Although architecture in the region would decline following the movement of the capital to Iraq under the Abbasids in 750, mosques built after a revival in the late 11th century usually followed the Umayyad model, especially that of the Mosque of Damascus. Domed examples include the mosques at Sarmin (1305–6) and al-Bab (1305). The typical Damascus dome is smooth and supported by a double zone of squinches: four squinches create an eight sided transition that includes eight more squinches, and these create a sixteen-sided drum with windows in alternate sides.[29]
In Italy, there seems to have been a decline in the frequency of dome building between the 8th and 10th centuries.[30] With thecrowning ofCharlemagne as anew Roman Emperor, Byzantine influences were largely replaced in a revival of earlier Western building traditions, but occasional exceptions include examples of early quincunx churches atMilan and nearCassino.[31] The extensive Byzantine use of domes on spherical pendentives after the sixth century did influence Carolingian architecture of the ninth and tenth centuries. Remains of spherical pendentives have been found in the church ofGermigny-des-Prés.[32]
Charlemagne'sPalatine Chapel has a domed octagon design influenced by Byzantine models such as theBasilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, theChurch of Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople, and perhaps theChrysotriklinos, or "golden reception hall", of theGreat Palace of Constantinople.[33][34] It has also been proposed that descriptions by returning travelers of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, which was thought to have been the Temple of Solomon, served as the model.[35] It was built at Charlemagne's palace atAachen between 789 and itsconsecration in 805. The architect is thought to beOdo of Metz, although the quality of theashlar construction has led to speculation about the work of outside masons.[33] The octagonal domical vault measures 16.5 meters wide and 38 meters high. It was the largest dome north of the Alps at that time.[36] The dimensions of the octagonal space match that of the 4th century octagonalChapel of Saint Aquilino at theBasilica of San Lorenzo in Milan. The later central-plan cemeterychurch of St. Michael atFulda was similar to the Aachen chapel, although simpler.[37] Copies of the Palatine Chapel in Aachen include anoctagonal church in Ottmarsheim [de],a chapel in Nijmegen [nl], and theWestbau ofEssen Minster.[38] The chapel inspired copies into the 14th century and remained a "focal-point of German kingship". The dome was rebuilt after a fire in 1656 and the interior decoration dates to around 1900.[39] Although the mosaic on the dome is not original, there is evidence that it reproduces the original imagery.[40]
Octagonal cloister vaults in northern Italy at this time may have been meant to reference the Palatine Chapel in Aachen. Examples include the chapel of S. Satiro in Milan from 876 (behind the later church ofSanta Maria presso San Satiro), the baptistery atthe church of Settimo Vittone [it] (889), and the baptistery ofAgliate (c. 900).[41]
Although customarily aqadi would hear cases within the chief mosque, Abbasid Caliphal-Muhtadi reportedly built a domed hall with four doors for his role in administering justice. It was called thequbbat al-mazalim, or "The Dome of Justice", and built in 868–869.[42]
A smallnine-domed mosque in Balkh has been dated to the time of the Abbasids orBiyuds.[43]
In Cairo, themartyrium of the Sharif Tabataba (943), an 18-meter square nine-domed open pavilion, is the earliestmausoleum whose plan has survived. The most common type, however, was a small domed cube.[44] The use of corner squinches to support domes was widespread in Islamic architecture by the 10th and 11th centuries.[45]
The dome of theGreat Mosque of Kairouan (also called the Mosque of Uqba), built in the first half of the 9th century, has ribbed domes at each end of its central nave. The dome in front of the mihrab rests on an octagonal drum with slightly concave sides.[46][47] TheGreat Mosque of Sfax in Tunisia was founded in the 9th century and later enlarged.[48]
After the ninth century, mosques in North Africa often have a small decorative dome over the mihrab. Additional domes are sometimes used at the corners of the mihrab wall and at the entrance bay. The square tower minarets of two or more stories are capped by small domes. Examples include theDjamaa el Kebir mosque (probably of the 11th century), and theGreat Mosque of Tlemcen (1303).[48]
Mozarabic churches with domes inside a squared structure includea church in San Cebrian de Mazote [es] (913),Santiago de Peñalba (931),Santo Tomás de las Ollas (first half of the 10th century), andSan Miguel de Celanova (10th century).[9]
Much of the Muslim architecture ofal-Andalus was lost as mosques were replaced by churches after the twelfth century, but the use of domes in surviving Mozarabic churches from the tenth century, such as the paneled dome at Santo Tomás de las Ollas and the lobed domes at theMonastery of San Miguel de Escalada, likely reflects their use in contemporary mosque architecture.[49]
TheGreat Mosque of Córdoba, begun in 785 under the last of the Umayyad caliphs, was enlarged byAl-Hakam II between 961 and 976 to include four domes and a remodeledmihrab. The central dome, in front of the mihrab area, transitions from a square bay with decorative squinches to eight overlapping and intersecting arches that surround and support a scalloped dome.[50] The building contained two types of eight-pointed star ribbed domes. The different ribbed dome over what is now called theVillaviciosa Chapel may have been built later.[51] These crossed-arch domes are the first known examples of the type and, although their possible origins in Persia or elsewhere in the east remains a matter of debate, their complexity suggests that earlier examples must have existed. The nine bays of theMosque of Cristo de la Luz, built about 50 years later, contain a virtual catalog of crossed-arch dome variations. After the 10th century, examples can also be found in Armenia and Persia.[52] No other examples survive in Spain until the dome of themosque of the Aljafería Palace, built forIbn Jafar Al-Muqtadir, who reigned from 1049 to 1081.[51]
TheFatimids conquered Egypt fromIfriqiya in 969 and established a new architectural style for their new Caliphate.[53] Fatimid domes were either smooth or ribbed, hemispherical or stilted, and may or may not include a drum. When a drum was used, it was wider than the dome, octagonal, and part of a zone of transition.[54] There were earlier Muslim domes in Eqypt, but none survive.[55] The earliest Fatimid mosque,Al-Azhar, was similar to the earlierMosque of Ibn Tulun but introduced domed bays at both ends of the qibla wall, in addition to the dome in front of the mihrab, and this feature was later repeated among the mosques of North Africa. Later alterations to the mosque have changed its original form.[56] The earliest surviving Muslim dome over a mihrab in Egypt is that ofAl-Hakim Mosque (990–1013) and the earliest mausoleum is the "Šaiḫ Yūnus" mausoleum, believed to have been built forBadr al-Jamali.[55]
EarlierCoptic Christian domes primarily used squinches and only occasionally used pendentives, for example atDeir el-Muharraq,Dair Abū Fāna, and the narthex ofDair al-Abyad, but Fatimid domes used squinches exclusively.[55] The squinches correspond to an exterior zone of transition, often stepped, when they are on top of the rectangular bay walls. Traditionally, Fatimid interior stalactite squinches were in one or two tiers and each interior tier would correspond to a step in the exterior transition zone. When the walls extended up past the squinches to the base of the dome, usually inFatimid domes in Aswan [ar] and other areas outside of Cairo, no exterior zone of transition was needed. An example is the mausoleum of Al-imāra al-arabiyya in Aswan.[57] Adding a tier of squinches made a dome taller, and Fatimid architecture begins a trend in Cairo toward ever taller buildings.[54]
Egypt, along with north-eastern Iran, was one of two areas notable for early developments in Islamic mausoleums, beginning in the 10th century.[58] Fatimid mausoleums, many of which have survived inAswan andCairo, were mostly simple square buildings covered by a dome. Domes were smooth or ribbed and had a characteristic Fatimid "keel" shape profile.[59] The domes of the connectedmausolea of Sayyida Atika and al-Gafari are examples.[54] The first were built in and aroundFustat. Those inside the city were decorated with carved stucco and contrast with the extreme simplicity of those outside the city, such as the four so-called Sab'a Banat (c. 1010) domed squares. Those at Aswan, mostly from the 11th century, are more developed, with ribbed domes, star-shaped openings, and octagonal drums with concave exterior sides which are corbeled outward at the top. They vary in plan as well, with domes sometimes joined with barrel vaults or with other domed mausoleums of different dimensions. The Fatimid mausoleum atQus is in this Aswan style.[60]
Other than the small brick domes used over the bay in front of a mihrab or over tombs, Fatimid domes were rare. An exception in size was the large dome over the Fatimid palace dynastic tomb.[44] Literary sources describe royal domes as part of ceremonial processions and royal recreation.[22] Examples ofFatimid palace architecture, however, described by travelers' accounts as their greatest achievement, have not survived. The ribbed or fluted domes introduced by the Fatimids may derive from a theme in earlierCoptic art, and would be continued in the laterarchitecture of the Mamluks.[61]
The so-calledfirst Romanesque style of churches in the early 11th century included examples in Spain with domes on squinches. The domes tend to be dark and sometimes included small windows at the base.[62] The church ofSanta Maria de Ripoll was consecrated in 1032, but was rebuilt after a fire in 1835. The church ofSant Miquel inCruïlles was consecrated in 1035 and has a dome at its crossing covered on the exterior by a drum and short square tower.[63] The church ofChurch of Sant Vicenç in theCastle of Cardona has a dome on squinches.[64] The Church of Sant Vicenç was built by 1040 and there is another example atCorbera. TheCorbera church may not have been intended to have a dome when the foundations were laid and the crossing bay was narrowed to create a square by the insertion of additional arches on the north and south sides. The dome was covered by a squarebelfry on the exterior.[62] The smallchurch of San Pablo in Barcelona has a central dome and triapsal arrangement resembling the churches of eastern Christianity.[65]
In Italy, the frequency, quality, and scope of dome construction increased beginning in the 11th century (although not in the city of Rome) and they were used in baptisteries, princely chapels, cathedrals, bell towers, andpieve churches.[66] Early examples include thebaptistery of S. Ponzo Canavese [it] (c. 1005),[67] the baptistery of theBasilica di San Vincenzo in Galliano (1007),[68] theBaptistery of Biella [it] (c. 1040),[69] and thebaptistery of Novara Cathedral [it] (1040).[41] The dome of theChurch of Santa Maria in Portonovo [it] may have been built between 1034 and 1050.[70] At theChurch of San Salvatore [it] inBarzanò, a third phase of construction added a hemispherical dome on squinches over the existing central bay of the building, possibly in the late 11th century.[71]
Theschism between the churches of Constantinople and Rome was reflected in architecture. The Greek cross and domes of Byzantine architecture were found in areas of Byzantine cultural influence.[72] An example is thedomed Greek cross church in Genga, an area of indirect eastern influence.[73]
Octagonal cloister vaults appear "in connection with basilicas almost throughout Europe" between 1050 and 1100.[74] The precise form differs from region to region.[75] They were popular in medieval Italy, in brick.[76]Romanesque domes were typically octagonal in plan and used corner squinches to translate a square bay into a suitable octagonal base.[77] The domes were generally found withincrossing towers at the intersection of a church'snave andtransept, which concealed the domes externally.[75] Called atiburio, this tower-like structure often had a blind arcade near the roof.[78] Romanesque basilicas with crossing domes were widespread in Italy.[79] They were built across southern Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries and hundreds of examples under church crossing towers exist in Spain and southern France.[2]
TheVeneto region was strongly influenced by the architecture of Constantinople in the 11th century. On the island ofTorcello, the Greek cross octagon style was used in the plan of thechurch of Santa Fosca [it].[80]
The second and currentSt. Mark's Basilica in Venice was built on the site of the first between 1063 and 1072, replacing the earlier church while replicating its Greek cross plan. Five domes vault the interior (one each over the four arms of the cross and one in the center). These domes were built in the Byzantine style, in imitation of the now lostChurch of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. Mounted over pendentives, each dome has a ring of windows at its base.[81] These five windowed domes reflect the addition of windows (within tall drums) in the remodeled Byzantine original. However, the tall outer shells at St. Mark's were not added untilafter 1204.[82] The later high wooden outer domes with lead roofing and cupolas were added to St. Mark's Basilica between 1210 and 1270, allowing the church to be seen from a great distance.[81] In addition to allowing for a more imposing exterior, building two distinct shells in a dome improved weather protection. It was a rare practice before the 11th century.[83] The original timber outer domes were destroyed in a fire in the early fifteenth century.[84] The fluted and onion-shaped cupolas of the domes may have been added in the mid-fifteenth century to complement theogee arches added to the facade in the late Gothic period. Their shape may have been influenced by the open and domed wooden pavilions of Persia or by other eastern models.[10] Initially, only the center dome had one.[82] Iron chains to resist lateral movement would be added later.[85]
Several cross-domed churches were built in Venice during the Middle Ages, but only one has survived.San Giacomo di Rialto may have been first built in the 9th century and renovated in the 1097 revival of theRialto market. It was rebuilt and consecrated in 1197.[86]
The architecture of the areas of northern Italy that were a part of theHoly Roman Empire developed differently from the rest of the Italian peninsula.[87] The earliest use of the octagonalcloister vault within an external housing at the crossing of a cruciform church may be atAcqui Cathedral inAcqui Terme, Italy, which was completed in 1067. This became increasingly popular as a Romanesque feature over the course of the next fifty years. The firstLombard church to have alantern tower, concealing an octagonal cloister vault, wasSan Nazaro inMilan, just after 1075. Many other churches followed suit in the late 11th and early 12th centuries, such as the Basilica ofSan Michele Maggiore inPavia (the coronation church of theKingdom of Italy within the Holy Roman Empire) and theBasilica of Sant'Ambrogio inMilan.[88] TheMonastery of Capo di Ponte has a crossing dome that dates from about 1090.[67] At Sant'Ambrogio, the original plan for the church did not include a domed crossing and it was modified to include one, as also happened atPisa Cathedral (funding for which was provided byEmperor Henry IV in 1089 andEmperor Henry V in 1116) andSpeyer Cathedral (the burial church of theSalian dynasty of Holy Roman Emperors).[89] The crossing domes at Pavia, Pisa, and Speyer were all completed around 1080 but the exact order of precedence is unresolved.[90]
The renovation of Speyer Cathedral, the largest of theImperial Cathedrals of the Holy Roman Empire, was begun around 1080 by the EmperorHenry IV, soon after he had returned from atrip to Canossa in northern Italy. Although the church had only just been consecrated in 1061, Henry called upon craftsmen from across the empire for its renovation. The redesign included two octagonal cloister vaults within crossing towers, one at the east crossing with an external dwarf gallery and one at the west end. This was very soon imitated elsewhere and became the model for laterRhenish octagonal domes, such as those ofWorms Cathedral (c. 1120–1181) andMainz Cathedral (c. 1081–1239).[91] Many German Imperial cathedrals feature domes at their crossings.[92]
The domes of Pisa Cathedral and Florence Baptistery may be the two earliest domes inTuscany and were the two largest until about 1150.[93] Pisa Cathedral, built between 1063 and 1118, includes a highelliptical dome at the crossing of its nave and transept. The marble dome was one of the first inRomanesque architecture and is considered themasterpiece of Romanesque domes. Rising 48 meters above a rectangular bay, the shape of the dome was unique at the time.[94] The rectangular bay's dimensions are 18 meters by 13.5 meters. Squinches were used at the corners to create an elongated octagon in a system similar to that of the contemporary Basilica of San Lorenzo in Milan and corbelling was used to create an oval base for the dome. The tambour on which the dome rests dates to between 1090 and 1100, and it is likely that the dome itself was built at that time. There is evidence that the builders did not originally plan for the dome and decided on the novel shape to accommodate the rectangular crossing bay, which would have made an octagonal cloister vault very difficult. Additionally, the dome may have originally been covered by an octagonal lantern tower that was removed in the 1300s, exposing the dome, to reduce weight on foundations not designed to support it. This would have been done no later than 1383, when theGothic loggetta on the exterior of the dome was added, along with the buttressing arches on which it rests.[95]
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An aspiring competitor to Pisa, the city of Florence took the opposite side inthe conflict between Pope and Emperor, siding with thePope in Rome. This was reflected architecturally in the "proto-renaissance" style of its buildings.[96] The eight-sidedFlorence Baptistery, with its large octagonal cloister vault beneath a pyramidal roof, was likely built between 1059 and 1128, with the dome and attic built between 1090 and 1128. The lantern above the dome is dated to 1150.[97] The first documented mention of the baptistery was in 897 and the dating of the dome has been controversial, ranging from the sixth to the 13th centuries, although the building is believed to have undergone various transformations throughout the Middle Ages. Radiocarbon testing onchestnut tie beams have dated those elements to the 11th and first half of the 12th century, possibly corresponding to restorations byPope Nicholas II, who reconsecrated the building in 1059, and dendrochronological analysis on asilver fir tie beam dated it to 1268, likely a replacement made when the dome mosaic was completed between 1270 and 1300. The dome is 26.5 meters in diameter.[98] The lower half of the dome is made of ashlar stone, with the lowest levels in corbelled horizontal layers. After the outer vertical walls end, the inner dome transitions to brick, mostly recycled, in inclined layers.[99] It takes inspiration from thePantheon in Rome for its oculus and much of its interior decoration, although the pointed dome is structurally similar toLombard domes, such as that of the laterCremona Baptistery. Its ratio of wall thickness to external diameter is about 1/10, in accordance with the rules of dome proportion followed until the 17th century. One of the most important religious buildings in Florence, the proportions of its dome were followed by the nearby dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore that was built by Brunelleschi centuries later. The polygonal dome was built with a wooden tension ring at about 23 meters high, too high to counteract the spreading forces, and a lower iron ring was added in 1514.[100]
Smaller domed centralized buildings from this time include those of S. Fermo di Sopra (c. 1125), theChurch of Santa Maria in Solario [it] (c. 1130), theBaptistery of Riez [fr], and theBaptistery of San Giovanni Battista in Agrate Conturbia [it] (c. 1135).[101]
The crossing dome at theChurch of St. Trophime inArles is beneath a large square tower.[102] The Abbey church ofSaint-Chef has a chapel in its tower covered by a rectangular cloister vault about 6 meters by 4.5 meters. Its frescoed ceiling is from the mid 11th to mid 12th century.[103]
The rectangular church ofNeuvy-Saint-Sépulchre, built in 1045 after a pilgrimage to Jerusalem by the lord ofDéols, had a domed rotunda added soon afterward. The domed rotundas ofSaint-Léonard-de-Noblat (last third of the 11th century),Dijon Cathedral, andCharroux Abbey were likewise built or planned prior to the First Crusade.[104]
The square domical vault over the chapel ofSaint Michel d'Aiguilhe was frescoed around 1100 with the image of Christ off-center to allow visibility from the entrance.[105]
The earliest existing large French dome is believed to be the pendentive dome built by 1075 over the crossing of theCollegiate Church of St-Martin at Angers [fr]. It reportedly incorporates "pottery" in its structure, a technique used in the late Roman period.[106] The earliest example of a church with a transept in the Aquitaine region of France is theChurch of Saint-Martin de Layrac [fr] (1063–1102), with a dome at the crossing.[107]
The 11th and 12th centuryCathedral of Le Puy uses an unusual row of six octagonal domes on squinches over its nave, with the domes at the western end being built at least a century later. A seventh dome is located in the normal position for a Romanesque dome on squinches: over the crossing. Other examples of this use over naves are rare and scattered. One is thelarge church of Saint Hilaire at Poitiers, which seems to have been influenced by Le Puy Cathedral. Its wide nave was narrowed with additional piers to form suitable square bays, which were vaulted with octagonal domes whose corner sides over trumpet squinches were so narrow that the domes resemble square cloister vaults with beveled corners.[108] However, the nave domes of these churches are mostly inventions of 19th century restorers. In particular, the two easternmost nave domes of Le Puy and the nave domes of St. Hilaire are from the 19th century, replacing original barrel vaults.[109]
The crossing dome on squinches atthe abbey church of Tournus may date to the 11th century. TheBasilica of Saint-Martin d'Ainay has similar features. The largest church in France wasCluny Abbey, but it has been destroyed.[110] The version of Cluny Abbey built underAbbot Hugo, dubbed "Cluny III", included octagonal domes closely related to the earlier examples at Speyer Cathedral.[111] The surviving transept arm of Cluny Abbey, built in the early 12th century, has an octagonal dome on trumpet squinches beneath an octagonal tower and spire and flanked on either side by barrel vaults.[112]Autun Cathedral has a similar nave arrangement to that of Cluny Abbey.[113]
InAuvergne, there are several Romanesque churches with domed crossings that use squinches, with the dome supported by "flying screen" walls at the crossing bay and hidden on the exterior beneath octagonal towers with buttressing "shoulders" on two sides. Examples include thechurch of St. Saturnin [fr] and theSainte-Marie de Cruas Abbey [fr], which has a rotunda over the domed crossing.[114] AtAvignon Cathedral, probably from the middle of the 12th century, the rectangular crossing bay is narrowed to a square by means of two sets of four arches on opposite sides for the dome on squinches.[115]
Insouthern Italy, theBasilica of San Sabino [it] inCanosa di Puglia was built around 1080 with five domes over its "T-shaped layout", with three domes across the transept and another two out over the nave.[116] Its cruciform plan, use of domes, and the later addition of an external mausoleum suggest that it may have been aNorman analog to the ByzantineChurch of the Holy Apostles. It appears to have inspired a series of churches inApulia with domed naves.[117] The date of construction has been challenged as being decades too late. The multi-domed churches ofCyprus have been proposed as the inspiration for the basilica's domes and for the three-domed naves of later churches in the region, which date mostly from the period ofNorman rule, but this is also a topic of debate.San Benedetto at Conversano [it], theOgnissanti of Valenzano [it],San Francesco at Trani [it], and theCathedral of San Corrado at Molfetta [it] were built in the 11th to 13th centuries with pendentive domes. San Corrado also incorporates "squinch-like niches" between the pendentives and drums of two of its three domes.[118] The domes at Valenzano were covered by low pyramids that were rebuilt in the 1960s. The Cathedral of San Corrado was built around the year 1200. The town ofBalsignano [it] has the ruin of a small domed church that reflects a mixture of eastern and western influences.[119]
There was a decline in architecture in Syria andthe Jazira area after 750, when theAbbasid Caliphate moved its capital to Iraq, but a revival occurred in the late 11th century. Few buildings survive that were built before 1080.[120] The so-called shrine ofImam al-Dawr in the village ofal-Dawr, Iraq, is the earliest known example of amuqarnas dome, although it is unlikely to have been the first of its type. The dome rests on an octagonal base created by four squinches over a square bay. Three levels of muqarnas rise over this and are capped by a small cupola. The muqarnas cells are very large and resemble small squinches themselves. It was finished by 1090 by the court of anUqaylid vassal of the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad and, although there are no surviving examples from Baghdad at this time, the large number of muqarnas domes known to have existed there by the end of the Middle Ages suggests that it could have been the source of the type.[121]
In Syria, some early muqarnas domes exist of the Iraqi type, but more common were muqarnas vaulting as pendentives for slightly pointed hemispherical domes. Masonry and carved stone was used instead of the brick and plaster used in Iraq. These domes were alternatively supported by a double zone of squinches. Domes were used over single room structures as well as more complex assemblies, with the differences in building traditions and preferred materials in north and south Syria disappearing over time.[122] Small domes were used over the platforms ofminbars in Syria, Egypt, and by the Turks until the Ottoman change to polygonal cones, but were not used in Iran.[123]
The palace at theKalaa of the Beni Hammad contained a domed chamber.[124]
The building now known as theCapilla de Belen in Santa Fe de Toledo has a crossed-arch dome that may date to the 11th century under theBanu Du-l-Nun sovereigns of Toledo. It has also been proposed as dating from the 13th or 14th centuries.[125][126]
The Christian domed basilicas built in Sicily after theNorman Conquest also incorporate distinctly Islamic architectural elements. They include hemispherical domes positioned directly in front of apses, similar to the common positioning in mosques of domes directly in front of mihrabs, and the domes use four squinches for support, as do the domes of IslamicNorth Africa and Egypt. In other cases, domes exhibit Byzantine influences with tall drums, engaged columns, and blind arcades.[127] The domed church ofSan Giovanni a Mare inGaeta may have been built in the second half of the 11th century.[128] The influence of the domed mosques of theAghlabids has been cited to explain the design of the domes; representative examples of Islamic domes from North Africa can be seen in the Al-Hakim Mosque and theGreat Mosque of Sousse.[129]
Domes were used in a variety of compositions and were often not the center or focus of the architecture. In theVal Demone region, the churches ofSanta Maria in Mili [it] (1090, but rebuilt in the 15th century),San Pietro in Itala [de] (1092–1093, but rebuilt), andSanti Pietro and Paolo in Casalvecchio (1116, but rebuilt and restored in 1172) are well-preserved. The three domes on squinches of Santa Maria inMili San Pietro [it], one of the firstNorman buildings, are close together in a row above theprothesis,presbytery, anddiaconicon, with the largest and tallest in the middle. The church of San Pietro inItala has a central, tower-like dome. The church of Santi Pietro and Paolo inCasalvecchio has two domes, with a smaller eight-sided umbrella dome withmuqarnas-like supports in the space before the altar and a larger umbrella dome on squinches over the nave.[130] The dome over the nave has a circular base and the dome over the altar has an octagonal base.[131]
Examples atPalermo include thePalatine Chapel (1132–1143),La Martorana (c. 1140s), andZisa, Palermo (12th century).[132][124] The church ofSan Giovanni degli Eremiti has five domes in a T-shaped arrangement and theChurch of San Cataldo has three domes on squinches, with both showing clearly Islamic influence.[133]
Along theAmalfi Coast, many domes are covered by glazed terracotta tiles in afish scale arrangement, with the colors in geometric patterns indicating Islamic influence. The most popular colors are blue, green, yellow, and orange.[134]
Private domes in the Amalfi region dating from the 13th century have been identified atVilla Rufolo and three villas inScala:Villa South Toro,Villa Trara andVilla d'Afflitto. Although similar, they each have different proportions, surface finishes, materials, and colors. At Villa Rufolo, the dome in the entrance tower and the dome in the "Arabian Bath" have a fluting pattern of vertical grooves on the interior. The twisting of the grooves in the bath building dome may or may not be intentional. Uniquely at Villa South Toro, the dome is supported by spherical pendentives. Similar domes are found at theCathedral of Casertavecchia [it], other Amalfi Coast churches, and in North Africa.[135]
TheCrusades, beginning in 1095, also appear to have influenced domed architecture in Western Europe, particularly in the areas around theMediterranean Sea.[136] The Mausoleum ofBohemond (c. 1111–18), aNorman leader of theFirst Crusade, was built next to the Basilica of San Sabino in the southern Italian province ofApulia and has a hemispherical dome in a Byzantine style over a square building with a Greek cross plan.[137] The dome had been covered by a pyramidal roof, according to a 1780s engraving, and the portion above the octagonal drum is a restoration.[138][139] ThePadua Baptistery is believed to have been built contemporaneously with the 1120s reconstruction ofPadua Cathedral, a revision of the traditional foundation date of 1260. It has a dome on pendentives spanning an 11.6 meter square space, with a small altar chapel through the eastern wall. It served as a model for the later Old Sacristy of San Lorenzo.[140]
The Crusaders built several churches in Jerusalem during the 12th century. The most complete is theChurch of Saint Anne, which has a small crossing dome.[141]
TheChurch of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem seems to have had a wooden dome in two shells up to the 12th century, with some interruptions. After their establishing control of the city, the crusaders added achoir with a dome next to the existing rotunda.[142] TheFrench Romanesque addition replaced the eastern apse of the rotunda and a courtyard marking thecenter of the world and was consecrated on July 15, 1149, the fiftieth anniversary of the capture of the city. The new dome's diameter of 10.4 meters was half that of the rotunda and it rested on four pointed arches on four pillars. It served as the coronation site for the crusaderkings of Jerusalem and its relation to the larger dome over the rotunda may have been intended to mirror the relationship between the domes of theDome of the Rock and theAl-Aqsa Mosque on theTemple Mount.[143]
The rotunda itself was covered by a conical structure from the 12th to the early 19th century.Pisa Baptistry was built in 1153 with a truncated cone in clear imitation of the Holy Sepulchre; an outer dome shell was added in the 14th century. The domed baptisteries of Cremona (1176) and Parma (1196) also appear to have been influenced by the rotunda.[144] The 12th century rotunda of the Holy Sepulchre atSanto Stefano, Bologna, and the basilica atNeuvy-Saint-Sépulchre are imitations of Jerusalem's Church of the Holy Sepulchre although, like many of the imitations across Europe, they differ in their details, including their domes.[145] Most of these "so-called 'copies'" have a dome or domical vault. An example isa church at Almenno, Italy, which has a stone dome resting on eight supporting columns.[2]
The Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount of Jerusalem were taken by the crusaders to represent theTemple of Solomon and thePalace of Solomon, respectively. TheKnights Templar, headquartered at the site, built a series of centrally planned churches throughout Europe modeled on the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, with the Dome of the Rock also an influence.[146] Examples include the church of theVera Cruz at Segovia [es], the church of theConvento do Cristo at Tomar, arotunda church in Paris [fr] destroyed during the French Revolution, andTemple Church in London. TheChurch of Saint Mary of Eunate was a pilgrims' burial church, rather than a Templar church, but may have been influenced by them.[147] TheChurch of the Holy Sepulchre in Cambridge and theTemplar's Chapel at Laon [fr] contain ribbed domes.[148]
Churches in northern Italy after 1100 were designed with vaulting from the outset, rather than as colonnaded basilicas with timber roofs and, like the Rhenish imperial cathedrals, many have octagonal domes with squinches over their crossings or choirs. Examples includeParma Cathedral, rebuilt around 1130, andPiacenza Cathedral (1122–1235).[149] Another example is the domedchurch of San Fedele in Como (11th to 12th century), similar to the church ofSt. Maria im Kapitol.[78] The east ends of the Basilica of San Fedele and St. Maria im Kapitol, with ambulatory passages around the transept arms, appear to imitate theBasilica of San Lorenzo in Milan.[150] TheBaptistery of Parma, one of the largest baptisteries, was begun in 1196 and has dome frescoes dating from 1260 onwards.[78]
TheOld Cathedral of Brescia was likely built in the first quarter of the 12th century and has a dome over a meter thick, made of heavy stone at the bottom and lighter porous stone at the top.[151] InTarquinia, the oval stone dome on squinches over the church of San Giacomo (c. 1121–1140) may have been inspired by the dome of Pisa Cathedral. A dome on pendentives in Tarquinia was completed around 1190 as part of thecathedral of Sta. Maria di Castello and was similar to others in Tuscany and the Veneto. It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1819.[152]
The dome of theBasilica of San Lorenzo in Milan, atetraconch building with a central space 23.8 meters square, was rebuilt in the Romanesque style after a fire in 1124. Much admired in the Renaissance, its dome collapsed in 1573 and was rebuilt with the present cloister vault.[153] The dome was said to have been modeled on the dome of the Pantheon and was often compared to it during the Renaissance. The building was mistakenly thought to have been the site of a Temple of Mercury that was renovated by EmperorMaximian and dedicated as a Temple of Hercules.[150] Documentary evidence indicates that the Romanesque dome of San Lorenzo was a thin hemisphere of light material over a cube of space about 23.8 meters (40 Milanese braccia) on each side. The dome was supported by four corner squinches resting on the fourexedrae arches of the square space with a further eight smaller squinches between each of them to create a sixteen-sided base. It was covered on the exterior by a cylindrical or polygonal drum and timber roof. The exterior drum was likely polygonal, with eight or sixteen sides, and had two levels ofdwarf galleries beneath a cornice row ofhanging arches. Evidence remains in the building's eastern corner towers offlying buttresses extending diagonally to the drum. The existence of a small lantern at the top of the dome is uncertain and the date the dome was completed is unknown.[154]
Thecathedral of Sovana (1153–1175) and thechurch of San Salvatore at Terni (about 1200) were constructed with local materials and have precedents in the region.[155] The alternating stone and brick rings of the dome over theRotuna of Montesiepi [it] at theAbbey of San Galgano are unusual but may be part of Tuscan decorativepolychrome banding.[156] It was built in the 1180s as a commemorative chapel with a hemispherical dome over a cylindrical rotunda and the top 16 rings are all in brick, giving the impression of an oculus at the top of the dome.[2]
A study in 1976 of Romanesque churches inthe south of France documented 130 with oval plan domes, such as the domes on pendentives atSaint-Martin-de-Gurson, Dordogne [fr] andBalzac, Charente.[157] The oval shape appears to have been a practical solution to rectangular crossing bays.[158] The oldest French pendentives were built in horizontal courses, rather than coursesnormal to the curve. This may have been done to better spread the weight of each course and also allow for a lighter wooden centering to be used during construction.[159]
Pendentives became popular in France throughout the 12th century. By the middle of the 12th century, the use of drums with windows beneath the domes allowed in more light. Octagonal drums were preferred. Examples include the crossing domes atObazine Abbey and thechurch of La Dorat [fr] in theLimousin region, and theChurch of Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat [fr].[160] The church atSaint-Junien in the Limousin region experimented with flattened pendentives and pointed arches to support a crossing dome before 1101.[161] Other examples include the crossing domes of thechurch of St. Étienne at Nevers [fr] (c. 1097), theBasilica of Notre-Dame du Port (built in the 11th and 12th centuries),the basilica at Orcival [fr] (12th century), and thechurch of Saint-Nectaire [fr]. In the latter three examples, the crossing dome is supported on the north and south sides by adjacent half or full barrel vaults.[162] Another example of a crossing dome on an octagonal drum and pendentives that is part of a tall lantern tower isSaint-Barthélémy Church of Bénévent-l'Abbaye [fr].[115]
In theAquitaine region of southwest France, there are a large number of domed Romanesque churches, with over 250 in thePérigord region alone. The area is far from ports with regular contact with the east and the source of influence is not entirely settled.[163] The greatest concentration of these churches in theDordogne department are in the northwest portion. Of the roughly six hundred Romanesque churches in that area, there are 168 domes ranging from 2 meters to 15 meters in diameter. The most common diameter is four meters.[164] The churches in this region typically do not have aisles, and their naves began to be covered by a series of domes around the year 1100.[165] Between theGaronne andLoire rivers there are known to have been at least seventy-seven churches whose naves were covered by a line of domes. Half of them are in the Périgord region. Most date to the twelfth century and sixty of them survive.[166]
The churches with a file of domes over their naves used pointed arches and pendentives and were built following the First Crusade, roughly from 1105 to 1150.[167] The use of pendentives to support domes in the Aquitaine region, rather than the squinches more typical of western medieval architecture, strongly implies a Byzantine influence.[168] Domes in this area being arranged in linear series has suggested the contemporary architecture ofCyprus as the inspiration, which was located on apilgrimage route to theHoly Land.[169] Cyprus had developed its own style of domed basilica during itsperiod of neutrality between Byzantine and Arab rulers, using three domes of roughly equal size in a line over the nave and very little lighting. There are indications of a connection between Aquitaine and Cyprus just after the First Crusade.[170]
Precisely dating the domes and determining the order in which the buildings were completed has been difficult, in part because of "drastic 19th century over-restoration".[167] Possible early domes may have existed at the church ofSaint-Astier, Dordogne, which was founded in 1010 although little of the original construction remains, and atSaint-Avit-Sénieur (c. 1117), whose original three domes were replaced with "domed up Anjou vaults" in the 13th century.[171]
Angoulême Cathedral was built from 1105 to 1128. Its long nave is covered by four stone domes on pendentives, springing from pointed arches, the last of which covers the crossing and is surmounted by a stone lantern.[172][173] The westernmost of the Angoulême domes is the earliest, constructed between 1100 and 1125. Four small recesses at the base of each nave dome, just above the cornices, were likely used to secure wooden centering formwork during construction. Later stone domes in the region have four small windows in a similar location that may have been used in the same way.[171] The domes of Angoulême Cathedral and some other contemporary churches in the region, particularly rural examples, were originally hidden on the exterior by agable roof.[165]
The external roofing and small number of windows in the domes of the region (no more than four) indicate that the domes were not intended to serve aslanterns. Although the concentration of thrust into the corners of the domed bays allowed for large windows to be in the walls beneath the dome arches, only some of the churches took advantage of this. The more rural domed churches usually have just one small window per bay and remain dark.[174]
Unlike the domes of Angoulême Cathedral, the domes of the church ofSt. Étienne at Périgueux [fr] andCahors Cathedral were visible on the exterior.[165] The domes of St. Étienne at Périgueux preceded the larger ones at Cahors Cathedral.[175] St. Étienne originally had four domes, but two were destroyed in the 16th century. Of the remaining two, the earlier one was completed around 1125 the later one by 1163.[171] Cahors Cathedral (c. 1100–1140) covers its nave with two large domes in the same manner and influenced the laterbuilding at Souillac [fr].[172][176] The domes at Cahors have a diameter of more than fifty feet.[175] The dome exteriors were expressed with a brick covering before the 1840s.[177] At Souillac, the cruciform church had a dome over the crossing and two more over the nave.[178] The domes were originally expressed externally, with a flat-stone roof resting directly on the exterior surface.[177] The lanterns on the domes at Souillac were added in a 19th century restoration.[179]
Fontevraud Abbey served as a burial place forPlantagenet royalty, includingRichard the Lionheart, and is one of the most impressive examples. The earlier domed crossing is preceded by a wider nave covered by four domes, which was begun in 1125. The pendentives are original, but the four nave domes are modern replacements from about 1910.[180] Originally designed as a three-aisledhall church with barrel vaults, after the choir was completed the nave was redesigned with piers to support the line of domes spanning the full width. TheAbbaye aux Dames in Saintes was likewise remodeled during construction to allow for its domes.[181]
Solignac Abbey (prior to 1142) used granite and has relatively squat proportions, but the domed eastern arm was built with a domed nave in mind. The transept arms were originally barrel vaulted.[182] The domes were originally covered by tiles on the exterior.[177]
Thecathedral of S. Front at Périgueux was built around 1125–1150 and derives its five-domed cruciform plan ultimately from theChurch of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople.[172][183] One of the domes covers part of the choir, the rest of which is covered by a barrel vault and apse half-dome, although most domed churches in the region used only a barrel vault and apse half-dome for the choir.[184] The domes differ from normal Byzantine practice in the use of stone, rather than a lighter material such as brick, and that difference may help explain the other differences, such as the domes being slightly pointed and at least semicircular, rather than segmental, springing from a distance set back from the circle formed by the pendentives, rather than directly from the circle, and resting on pendentives with complex curves that begin at the lower side of the supporting arch voussoirs, rather than quarter-circle pendentives beginning at the upper side.[159] The S. Front domes had dressed stone only on the lowest levels prior to alterations byPaul Abadie in the 19th century.[185] The alterations included replacing the original pendentive masonry and the rough courses of stone in the domes.[186] There was a wooden roof covering the domes from about 1760, but originally the domes were visible externally and covered by tiles.[177]
Twelfth century examples include theSaint Nicolas Church of Trémolat [fr],Church of Saint Mary of Bourg-des-Maisons [fr],Saint Pierre-aux-Liens Church in Allemans [fr],Church of Notre-Dame-de-l'Assomption inVerteillac, andSaint Timothée Church in Paussac [fr].[187] Other examples include thechurch of Cherval [fr], which has four domes covering its 27 meter by 5.3 meter interior, thechurch of Notre-Dame de Bourg-du-Bost [fr], whose later painted decoration dates from the 14th-16th centuries, and the more typical church ofSaint-Martial-Viveyrol.[164] Churches in Perigord andSaintonge with a file of domes built between roughly 1160 and 1180 includeBoschaud Abbey [fr],La Tenaille Abbey [fr],Abbey of Our Lady of the Assumption of Châtres [fr],Sablonceaux Abbey,Saint-Romain Church of Saint-Romain-de-Benet [fr],Collegiate Church of Saint-Émilion [fr], andSaint-Martin Church of Gensac-la-Pallue [fr].[188]
Gothicrib vaulting superseded the use of domes in south-west France after the 12th century. The church atSaint-Avit-Sénieur appears to have been designed for domes but they may never have been built. The nave is covered instead byribbed Angevin style vaults. The "domical shape of Angevin vaults", like those seen inAngers Cathedral, may be due to the influence of the Romanesque domed churches.[181] The foundations ofBordeaux Cathedral indicate that it originally had a nave covered with a line of three domes like those of Angoulême Cathedral but it was rebuilt in the 13th century with a vaulted ceiling.[189]Saintes Cathedral may also have originally had domes over its nave.[167]
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The remains of acrossing tower on the FrenchChurch of Saint-Jean de Montierneuf from about 1140 suggest an origin for some Spanish domes in a Romanesque and transitional Gothic style.[190] The architectural influences at work here have been much debated, with proposed origins ranging from Jerusalem, Islamic Spain, or theLimousin region in western France to a mixture of sources.[75] The disappeared Romanesque dome over theCathedral of Santiago de Compostela has also been proposed.[191]
During theReconquista, theKingdom of León in northern Spain built three churches famous for their domed crossing towers, calledcimborrios, as it acquired new territories. TheCathedral of Zamora, theCathedral of Salamanca, and thecollegiate church of Toro were built around the middle of the 12th century. All three buildings have stone umbrella domes with sixteen ribs over windowed drums of either one or two stories, springing from pendentives. All three also have four small round towers engaged externally to the drums of the domes on their diagonal sides.[192] A later related dome is that over the chapter house of theOld Cathedral of Plasencia.[193]The early GothicCathedral of Évora in Portugal has been proposed as a late addition to the set.[191] Perhaps the masterpiece of the series, the Salamanca crossing tower has two stories of windows in its drum. Its outer stone fish-scale roof lined with gothiccrockets is a separate corbelled layer with only eight lobes, which applies weight to the haunches of the sixteen-sided inner dome.[194] The vaulting over the nave of the old Salamanca Cathedral is covered by domes supported by diagonal ribs in the western bays andAnjou-style domed-up rib vaults in the two eastern bays.[195]
The influence of Islamic crossed-arch domes can be seen in the dome of theMonastery of Santa María de Armenteira [es].[51] The dome of thechurch of San Millán [es] inSegovia is an octagonal crossed-arch dome on squinches that may have been made with concrete around the middle of the 12th century.[196] Another unusual Spanish example from the late 12th or early 13th century is the dome of theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre [eu] inTorres Del Río, on theWay of St. James. The Way, a majorpilgrimage route through northern Spain to the reputed burial place ofSt. James the Greater, attracted pilgrims from throughout Europe, especially after pilgrimage to Jerusalem was cut off. The difficulty of travel to Jerusalem for pilgrimage prompted some new churches to be built as a form of substitute, evoking the central plan and dome of Jerusalem'sChurch of the Holy Sepulchre with their own variant. The dome in this case, however, is most evocative of the centralmihrab dome of theGreat Mosque of Cordoba. Over an octagonal room, the stone dome is formed by sixteen ribs, eight of which intersect with one another in a star pattern to define a smaller octagon at the center of the dome.[197]
There are a number of Christian crossed-arch dome examples in Spain and the south of France from the end of the 12th century, with patterns based upon the square or octagon.[198] Thechurch of San Pablo in Cordoba, begun in 1241, includes two such domes: an eight pointed star dome with another eight-pointed star over the central opening, and a second dome with ribs for an eight-pointed star that transition to ribs for a central cross and square, which was copied in many Christian buildings.[199] Other 13th century examples are found atSan Miguel de Almazán [es],Santa Cruz de Olorón [fr],San Blas Hospital [fr],Abbey of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgas, Salamanca Cathedral, and theChurch of Santa María de la Oliva in Lebrija [es], converted from a mosque in 1249.[198][126] The style experienced a revival in early 16th century Spain when one of the crossed-arch domes of the Great Mosque of Córdoba was used as the model for domes atZaragoza,Teruel, andTarazona.[198]
The intersecting rib domes of the Great Mosque in Cordoba appear in North Africa in the dome of theQubbat Barudiyyin (c. 1120) inMarrakesh. The dome hasmultifoil arches and carved stucco with vegetal and shell patterns. A dome ofQarawiyyin Mosque (1135) is also similar to themaqsurah dome of the Great Mosque of Cordoba.[51]
In Islamic North Africa, there are several early muqarnas domes dating from the twelfth century. The earliest may be anAlmoravid restoration between 1135 and 1140 of a series of stucco muqarnas domes over the axial nave of the mosque of the Qarawiyyin inFez. The existence of a near contemporary example from 1154 in themaristan ofNur al-din in Damascus, Syria, and the earlier example of a muqarnas dome in al-Dawr, Iraq, suggests that the style was imported from Baghdad.[200]
After hisconquest of the city of Jerusalem,Saladin rebuilt the dome of theAl-Aqsa Mosque as it is today, as part of extensive restorations.[201]Ayyubid domes tended to be smooth, hemispherical or stilted forms with no external drum.[54] The largest preservedAyyubid dome is that of the Matbakh al-'Ajami inAleppo, resting on muqarnas pendentives. It may have been the palace residence of the al-'Ajami family.[202]
Almost 100 Ayyubid tombs survive in Damascus; most are from the 13th century.[203] The mausoleum over the tomb of ImanAl-Shafi'i (built in 1211) has a large wooden double dome (rebuilt in 1722) about 29 meters high and, with the tombs ofal-Malik al-Silah and the so-called Tomb of the Abbasid Caliphs, is one of three important Ayyubid tombs in Cairo dating from the first half of the 13th century.[204][205] The domed mausoleum was built 35 years after themadrassa ordered by Saladin at the site in 1176–7, introduced in Egypt after 1171 to counterShia Islam.[44] In Aleppo, theAl-Zahiriyah Madrasa begun byAz-Zahir Ghazi includes six domes. InAl-Firdaws Madrasa (1235–1237), built by princessDayfa Khatun in Aleppo, the mosque dome above the mihrab has five rows of muqarnas in the transition zone.[206]
Ayyubid rulerAl-Ashraf Musa built theAl-Tawbah Mosque in Damascus in 1235 similar to the Artuqid domed mosque style. The smooth dome is supported by a sixteen-sided drum with windows in alternating sides, created by eight squinches over an octagon which was itself created by four squinches over the bay in front of the mihrab.[207] Other examples include the domes of themausoleum of Ayyubid Sultan As-Salih Ayyub (1243–1250) and theMausoleum of Shajar al-Durr (1250).[54] The domes were supported by squinches above the square bay walls, corresponding to what were often stepped exterior transition zones. This continued to be the structure used in Cairo domes until the mid 14th century. The curved squinch forms used by the Fatimids were replaced by the Ayyubids with more angular forms. An interior zone of transition with three tiers of squinches was first used by the Ayyubids, resulting in a higher dome. The earliest example was in wood in the dome ofMausoleum of Imam al-Shafi'i (1211). An example of three-tiered squinches under a dome in brick is atSalihiyya Madrasa (1243–1250).[208] Built byAs-Salih Ayyub on the site of the Fatimid Eastern Palace, it is the only madrassa from the period to partly survive. The 10 meter wide domed tomb at its northern end led to the series of funerary madrassas built in Cairo by theMamluk Sultans.[44]
In theYemen area, the earliest surviving domed mosques are under the Rasulids, with a large central dome that has pairs on smaller domes on the sides. Earlier examples may have been built by the Ayyubids, who also introduced madrasas to the area, but they have not survived. Examples include theAsadiyya Madrasa atIbb (built before 1258), which also has domes at the corners of the forecourt arcades, and theMudhaffar Mosque atTaʿizz (1249–1295), which has a domed central bay flanked on either side by paired smaller domes and another large dome. The tower is also topped by a small dome. Smaller mosques, which had been built with flat roofs, also began to be built with domes.[209]
Islamic examples of crossed-arch domes in Spain and North Africa are distinguished from contemporary Christian examples by the use of thinner and more numerous arches, such as those of theAlcázar of Seville, theVillena Castle in Alicante, theGreat Mosque of Taza, and the minaret ofKoutoubia Mosque.[198] The Tower of the Prison, orTorre de la Cercel, atCastillo de Alcalá la Real includes two star-ribbed domes.[126]
The domed prayer hall andmaqam of thezawiya ofDayr al-Shaykh may have been built in the 13th century for the remains of Islamic religious teacher Sultan Badr. The maqam may have been built slightly later. The prayer hall dome is a hemisphere on a circular drum with four windows and spherical pendentives that spring from ground level, suggesting the level of the floor was originally lower. There is a tomb on the south side of the chamber. The maqam is a smaller square building with an elliptical-profile dome over squinches in a chamber measuring 2 meters by 2 meters. The south side of the dome has a hole that admits light.[210]
The use of domes declined in Western Europe with the rise ofGothic architecture.[92] Gothic domes are uncommon due to the use ofrib vaults over naves, and with church crossings usually focused instead by tallsteeples, but there are examples of small octagonal crossing domes in cathedrals as the style developed from the Romanesque.[211] The domes of Romanesque and Early Gothic Latin-cross churches rarely span more than the width of the nave.[212] Spaces of circular or octagonal plan were sometimes covered with vaults of a "double chevet" style, similar to thechevet apse vaulting in Gothic cathedrals.[213]
The crossing ofSaint Nicholas at Blois [fr] is an example of a "double chevet" dome, as is that ofCoutances Cathedral (second half of the 13th century).[213] The domed crossing of theAbbey Church of Sainte-Foy was built by 1130.[214][215]
The 13th century ribbed dome on squinches at the crossing of theChurch of San Pedro [es] inÁvila, Spain is an example of a "double chevet" style dome.[216]
The dome ofTarragona Cathedral was built in the French Gothic style and includes alternating sets of three and four windows at the base.[217] The octagonal dome was built in the middle of the 13th century and is supported by angular squinches and is similar to the dome of theMonastery of Sant Cugat.[218]
A crossed-arch dome was built inTeruel Cathedral from 1248-1278.[219]
The crossing ofWorms Cathedral is an example of a "double chevet" dome.[213] The domed "Decagon" nave ofSt. Gereon's Basilica inCologne, Germany, a ten-sided space in an oval shape, was built between 1219 and 1227 upon the remaining low walls of a 4th-century Roman mausoleum. The ribbed domical vault rises four stories and 34 meters above the floor, covering an oval area 23.5 meters long and 18.7 meters wide.[220] It is unique among thetwelve Romanesque churches of Cologne, and in European architecture in general, and may have been the largest dome built in this period in Western Europe until the completion of the dome ofFlorence Cathedral.[221][222]
In Italy, the dome ofSiena Cathedral had an exposed profile as early as 1224, and this feature was retained in its reconstruction around 1260.[223] The dome has two shells and was completed in 1264. It is set over an irregular 17.7-metre-wide (58 ft)hexagon with squinches to form an irregulartwelve-sided base.[224] No large dome had ever before been built over a hexagonal crossing.[225] The current lantern dates from the 17th century and the current outer dome is a 19th-century replacement.[226] The crossing dome ofAncona Cathedral was visible externally.[227] An octagonal dome for Florence Cathedral may have been part of the original design byArnolfo di Cambio for the church, construction of which began in 1296.[228]
TheBasilica of St. Anthony of Padua was built between 1231 and 1300, in the early period ofItalian Gothic architecture, and features seven domes with a blend of Gothic and Byzantine elements. Similar toSt Mark's Basilica in Venice, its nave, transepts, crossing, and the intermediate bay before the choir are covered by domes on pendentives in the Byzantine style. Externally, the crossing dome is covered with a conical spire. The choir dome, which may be later than the others, is uniquely Gothic with ribs.[229] An eighth dome covers the attached Relics Chapel, adjacent to the choir dome. The masonry domes are covered externally by timber structures and several were repaired following a 1347 lightning strike and a 1748 fire. The two nearest the facade may be in their original condition.[230] The inner brick domes range from 13.62 to 14.48 meters in diameter.Dendrochronological analysis confirmed original timbers in three of the eight outer domes: the two westernmost domes near the facade and the northern transept dome over the Chapel of St. Anthony. They may be the oldest timber domes in Europe. The other four outer coverings (over the crossing dome, the dome over the south transept, the presbytery dome, and the choir dome) were replaced after 1749. The easternmost dome over the Chapel of the Relics was built in the 18th century.[231]
Venice'sChurch of Santi Giovanni e Paolo was built between 1333 and 1430 and features a domed crossing with Byzantine and Romanesque influences, such as the domed Romanesque cathedrals of thenorthern plain.[232]
In England, a dome with a pyramidal roof and lantern at the Abbot's kitchen ofGlastonbury Abbey dates to the early 14th century.[233] Similar vaulting was built over the kitchen ofNewenham Abbey by 1338.[234] Timber starvaults such as those overYork Minster's octagonalChapter house (ca. 1286–1296) and the elongated octagon plan ofWells Cathedral's Lady Chapel (ca. 1320–1340) imitated much heavier stone vaulting.[211] The wooden vaulting over the crossing ofEly Cathedral was built after the original crossing tower collapsed in 1322. It was conceived byAlan of Walsingham and designed by master carpenterWilliam Hurley.[235][236] Eighthammer vaults extend from eight piers over the 22 meter wide octagonal crossing and meet at the base of a large octagonal lantern, which is covered by a star vault.[237] The kitchen ofDurham Cathedral features a crossed-arch dome built from 1366-1374.[238]
Star-shaped domes are found at theMoorish palace of theAlhambra in Granada, Spain, which contains domed audience halls built to mirror the heavenly constellations. TheHall of the Abencerrajes (c. 1333–91) and theHall of the two Sisters (c. 1333–54) are extraordinarily developed examples ofmuqarnas domes, taking the tradition of the squinch in Islamic architecture from a functional element in the zone of transition to a highly ornamental covering for the dome itself. The structural elements of these two domes are actually brick vaulting, but these are completely covered by the intricatemocárabe stalactites. The lacy and star-shaped crossing dome ofBurgos Cathedral (1567) may have been inspired by these examples, in addition to that built over the cathedral's octagonal Chapel of the Condestable (1482–94) in the Gothic style.[211]
In themudéjar style of Seville afterthe Christian reconquest of the city, a kind of dome made of intricately interlaced pieces of painted and gilded wood was known as amedia naranja, or "half orange". The most famous example covers the "Hall of the Ambassadors" throne room in theRoyal Palace Complex of Seville, a 10 meter wide space built in 1427.[239] Octagonal segmented domes on squinches were characteristic of mudéjar architecture and examples in Seville in the 13th and 14th centuries with ribs that are decorative, rather than structural, are calledboveda esquifada.[240]
Over the course of 250 years, around 400 domes were built in Cairo to cover the tombs of Mamluksultans andemirs.[241]
The Mamluks continued the smooth domes of the Ayyubid style, with no apparent exterior drums, until the mid 14th century. After that, ribbed stilted domes became popular until the adoption of decorated stone domes, such as the chevron pattern atMahmud al-Kurdi Mosque (1395). The last example of a smooth hemispherical dome from this period was that of theMausoleum of Ulmas al-Hajib (1329–1330).[242] A series of smooth domes was built in the last quarter of the 15th century, beginning withPrince Tamraz Al Ahmadi Mosque [ar] (1472). Most of the smooth domes are brick, but two stone examples are in the narthex of theTomb of Salar and Sangar al-Gawli, believed to be built forBäštāk [ar] in 1348, and theMausoleum of Qurqumas (1511). Shallow vestibule domes were usually stone.[243]
Bulbous cupolas on minarets were used in Egypt beginning around 1330, spreading to Syria in the following century.[244]
Early Mamluk drums were faceted and wider than the domes they supported, sometimes blending with external transition zones. After the middle of the 14th century, domes have the traditional stepped exterior transition zone, although the interiors use a variety of styles. Examples include a dome on plain squinches at the Tankiziyya mausoleum (c. 1359), a dome on pendentive squinches atMadrasa of Uljay al-Yusufi (1373), and a dome on two-tiered curved squinches at the mausoleum ofAytmish al-Bajasi (1383). Drums become distinct from the transition zone in the late 14th century.[243] The stalactites of squinches and pendentives in the architecture of Cairo are non-structural and each row is supported by a stone corbel or a wooden plank.[245]
The stone domes were generally single shells except at the conical crown, where there is a gap between inner and outer layers filled with earth and rubble and which contains the bases of themetal spires. Double shelled domes were rare, but an example is that ofAl-Sultanyya Madrasa from 1360. The domes were constructed in circular rings, with the sizes decreasing towards the top of the dome and, because of this, it is possible that elaborate centering may not have been needed. Collapsed remains of some domes has revealed a layer of brick beneath the external stone, which could have supported and aligned the heavier stone during construction. Although the earliest stone domes do not have them, horizontal connections between the ashlar stone blocks were introduced in the 14th century, such as those made ofteak wood in a dovetail shape used in the Mausoleum of Farag Ibn Barquq.[246] Dome profiles were varied, with "keel-shaped", bulbous,ogee, stilted domes, and others being used. On the drum, angles werechamfered, or sometimes stepped, externally and triple windows used in a tri-lobed arrangement on the faces.[247]
The earliestBahri Mamluk domes were imitations of Fatimid external ribbed brick domes, and decorative ribs would continue to be used in various styles. Examples include the ribbed domes of Ahmad al-Qasid (c. 1335), Tankizbugha (c. 1359), Ulgay al-Yusufi (1373), Aytmish al-Bajasi (1383-1384), and Yunis Dawadar (1382).[248]
The architectural rules for dome transitional zones established by the Fatimids and Ayyubids were not continued by the Bahri Mamluks, who innovated in structural, decorative, and constructive techniques.[242] Internally, the squinches of the zone of transition developed into miniaturized and pointed versions that were used row upon row over the entire expanded zone and bordered above and below by plain surfaces.[249] Early examples include the domes ofSalihiyya Madrasa (1283–1284), which has interior squinches filled in with stalactite pendentives, theMausoleum of Sultan Qalawun (1284–1285), which has no interior zone of transition, and the mausoleum ofAl-Ashraf Khalil (1288), which uses stalactite squinches.[242]
_-_Egypt-13A-061_(cropped).jpg)
The wooden dome with wooden squinches over the mihrab of theMosque of Ibn Tulun appears to have been restored by SultanLajin in 1295–1296. An apparently wooden dome from 1334 in a reception hall of the Qasr al-Ablaq palace ofAl-Nasir Muhammad atCairo Citadel is known from drawings of the ruins made in 1822.[250] Al-Nasir Muhammad's dome over theDar al-'Adl (1333–1334), a building dubbed the "Divan of Joseph" in a 19th-century engraving, was the most impressive of the Citadel.[251] The dome ofAl-Nasir Muhammad Mosque (1335) is the earliest extant wooden dome with stalactite pendentives. The wooden example at theMausoleum of Sultan Hasan has stone arches behind the wooden pendentives to provide structural support. Such pendentives in brick or stone are not used until the middle of the 14th century.[250] The Madrasa of Sultan Hasan includes a dome with a star pattern made of inlaid tiles giving the appearance of ribs, rather than actual three-dimensional ribs, and was built from 1356-1363.[252]
Examples of brick pendentives of the Syrian type, which act structurally as squinches, were used at the so-called mausoleum of Al-Minūfī in theSouthern Cemetery of Cairo (early 14th century), which also featured a lantern at the top of the dome, and the mausoleum of Küčük atAqsunqur Mosque (1346–1347).[253] The dome of the "mausoleum of Āqsunqur/Ibrāhīm al-Ansārī" (1370–1371) uses a hybrid corner support system that has been called a "pendentive-squinch". This hybrid system, with the lower part a squinch and upper part a pendentive, or vice-versa, would become common in Cairo beginning in the second half of the 14th century. The border of the supporting walls and the transition zone were often marked by a moulding or inscription band.Sultaniyya Mausoleum (1369–1370) is an example.[254]
Al-Nasir Muhammad reportedly ordered all royal buildings to be built of stone in order to prevent fire.[255] In the first half of the fourteenth century, stone blocks replaced bricks as the primary building material in the dome construction ofMamluk Egypt, with the brick domes being only 20 percent of those constructed around 1322. Although they kept roughly the same proportions, the shift from brick to stone is also associated with an increase in the average span and height of about 3 to 4 meters, and a decrease in the thickness of the domes. The stone domes are generally 8 to 10 meters in diameter and 7 to 11 meters high.[256] The dome over thetomb of An-Nasir Hasan is 69 feet wide and dates to 1356.[257] The earliest type of stone transition zone was used at theMosque of Aydumur al-Bahlawan (1346), a scallop-niche suitable for small domes. Others of the same type are at the Mausoleum of Sunqur al-Muẓaffar and the Mausoleum of Yūnus al-Dawādār (before 1382).[258] The earliest stone pendentives in Cairo were those in the vestibule of theMosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan (1356–1362).[259]
The twin-domes of the Sultaniyya complex (c. 1360) are unusual in that they havemuqarnas at the base of their external ribs, a feature of ribbed domes in Persia.[260] The narrow dome of Yunus al-Dawadar also hasmuqarnas at the base of their external ribs, the only example in Cairo other than that of the Sultaniyya Mausoleum.[261]
Decoration for these first stone domes was initially the same external ribbing as earlier brick domes, and such brick domes would continue to be built throughout the Mamluk period, but more elaborate patterns of carving were introduced through the beginning of the sixteenth century. Early stones domes were plastered externally when not cut precisely enough, but improvements in technique over time would make this unnecessary. Spiral ribs were developed in the 1370s.[262] Early stone domes were sometimes plastered externally and internally. Examples include al-Qāșid (c. 1335) and theMadrasa of Tatar al-Hijaziya (1348–1360).[255]
Zigzag patterns were common both by the end of the fourteenth century and again at the end of the fifteenth century.[262] The first example of the zigzag pattern is on thedome of Mahmud al-Kurdi (1394–95), and at least fourteen subsequent domes also used it.[261] The dome of the mosque of Inal al-Yusufi (1392-1393) had external ribs that looped together at their base, forming a chain-like band that would become the basis for more elaborate decorative reliefs on laterCircassian domes.[263] The external decoration of Circassian domes developed from zigzag patterns to elaborate geometric and foliagearabesque patterns unique to each dome until a decline in the second decade of the 16th century. Examples include the domes of Farag ibn Barquq (1400-1407), Abdallah al-Manufi (between the end of the 14th and the middle of the 15th centuries), Qatbay (1474), Azrumuk (1503-1505), and Khayrbek (1502).[264] The stone dome of theMausoleum of Farag Ibn Barquq (1398–1411) was exceptionally large at 16 meters wide and 12.8 meters tall.[256]
The stone domes of the Circassian Mamluks in the 15th century benefited from the experimentation of the 14th century. Pendentives and pendentive-squinches placed above square bases became standard.[265] The southern dome of Khanqah of Faraj ibn Barquq (1400–1411) and themausoleum of al-Mu'ayyad (1415–1420) used the hybrid corner support system that has been called a "pendentive-squinch", with the lower part a squinch and upper part a pendentive, or vice-versa, and had the border of the supporting walls and the transition zone marked by a molding or inscription band.[254] Brick pendentives of the Syrian type, which act structurally as squinches, were used at theCistern of Yaqub Shah Mahmandar [ar] (1495–1496).[253]
The maqam ofNabi Rubin dates from the Mamluk period and includes a domed chamber. The semi-elliptical profile dome rests on an octagonal drum on four corner squinches separated by fourblind arches.[266]
In the fifteenth century, interlaced star and floral designs were used on domes in a tiled pattern. The uniqueness of a pattern on a mausoleum dome helped to associate that dome with the individual buried there.[267] The patterns appear to have been carved after the dome had been built, although alignment of the design with the vertical joints of the stone blocks suggests coordination between the cutting of the blocks and the design of the decorative pattern prior to construction, or using the grid of stone joints to align the repetition of the pattern but not the pattern itself. Evidence for the carving being done after construction is that the carving of the decorative pattern on theMausoleum of Asfur [ceb] (c. 1506) was unfinished in the first course of stones. Additionally, the floral pattern carved onto the dome of Azrumuk (1503–1505) does not align with the seams of its stone blocks. The undecorated outer surface of the dome of Qaraqmus (1507) was either intended to be plain or a planned carving was never started.[268] The repeating pattern of decoration frequently does not correspond to the pattern of windows and blind niches on the drum below it.[269] Wooden pegs that remain embedded in the mortar between stone blocks may have been used during construction to anchor ropes used to map out atessellation grid onto the dome surface for the decorative carving.[270]
The first example of a dome in Cairo with a star pattern is themausoleum of Barsbay (1432).[271][272] A smaller dome in the Barsbay complex that also has a star pattern is that of the mausoleum of hisamir Ganibek (c. 1432).[272] The dome ofQaytbay in Cairo's northern cemetery combines geometric andarabesque patterns and is one of the finest.[273] It interlaces straight-line star patterns with curving foliage arabesque patterns.[270] Some of the patterns used on domes, such as chevrons, high-reliefentrelacs, and star-patterns, were first used on minarets. The domes of theHadiga Umm al-Asraf (1430–1440) and theMosque of Taghribirdi (1440) used a high-relief pattern of interlaced mouldings first used on a minaret sixty years earlier.[274] The interiors of the domes at the Khanqah of Faraj ibn Barquq were plastered and painted and it is likely that later stone domes were as well.[255]Ablaq banding was never used above the drum of a dome, although it was used in transitional zones and for some vestibule domes, such as the vestibule domes of the Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan and the shallow iwan dome at themadrasa of Qani-Bay (1503). An exception to this rule may be theinner dome over the burial place of Muhammad and the first Caliphs inMedina, which was restored byQaitbay in 1482–1483 and described as made "of black and white stone". The current outer dome is anOttoman replacement from 1818.[275]
The traditional stepped treatment continued to be used for the exterior transition zones, but new "prismatic triangles, undulating mouldings, and chamfering" patterns were introduced from earlier use in the bases of stone minarets. Undulating mouldings first appear on the external transition zones of the two domes of the Khanqah of Faraj ibn Barquq (1400–1411). An example in brick is at theTomb of az-Zahir Qansuh Abu Sa'id (1499). The first prismatic triangles and the first chamfering used in dome external transition zones are on the tomb of Ğānibäk al-Ašrafī in the Eastern cemetery (1427). Prismatic triangles as full half-pyramids were first used atAmir Qijmas al-Ishaqi Mosque (1481). The first external transition zone to solely use chamfered corners was the dome atAbu al-'Ila Mosque (1485).[276] In the late Mamluk period, a transition zone was used with arches over the corners of the square bay that were filled with curved stalactites. The arches were either plain or three-lobed and there was no external zone of transition, making the domes overall lower and reversing the previous trend toward taller domes. Examples include theQubba al-Fadawiyya (1479–1481) and themausoleum of ad-Dašțūțī (1506).[275]
The domes ofZabid were periodically whitewashed withstucco and date to the 13th and 14th centuries. Not all mosques have domes but those that do typically have one to three domes over the prayer hall. An additional hall across the courtyard from the prayer hall may also be domed. The domes appear to be smaller and simplified versions of those found inTaiz, without painted and carved decorations or hanging squinches.
The three surviving royal buildings in Taiz are theMudhaffar Mosque andmadrasa-mosque of Ashrafiya, both with a large central dome over the prayer hall and adjacent smaller domes, andal-Mu'tabiyah madrasah [ar], which has six domes of equal size over its prayer hall.[277] The Mu'tabiyya Madrasa (1392) also includes domes over some teaching rooms connected to its southern courtyard. The Ashrafiya Mosque and madrasa has a prayer hall roofed by a large dome with pairs of smaller domes on the sides. It also includes a domedkhanaqah. The gadrooned domes may have been based on domes in the Jazira and southeast Anatolia.[278]
InSa'da, domed tombs ofZaydi imams can be found in themosque of Hadi. Domed open kiosks, mostly from the 15th century, mark the burials of the imams' families. Gadrooned domes were sometimes used at Sa'da, but domes atZafar,Dhibin, and elsewhere were usually hemispherical and simple.[279]
The Tahirids retained many of the innovations of the Rasulid dynasty in order to distinguish themselves from the Zaydis. The mosque of Malhuki (1499) has nine domed bays arranged three by three.[209] In Zabid's government quarter, the madrasas of al-Kamālīyah (c. 1521-1523) and al-Iskandarīyah (c. 1531-1536) have central dome plans like those found in Taiz. Other similarities are the inclusion of a small hanging squinch beneath the larger squinch supporting the dome and painted stucco decoration in the transition zone. The patron of these buildings may have been the sultan or one of his family members.[280]
A crossed-arch dome was built inPrague Cathedral from 1366-1367, with the spacing of the ribs widened so that a central square was formed, rather than a star. Additional ribs form a cross in the central square.[238]
Exposed domes were common inTuscany and a source of regional distinctiveness by the 1380s.[281] The exposed outer dome ofPisa Baptistery was built over its earlier inner conical roof in the 14th century.[282] If an external lantern tower was also removed fromPisa Cathedral in the 1300s, exposing the dome, one reason may have been to stay current with more recent projects in the region, such as the domed cathedrals of Siena and Florence.[281]
Rapid progress on a radical expansion of Siena Cathedral, which would have involved replacing the existing dome with a larger one, was halted not long after the city was struck with an outbreak of theBlack Death in 1348.[283] Its dome was originally topped with a copper orb, similar to that over Pisa's dome today, but this was replaced in 1385 by a cupola surmounted by a smallersphere and cross.[284]
TheBaptistery of San Giovanni in Corte inPistoia has an octagonal dome in the Florentine style.[285]
A large octagonal dome may have been part of the original concept for the cathedral of Florence byArnolfo di Cambio, who started building the nave and aisles in 1296.[286] It was only a few years after the city of Siena had decided to abandon the massive expansion and redesign of their cathedral in 1355 that Florence decided to greatly expand theirs.[287] A plan for the dome ofFlorence Cathedral was settled by 1357.[281] However, in 1367 it was proposed to alter the church plan at the east end to increase the scale of the octagonal dome, widening it from 62 to 72 braccia, with the intent to further surpass the domes of Pisa and Siena, and this modified plan was ratified in 1368, under Master of WorksFrancesco Talenti.[288][289] The preliminary design of this dome was completed byGiovanni di Lapo Ghini.[290]Neri di Fioravante [it] built the foundations for the dome.[286] The construction guilds of Florence had sworn to adhere to the model of the dome created in 1367, with a "quinto acuto" pointed profile, but the scale of this new dome was so ambitious that experts for theOpera del Duomo, the board supervising the construction, expressed the opinion as early as 1394 that the dome could not be accomplished.[291] Discussion in the fourteenth century revolved primarily around the cost of the project, and secondarily about the style.[228] The enlarged dome would span the entire 42-metre (138 ft) width of the three aisled nave, just 2 meters less than that of the RomanPantheon, the largest dome in the world.[292] And because the distances between the angles of the octagon were even farther apart at 45.5 metres (149 ft), the average span of the dome would be marginally wider than that of the Pantheon.[293] The inner span in a measure used at the time was 77 Florentine arms.[294] At 144 braccia, the height of the dome would evoke the holy number of theHeavenly Jerusalem mentioned in theBook of Revelation. The design of the dome is very different from that of the Pantheon and it is unclear what the influences were, but it does share some similarities with earlier and smaller brick domes in Persia.[295] In particular, themausoleum of Oljeitu was a relatively recent precedent with a dome at a similar scale.[296] By 1413, with the exception of one of the three apses, the east end of the church had been completed up to the windowed octagonal drum but the problem of building the huge dome did not yet have a solution.[292] A design and model for the dome's wooden centering was created and preserved as a reference should it be needed during construction.[296] In 1417, with the drum completed, the master builder in charge of the project retired and a competition for plans to build the dome was begun in August 1418.[297][298]
Filippo Brunelleschi proposed avoiding the problem of building an independent woodenscaffolding sufficiently strong to support the dome during construction, which may not have been feasible, by using lower levels of the dome itself to support construction of higher levels. To demonstrate the idea, he built a dome without scaffolding over the Ridolfi chapel in theChurch of San Jacopo sopr'Arno.[299] The brick model also demonstrated the structural feasibility of the thickness of the inner shell. MathematicianGiovanni dell'Abbaco was paid for advice and drawings in 1413, 1420, and 1425, likely related to the geometric requirements of the dome.[300] Brunelleschi's plan to use suspended scaffolding for the workers won out over alternatives such as building a provisional stone support column in the center of the crossing or filling the space with earth, and he andLorenzo Ghiberti were made joint leaders of the project to build the dome forFlorence Cathedral in 1420. The octagonal brick domical vault was built between 1420 and 1436, with Ghiberti resigning in 1433.[301]
Brunelleschi's dome, designed in 1418, follows the height and form mandated in 1367.[288][298] The dome can be described as a cloister vault, with the eight ribs at the angles concentrating weight on the supporting piers.[289] Over 32 meters in height, it remains the largest masonry dome ever built.[302] The dome is 42 meters wide and made of two shells.[292] The inner shell is about 2 meters thick and the outer shell is about 0.80 meters thick.[303] A stairway winds between them. Eight white stone external ribs mark the edges of the eight sides, next to the red tile roofing, and extend from the base of the dome to the base of the cupola. Each of the eight sides of the dome also conceal a pair of intermediate stone ribs that are connected to the main ribs by means of a series of masonry rings. A temporary wooden tension ring still exists near the bottom of the dome. Three horizontal chains of sandstone blocks notched together and reinforced with lead-coated iron cramps also extend the entire circumference of the dome: one at the base (where radial struts from this chain protrude to the exterior), one a third of the way up the dome, and one two thirds of the way up the dome.[297] Although generally preferred in Italy at the time, no visible internal ties were used.[298] The layers of bricks curve up to the corners of the octagon, with each layer following radial alignments that created an inverted conical shape for the horizontal seams, like the layers of a spherical dome. The thickness of the inner octagonal shell allowed for an embedded virtual circular shell, about one fifth of the total thickness at the base.[304] The use of a herringbone pattern in the brick allowed for short horizontal sections of the layers of the dome to be completed as self-supporting units.[295] Impressions left in the mortar indicate that simple formwork boards were used to ensure the bricks did not slide while the wet mortar was setting.[305] The vertical bricks in this pattern create voussoir shaped blocks of brick within the shell that allowed the entire shell to be supported by the action of circular compression.[306]
At the conclusion of theCouncil of Florence on June 6, 1439, the ceremony of union between theCatholic andOrthodox churches took place beneath the dome of Florence Cathedral.[307] In theOld Sacristy of the Basilica of San Lorenzo in Florence, the smaller dome above the altar is decorated with astrological depictions of starconstellations that have been calculated to represent July 6, 1439 at about noon, the date of the closing session of theCouncil of Florence, in which theArticles of Union between Eastern and Western Christendom were signed by Latin and Greek delegates.[308]
The first cracks in the dome may date to an earthquake on September 28, 1453, before the lantern was completed, although it is not known if these cracks are the same as those seen today.[309] Only four major cracks have been observed on the inner dome, compared to about fourteen each on the domes of the Pantheon andSt. Peter's Basilica.[310] The cracks were first reported in 1639, in the centers of the four segments above each of the four piers, and ranged from 3 to 6 centimeters wide.[311] The dome's weight causing horizontal thrusts on its supports, a differential settlement in the foundation, and the seasonal and daily changes in temperature have been proposed as causes for the cracking.[312] The addition of iron hooping was recommended by a commission in the 17th century and by a committee in 1988, but was not implemented.[313]
The dome of Florence Cathedral is not itself Renaissance in style, although the lantern is closer.[288] The lantern surmounting the dome, also designed by Brunelleschi, was not begun until 1446, after his death.[301] It was completed byMichelozzo di Bartolommeo andBernardo Rossellino in 1467.[289] Brunelleschi also planned for an external gallery, orballatoio, to be built at the top of the drum where a strip of unclad masonry can be seen today. He had not worked out the details before his death, having been focused on the dome and lantern, but it appears that his intention was for a two-story passage with the lower story covered and the upper story open to the sky.[314] In 1507, the commission for the ballatoio was awarded toIl Cronaca,Giuliano da Sangallo, andBaccio D'Agnolo, but only the southeast side was completed by June 1515. The unveiling of the finished section spurred criticism of the design, including byMichelangelo, who proposed an unsuccessful alternative design, and work remained suspended as theruling Medici focused on other projects.[315]
The combination ofdome,drum,pendentives, andbarrel vaults developed as the characteristic structural forms of large Renaissance churches following a period of innovation in the later fifteenth century.[316] Florence was the first Italian city to develop the new style, followed by Rome, then Venice.[317] The quincunx plan became popular in many parts of Italy from the end of the 15th century, often with a large dome on pendentives at the center of a square and four smaller domes at the corners.[318] Domes in the renaissance style in Florence are mostly from the early period, in the fifteenth century. Cities within Florence's zone of influence, such asGenoa,Milan, andTurin, mainly produced examples later, from the sixteenth century on.[319]
Brunelleschi's domes atSan Lorenzo and thePazzi Chapel established them as a key element of Renaissance architecture.[92] The aisles of his churches of San Lorenzo (begun 1421) andSanto Spirito (begun 1428) were covered by sail domes.[320] Brunelleschi's umbrella dome on pendentives over the Old Sacristy of the Basilica of San Lorenzo (1422–1428) became thearchetype for later domed church crossings by his followers.[321] The dome of thePazzi Chapel in Florence (c. 1420) can be thought of as a late example of a "double-chevet" Gothic dome.[322] His plan for the dome of the Pazzi Chapel in Florence'sBasilica of Santa Croce (1430–52) illustrates the Renaissance enthusiasm for geometry and for the circle as geometry's supreme form. Twelve ribs between twelve circular windows converge on a smalloculus. The circular dome rests on pendentives decorated with circularmedallions of Florentine ceramic. This emphasis on geometric essentials would be very influential.[323] Brunelleschi'sSanta Maria degli Angeli in Florence was designed in 1434 with a 16.7 meter span.[324]
TheSantissima Annunziata in Florence was built by Michelozzo in 1444 with a dome diameter of 22.5 meters.[324] It is said to be connected with the Caracciolo del Sole chapel in the church ofSan Giovanni a Carbonara inNaples.[325] The cross-domed church ofSanta Maria delle Grazie inPistoia (1470-1484) has a form common to the Florentine Early Renaissance, but was not designed byMichelozzo.[86] The domedChurch of Santa Maria della Pietà at Bibbona [it] was built in the late 15th century.[326] Begun in 1482 by Vittorio Ghiberti, the church has five domes over its Greek cross plan. The central dome is 13 braccia in diameter.[327]
Giuliano da Sangallo's 1485 design of a dome on the church ofSanta Maria delle Carceri inPrato is ribbed, like that of the Pazzi Chapel.[328] The dome is 20 braccia wide at the center of a Greek cross plan built to house a miracle-working image of theVirgin Mary. It may have been influenced by theBadia Fiesolana, which has a sail vault at its crossing, Alberti's 1460 church ofSan Sebastiano, Mantua, the earliest Greek cross church built in the 1400s, which was planned to have a dome but ultimately built without one, the Greek cross Church of Santa Maria della Pietà atBibbona, and the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan. The walkway around the interior base of the Prato dome has a balustrade with spikes to secure candles over every otherbaluster, which would have created a shimmering crown of light in the tradition of the devotional practices of using lamps or candles around ciboria and miracle-working images.[329] Santa Maria delle Carceri in Prato marks the beginning of a "rapid succession of centralized buildings" that "continued with a whole series of churches dedicated to Mary in northern Italy".[324]
TheChurch of San Bernardino [it] was completed inUrbino before 1481 as a domed trilobe mausoleum.[330]
The cross-domedChurch of Santa Maria Novella [it] inOrciano di Pesaro is attributed toBaccio Pontelli (c. 1450-1492). The crossing dome protrudes externally from the cubic building.[331]
The cross-domed chapel at the convent ofSanta Maria Teodote in Pavia (second half of the 15th century) contains late Gothic elements but marks the beginning of the type's popularity in Renaissance Lombardy. It has a similar floor plan to the chapel atSan Satiro but with domes in the corners.[331]
In Lombardy, both octagonal and circular domes used ribs as late as the 1490s. Examples include thePortinari Chapel at theBasilica of Sant'Eustorgio, the church ofCertosa di Pavia (1396–1473), the church of Sta. Maria Bressanoro at Castelleone,Milan Cathedral, and the church ofSanta Maria della Croce.[332][323]Leonardo da Vinci, Bramante, and others were involved inPavia Cathedral, construction of which began in 1488.[333] The Portinari Chapel,Colleoni Chapel, andBrivio Chapel [it] use a large square block to support a timburio.Donato Bramante's dome ofSanta Maria presso San Satiro was the first Lombard "ribless hemispherical cupola with coffers". The burial church of the House of Sforza,Santa Maria delle Grazie, was begun in 1492 and by 1497 was completed to the upper gallery of the timburio. It is similar to the earlier Church of San Bernardino in Urbino in that it is also a domed trilobe mausoleum. However, the smooth, almost-hemispherical dome without ribs and thesixteen-sided timburio with two galleries and a pitched roof are clearly modeled on the earlier Church of San Lorenzo in Milan, called the "Milanese Pantheon", and the interior arrangement is similar to that of the Portinari Chapel.[334]
Domed tower finials atSforza Castle in Milan (1492) andVigevano (1494) have been proposed as inspiring similar structures inSilesia.[335]
From the late 15th century, semicircular arches became preferred in Milan, but round domes were less successful due to structural difficulties compared to those with pointed profiles.[336]
The domed Church of Saints Cosimo and Damiano inNardò and Church of Santa Filomena inCariati have been dated to the fifteenth century.[337]
The vault of the Caracciolo del Sole chapel in the church ofSan Giovanni a Carbonara inNaples (post-1427) has been cited as the model for the octagonal umbrella-like Gothic vault of the chapel of Balzo Orsini in theBasilica of Saint Catherine of Alexandria [it] inGalatina (c. 1459). However, alternative influences may be the gothic apses of the Angevin period, theHall of the Barons in Castel Nuovo, or the Chapel of Saint Ildephonsus (14th century) inToledo Cathedral.[338]
The Tolosa Chapel (c. 1492-1495) in the church ofSant'Anna dei Lombardi has terracotta reliefs in the pendentives of its dome.[339]
A crossed-arch dome of in theMosque–Cathedral of Córdoba dates to the 14th century.[126]
The crossed-arch dome ofSan Pablo in Zaragoza dates to the 14th century.[126]
The octagonal dome, orcimborio, of theCathedral of Valencia was completed around 1430 by Nicolás de Autún andMartí LLobet [es]. The eight ogival arches of the dome spring from the top of a tier of windows filled with Gothictracery andalabaster panels. A second taller tier of windows support eight additional shallower ribs to complete the vault. The dome and two tiers of windows are supported on four piers with squinches. The light structure has required periodic repairs, starting after an earthquake in 1396. In 1978, reinforced concrete slab was added to the roof and metal bracing was added to the oculus, the second tier of window arches, and at the level of the squinches.[340]
An octagonal gothic dome 65 feet in diameter was planned but never finished atBatalha Monastery in Portugal, to house royal tombs.[341]
The dome ofÉvreux Cathedral (second half of the 15th century) has been called a Gothic dome in the "double-chevet" style.[322]
De re aedificatoria, written byLeon Battista Alberti and dedicated toPope Nicholas V around 1452, recommends vaults withcoffering for churches, as in the Pantheon, and the first design for a dome at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome is usually attributed to him, although the recorded architect isBernardo Rossellino. Under Pope Nicholas V, construction started between 1451 and 1455 on an extension of theold St. Peter's Basilica to create aLatin cross plan with a dome and lantern 100 braccia high over a crossing 44 braccia wide (about 24.5 meters wide). Little more than foundations and part of the choir walls were completed before work stopped with the death of Nicholas V. This innovation would culminate inBramante's 1505–6 projects for a wholly new St. Peter's Basilica, and throughout the sixteenth century the Renaissance set of dome and barrel vault would displace use of Gothic ribbed vaults.[342]
The segmental dome of Nicolas V'sChurch of San Teodoro al Palatino in Rome (begun in 1453) is the first known to be built within the city since the middle of the 5th century.[343] UnderPope Sixtus IV additional domed churches were commissioned, such asSanta Maria del Popolo (1472–1478) with its octagonal cloister vault on pendentives, the domedAugustinian basilica ofSant'Agostino, andSanta Maria della Pace (completed around 1490), also an octagonal cloister vault but over an octagonal foundation.[344]
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Begun in 1469, theBasilica of the Holy House atLoreto has an octagonal dome with a Gothic profile similar to that of Florence Cathedral. The dome was built byGiuliano da Sangallo from 1499 to 1500, using aherringbone pattern brick structure containing two iron chains to resist outward thrust. The four towers at the corners of the crossing also contain octagonal cloister vaults at their intermediate level.[345] The central dome is above a structure encased in marble that is purported to be Mary's house,translated fromNazareth to Loreto.[346] The dome over the sacristy, called the Cappella del Tesoro, was painted byMelozzo around 1480 and depicts eight seated prophets around the base of the dome and eight angels in an illusionistic style.[347]
A number of illusionistic dome frescos were painted by Melozzo and his followers in the region. The dome of the Cappella Acconci atthe church of San Biagio [it] inForlì, destroyed in the Second World War, was completed byMarco Palmezzano around 1500 and depicted the legend of the Roman EmperorAugustus seeing a vision ofVirgin and child.[348]
The lower supporting structure ofMontefiascone Cathedral, begun in 1483, includes an octagonal ambulatory vault surrounding a central octagonal dome 11 meters high. It was made a church dedicated toSt. Felicita in 1954. The dimensions of the upper church dome, completed in the seventeenth century, were established in 1483 and may have been intended to have steep double-shell cloister vaulting similar to that of Florence Cathedral.[349]
The church ofSan Michele in Isola has a domed bell tower from around 1460.[350]
Venetian Renaissance architecture, perhaps delayed due to Venice's political independence, was blended with the existingVenetian architectural tradition of Eastern influence.Pietro Lombardo designed the church ofSanta Maria dei Miracoli (1481–89) with a dome over the sacristy. The masonry dome on a shallow drum and pendentives is covered by a taller outer wooden dome with a lantern.[351] In the late fifteenth century, several small central-plan churches were built in Venice with low domes on pendentives in a Byzantine style, such as the churches ofSan Giobbe,San Giovanni Crisostomo, andSanta Maria Formosa.[352]
Šibenik Cathedral uses a cross-domed design on its eastern end byGiorgio Orsini. The dome's arcades were completed in 1491.[86]
In the fifteenth century, pilgrimages to and flourishing trade relations with theNear East exposed theLow Countries of northwest Europe to the use of bulbous domes in the architecture of theOrient. Although the first expressions of their European use are in the backgrounds of paintings, architectural uses followed. The Dome of the Rock and its bulbous dome being so prominent in Jerusalem, such domes apparently became associated by visitors with the city itself. InBruges, TheChurch of the Holy Cross [nl], designed to symbolize theHoly Sepulchre, was finished with a Gothic church tower capped by a bulbous cupola on a hexagonal shaft in 1428. Sometime between 1466 and 1500, a tower added to theChapel of the Precious Blood was covered by a bulbous cupola very similar to Syrian minarets. Likewise, inGhent, an octagonal staircase tower for the Church of St. Martin d'Ackerghem, built in the beginning of the sixteenth century, has a bulbous cupola like a minaret. These cupolas were made of wood covered with copper, as were the examples over turrets and towers in theNetherlands at the end of the fifteenth century, many of which have been lost. The earliest example from the Netherlands that has survived is the bulbous cupola built in 1511 over the town hall ofMiddelburg. Multi-story spires with truncated bulbous cupolas supporting smaller cupolas or crowns became popular in the following decades.[353]
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