The study of thehistory of clothing and textiles traces the development, use, and availability ofclothing andtextiles over human history. Clothing and textiles reflect the materials and technologies available in different civilizations at different times. The variety and distribution of clothing and textiles within a society revealsocial customs andculture.
The wearing of clothing is exclusively a human characteristic and is a feature of most human societies. There has always been some disagreement among scientists on when humans began wearing clothes, but newer studies fromThe University of Florida involving the evolution ofbody lice suggest it started sometime around 170,000 years ago. The results of the UF study show humans started wearing clothes, a technology that allowed them to successfully migrate out of Africa. Anthropologists believe that animal skins and vegetation were adapted into coverings as protection from cold, heat, and rain, especially as humans migrated to new climates.[1]Silk weaving began in Indiac. 400 AD;cotton spinning began in India c. 3000 BC.[2] A recent archaeological excavation from Neolithic Mehrgarh revealed in the article Analysis of Mineralized Fibres from a Copper Bead, that cotton fibers were used in the Indus Valley c. 7000 BC.[3]
Textiles can befelt orspunfibers made intoyarn and subsequentlynetted, looped,knit orwoven to make fabrics which appeared in the Middle East during the lateStone Age.[4] From ancient times to the present day, methods oftextile production has continually evolved, and the choices of textiles available have influenced how people carry their possessions,clothed themselves, and decorated their surroundings.[5]
Sources available for the study of clothing and textiles include material remains discovered viaarchaeology;[6] representation of textiles and their manufacture in art; and documents concerning the manufacture, acquisition, use, and trade of fabrics, tools, and finished garments. Scholarship of textile history, especially its earlier stages, is part ofmaterial culture studies.
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The development of textile and clothing in prehistory has been the subject of a number of scholarly studies since the late 20th century.[7][8] These sources have helped to provide a coherent history of these prehistoric developments. Nonetheless, scientists have never agreed on when humans began wearing clothes and the estimates suggested by various experts have ranged greatly, from 40,000 to as many as 3 million years ago.
Recent studies by Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking—anthropologists at theMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology—have attempted to constrain the most recent date of the introduction of clothing with an indirect method relying onlice. The rationale for this method of dating stems from the fact that the human body louse (P. humanus corporus) cannot live outside of clothing, dying after only a few hours without shelter. This strongly implies that the date of the body louse's speciation from its parent, the human louse (Pediculus humanus), can have taken place no earlier than the earliest human adoption of clothing. This date, at which the body louse diverged from both its parent species and its sibling subspecies, the head louse (P. humanus capitus), can be determined by the number of mutations each has developed during the intervening time. Such mutations occur at a known rate and the date of last-common-ancestor for two species can therefore be estimated from the difference in number of their respective mutations. These studies have produced dates ranging from 40,000 to 170,000 years ago, with a 2003 study speculating a date of 107,000 years ago, and a 2011 study confirming the most likely time of 170,000 ya[9]
Kittler, Kayser and Stoneking suggest that the invention of clothing may have coincided with the northward migration of modernHomo sapiens away from the warmclimate ofAfrica, which is thought to have begun between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago. A second group of researchers, also relying on the genetic clock, estimate that clothing originated between 30,000 and 114,000 years ago.[10] It is important to note that some of these estimates predate the first knownhuman exodus from Africa. However, otherHominidae species, now extinct, may have also worn clothes and appear to have migrated earlier.[11] It follows that the lice which presently infest human clothing may have first been acquired byHomo sapiens in colder climates from the bodies or discarded clothing of these cousinhominins.
Dating with direct archeological evidence produces dates consistent with those hinted at by lice. In September 2021, scientists reported evidence of clothes being made from 90,000 to 120,000 years ago based on findings in deposits inMorocco.[12][13] However, despite these archaeological indications and genetic evidence, there is no single estimate that is widely accepted.[14][15][16][17]
Cave paintings and pictorial evidence suggest the existence of dress in thePaleolithic period, around 30,000 years ago, though these were skindrapes. Textile clothing came to notice around 27,000 years ago, while actual textile fragments from 7000 B.C. have been discovered by archeologists.[18]: 1 [19]
Sewing needles have been dated to at least 50,000 years ago (Denisova Cave, Siberia)—and are likely to have been made byH. Denisova/H. Altai, about 10,000 years before the arrival ofNeanderthal andhuman groups in the cave. The oldest possible example is 60,000 years ago, a needlepoint (missing stem and eye) found inSibudu Cave,South Africa. Other early examples of needles dating from 41,000 to 15,000 years ago are found in multiple locations, e.g. Slovenia, Russia, China, Spain, and France.[20]
The earliest dyedflax fibers have been found in a prehistoric cave in theRepublic of Georgia and date back to 36,000.[21]
The 25,000-year-oldVenus Figurine "Venus of Lespugue", found in southern France in thePyrenees, depicts a cloth or twisted fiber skirt. Some other Western Europe figurines were adorned with basket hats or caps, belts were worn at the waist, and a strap of cloth wrapped around the body right above the breast. Eastern European figurines worebelts, hung low on the hips and sometimes string skirts. However, according to archeologistsJames M. Adovasio, Soffer and Hyland, the garments are more likely ritual wear, real or imagined, which served as a signifier of distinct social categories.[citation needed]
Archaeologists have discovered artifacts from later which appear to have been used in the textile arts: net gauges from 5000 B.C., spindle needles, and weaving sticks.[citation needed]
Knowledge of ancient textiles and clothing has expanded in the recent past due to modern technological developments.[22] It is possible that the next textile to be developed - after using animal skin textiles - may have beenfelt.[citation needed] The first known plant-based textile of South America was discovered inGuitarrero Cave inPeru. It was woven out ofvegetable fiber and dates back to 8,000 B.C.E.[23] Surviving examples ofNålebinding, another textile method emerging after animal skin textile usage, have been found in Israel, and date from 6500 B.C.[24]
A loom is a device or machine used for weaving clothes.[25] From prehistory through the early Middle Ages, for most of Europe, the Near East and North Africa, two main types of loom dominated textile production. These are thewarp-weighted loom and the two-beam loom. The length of the beam determined the width of the cloth woven upon the loom, and could be as wide as 2–3 meters.[26] Early woven clothing was often made of fullloom widths draped, tied, or pinned in place. Large-scale fabrics for clothes were most likely produced on the warp-weighted loom in Central European prehistory, which is evidenced by the countless finds of loom weights from prehistoric settlements. Even small fragments of large textiles produced on the warp-weighted loom can be identified by their starting border.[27]
Knowledge of cultures varies greatly with the climatic conditions to which archeological deposits are exposed; the Middle East, South America and the arid fringes ofChina have provided many very early samples in good condition, along with textile impressions in clay, and graphic portrayals. In northernEurasia,peat bogs, rock salt mines, oak coffins, andpermafrost also preserved textiles, with wholeNeolithic garments surviving, some of the most famous are those associated withÖtzi ("the Iceman"), along with artifacts associated with textile production.[28][29] Early development of textiles in theIndian subcontinent,sub-Saharan Africa and other moist parts of the world remains unclear.
Throughout theNeolithic and Bronze Ages, the fertile grounds of theEurasian Steppe provided a setting for a network of nomadic communities to develop and interact. The Steppe Route has always connected regions of the Asian continent with trade and transmission of culture, including clothing.
Around 114 B.C., theHan dynasty,[30] initiated theSilk Road trade route. Geographically, the Silk Road or Silk Route is an interconnected series of ancient trade routes betweenChang'an (today'sXi'an) in China, withAsia Minor and the Mediterranean extending over 8,000 km (5,000 mi) on land and sea. Trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the greatcivilizations of China, Egypt,Mesopotamia,Persia, the Indian subcontinent, andRome, and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world. The exchange of luxury textiles was predominant on theSilk Road, which linked traders, merchants,pilgrims,monks, soldiers,nomads and urban dwellers from China to theMediterranean Sea during various periods.
The earliest known woven textiles of theNear East may beflax fabrics used to wrap the dead; these were excavated at aNeolithic site atÇatalhöyük inAnatolia. Carbonized, and "protected by several layers of clay/plaster, in an anaerobic milieu.... They were 'baked', or 'steam cooked'"[31] in a fire, and areradiocarbon dated to c. 6000 BC.[32] Evidence exists offlax cultivation from c. 8000 BC in the Near East, but the breeding of sheep with a woolyfleece rather than hair occurs much later, c. 3000 BC.[32] Well preserved linen textiles were found in theCave of the Warrior and are dating around 3200 BC.
InMesopotamia, the clothing of a regularSumerian was very simple, especially in summer. In the winter, clothes were made of sheep fur. Even wealthy men were depicted with naked torsos, wearing only short skirts, known askaunakes, while women wore long dresses to their ankles. The king wore a tunic, and a coat that reached to his knees, with a belt in the middle. Over time, the development of the craft ofwool weaving in Mesopotamia led to a great variety in clothing. Thus, towards the end of the 3rd millennium BC and later men wore tunics with short sleeves and even over the knees, with a belt (over which the rich wore a wool cloak). Women's dresses featured more varied designs: with or without sleeves, narrow or wide, usually long and without highlighting the body[33]
![The god Abu (?) and a female statuette; 2800-2400 BC (Early Dynastic period); from the Square Temple of Abu at Tell Asmar (ancient Eshnunna (Iraq)); National Museum of Iraq. The loin-cloth has become recognizably a skirt and the twisted tufts have shrunk to a fringe[34]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSumerian_Status_from_Tell_Asmar%2c_part_of_the_Tell_Asmar_Hoard.jpg)
Excavations ofIndus Valley civilization sites to date have yielded a few twisted cotton threads, in the context of a connecting cord for a bead necklace.[35] However, terracotta figurines uncovered at Mehrgarh show a male figure wearing what is commonly interpreted to be a turban. A figurine, from the site ofMohenjo-daro, and labeled the "Priest King," depicts the wearing of a shawl with floral patterns. So far, this is the only sculpture from the Indus Valley to show clothing in such explicit detail. Other sculptures ofDancing Girls, excavated from Mohenjo-daro, only show the wearing of bangles and other jewelry.[36] However, the figurines do not provide any concrete proof to legitimize the history of clothing in the Harappan times.
Harappans may have used natural colors to dye their fabric. Research shows that the cultivation of indigo plants (genus:Indigofera) was prevalent.
Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, mentionsIndian cotton in the 5th century BCE as "a wool exceeding in beauty and goodness that of sheep." WhenAlexander the Great invadedIndia, in 327 BCE, his troops started wearing cotton clothes that were more comfortable than their previouswoolen ones.[37]Strabo, another Greek historian, mentioned the vividness of Indian fabrics, andArrian told of Indian–Arab trade of cotton fabrics in 130 CE.[38]
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Evidence exists for production oflinen cloth inAncient Egypt in the Neolithic period, c. 5500 BC. Cultivation of domesticated wildflax, probably an import from theLevant, is documented as early as c. 6000 BC. Otherbast fibers includingrush,reed,palm, andpapyrus were used alone or withlinen to make rope and other textiles. Evidence forwool production in Egypt is scanty at this period, although there are examples of wool tunics fromGreco-Roman Egypt inlate antiquity.[39][40]
Ancient Egyptian spinning techniques included the drop spindle, hand-to-hand spinning, and rolling on the thigh; yarn was also spliced.[39] A horizontal ground loom was used prior to the New Kingdom, when a vertical two-beam loom was introduced, probably from Asia.
Linen bandages were used in theburial custom ofmummification, andart depicts Egyptian men wearing linenkilts and women in narrow dresses with various forms of shirts and jackets, often ofsheer pleated fabric.[39]
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The earliest evidence of silk production in China was found at the sites ofYangshao culture in Xia,Shanxi, where acocoon ofbombyx mori, the domesticated silkworm, cut in half by a sharp knife is dated to between 5000 and 3000 BC. Fragments of primitive looms are also seen from the sites ofHemudu culture inYuyao, Zhejiang, dated to about 4000 BC. Scraps of silk were found in aLiangzhu culture site at Qianshanyang inHuzhou, Zhejiang, dating back to 2700 BC.[41][42] Other fragments have been recovered from royal tombs in the [Shang Dynasty] (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC).[43]
Under the Shang Dynasty,Han Chinese clothing orHanfu consisted of ayi, a narrow-cuffed, knee-length tunic tied with a sash, and a narrow, ankle-length skirt, calledshang, worn with abixi, a length of fabric that reached the knees. Clothing of the elite was made of silk in vivid primary colours.
The Pyu culture, dominant in Upper Burma from the early centuries CE until the 9th century, presents some of the earliest known examples of dress and ornamentation in Myanmar history. Two major archaeological sites — Hanlin and Sri Ksetra — have yielded important insights into Pyu-era clothing and accessories.
Hanlin: Sculptures from Hanlin depict Pyu men wearing headwraps and sometimes crown-like headdresses, while women are shown with elaborate head ornaments similar to those seen later in the Bagan period.[44] Though depictions of ear ornaments are relatively rare, wide, drooping earlobes suggest the use of heavy earrings or plugs.[44] Jewelry such as large bead necklaces appears on both male and female figures.[44] Clothing is rendered faintly, with garments seemingly made of thin material that clings to the body.[44]
Sri Ksetra: Sculptural evidence from Sri Ksetra displays more clearly defined clothing. Pyu women are shown wearing sarong-like skirts, some thin and form-fitting, others thicker and structured.[44] Men appear in loose trousers tied with a belt or knotted sash, comparable to later Bagan-era attire.[44] Some male figures are seen with faintly rendered upper cloth, and both men and women wear bracelets and large ear ornaments.[44]
Hairstyles are typically tied at the crown in topknots or buns, in line with Chinese records describing married Pyu women as styling their hair into buns decorated with silver or pearls.[44] These same Chinese accounts note that Pyu people wore cotton rather than silk due to Buddhist values of non-violence, which discouraged the killing of silkworms.[44] Elite women wore brightly colored skirts and light shawls and were often accompanied by attendants carrying fans.[44]
The earliest evidence of spinning in Thailand can be found at the archaeological site of Tha Kae located in Central Thailand. Tha Kae was inhabited during the end of the first millennium BC to the late first millennium AD. Here, archaeologists discovered 90 fragments of aspindle whorl dated from 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD. And the shape of these finds indicate the connections with south China and India.[45]
The earliest textiles found inSouth America date back to an estimated 12,000 years ago. These woven textiles were excavated from the Guitarrero Cave in Peru. It is assumed that they were being used by settlers for a variety of creations like baskets and wall coverings. Contrary to the assumptions that these early raids in theAndes mountains were executed exclusively by men, Edward A. Jolie's research indicates that women must have been among these settlers as well. His reason for believing so is the general cultural connection of textile weaving being produced by women.[46]
The earliest evidence of weaving inJapan is associated with theJōmon period. This culture is defined by pottery decorated with cord patterns. In a shell mound in the Miyagi Prefecture, dating back about 5,500, some cloth fragments made from bark fibers were discovered.[47]Hemp fibers were also discovered in theTorihama shell mound, Fukui Prefecture, dating back to the Jōmon period, suggesting that these plants could also have been used for clothing. Some pottery pattern imprints depict also fine mat designs, proving their weaving techniques. The patterns on the Jōmon pottery show people wearing short upper garments, close-fitting trousers, funnel-sleeves, and rope-like belts. The depictions also show clothing with patterns that are embroidered or painted arched designs, though it is not apparent whether this indicates what the clothes look like or whether that simply happens to be the style of representation used. Thepottery also shows no distinction between male and female garments. This may have been true because during that time period clothing was more for decoration than social distinction, but it might also just be because of the representation on the pottery rather than how people actually dressed at the time. Since bone needles were also found, it is assumed that they wore dresses that were sewn together.[48]
Next was theYayoi period, during which rice cultivation was developed. This led to a shift from hunter-gatherer communities toagrarian societies which had a large impact on clothing. According to Chinese literature from that time period, clothing more appropriate to agriculture began to be worn. For example, an unsewn length of fabric wrapped around the body, or a poncho-type garment with a head-hole cut into it. This same literature also indicates that pink or scarlet makeup was worn but also that mannerisms between people of all ages and genders were not very different. However, this is debatable as there were probably cultural prejudices in the Chinese document. There is a common Japanese belief that the Yayoi time period was quite utopian before Chinese influence began to promote the use of clothing to indicate age and gender.
From 300 to 550 AD was theYamato period, and here much of the clothing style can be derived from the artifacts of the time. The tomb statues (haniwa) especially tell us that the clothing style changed from the ones according to the Chinese accounts from the previous age. The statues are usually wearing a two-piece outfit that has an upper piece with a front opening and close-cut sleeves with loose trousers for men and a pleated skirt for women. Silk farming had been introduced by the Chinese by this time period but due to silk's cost it would only be used by people of certain classes or ranks.
The following periods were theAsuka (550 to 646 AD) and Nara (646 to 794 AD) when Japan developed a more unified government and began to use Chinese laws and social rankings. These new laws required people to wear different styles and colors to indicate social status. Clothing became longer and wider in general and sewing methods were more advanced.[49]
The classical Filipino clothing varied according to cost and current fashions and so indicated social standing. The basic garments were thebahag and the tube skirt—what the Maranao call malong—or a light blanket wrapped around instead. But more prestigious clothes, lihin-lihin, were added for public appearances and especially on formal occasions—blouses andtunics, loose smocks withsleeves, capes, or ankle-length robes. The textiles of which they were made were similarly varied. In ascending order of value, they wereabaca, abaca decorated with coloredcottonthread,cotton, cotton decorated with silk thread, silk, imported printstuff, and an elegant abaca woven of selected fibers almost as thin assilk. In addition, Pigafetta mentioned both G-strings and skirts ofbark cloth.
Untailored clothes, however had no particular names.Pandong, a lady'scloak, simply meant any natural covering, like the growth on banana trunk's or a natal caul. InPanay, the wordkurong, meaning curly hair, was applied to any short skirt or blouse; and some better ones made of imported chintz or calico were simply called by the name of the cloth itself, tabas. So, too, the wraparound skirt the Tagalogs called tapis was hardly considered a skirt at all: Visayans just called it habul (woven stuff) or halong (abaca) or even hulun (sash).
The usual male headdress was the pudong, a turban, though in Panay both men and women also wore a head cloth or bandana calledsaplung. Commoners wore pudong of rough abaca cloth wrapped around only a few turns so that it was more of a headband than a turban and was therefore calledpudong-pudong—as thecrowns anddiadems on Christian images were later called. A redpudong was called magalong, and was the insignia of braves who had killed an enemy. The most prestigious kind ofpudong, limited to the most valiant, was, like their G-strings, made of pinayusan, a gauze-thin abaca of fibers selected for their whiteness, tie-dyed a deep scarlet in patterns as fine as embroidery, and burnished to a silky sheen. Such pudong were lengthened with each additional feat of valor: real heroes therefore let one end hang loose with affected carelessness.Women generally wore a kerchief, called tubatub if it was pulled tight over the whole head; but they also had a broad-brimmed hat called sayap or tarindak, woven of sago-palm leaves. Some were evidently signs of rank: when Humabon's queen went to hear mass during Magellan's visit, she was preceded by three girls carrying one of herhats. Aheaddress from Cebu with a deep crown, used by both sexes for travel on foot or by boat, was calledsarok, which actually meant to go for water.[50]
Fabric in Ancient Greece was woven on a warp-weighted loom. The first extant image ofweaving in western art is from aterracotta lekythos in theMetropolitan Museum of Art, NY. The vase, c. 550-530 B.C.E., depicts two women weaving at an upright loom. The warp threads, which run vertically to a bar at the top, are tied together with weights at the bottom, which hold them taut. The woman on the right runs the shuttle containing the weaving thread across the middle of the warp. The woman on the left uses a beater to consolidate the already-woven threads.[51]
Dress inclassical antiquity favored wide, unsewn lengths of fabric, pinned and draped to the body in various ways.
Ancient Greek clothing consisted of lengths of wool orlinen, generally rectangular and secured at the shoulders with ornamented pins calledfibulae and belted with a sash. Typical garments were thepeplos, a loose robe worn by women; thechlamys, acloak worn by men; and thechiton, a tunic worn by both men and women. Men's chitons hung to the knees, whereas women's chitons fell to their ankles. A long cloak called ahimation was worn over the peplos or chlamys.
Thetoga ofancient Rome was also an unsewn length of wool cloth, worn by male citizens draped around the body in various fashions, over a simpletunic. Early tunics were two simple rectangles joined at the shoulders and sides; later tunics had sewnsleeves. Women wore the drapedstola or an ankle-length tunic, with ashawl-likepalla as an outer garment. Wool was the preferred fabric, although linen,hemp, and small amounts of expensive imported silk and cotton were also worn.
Fabrics in Europeanneolithic cultures were based onflax andbast fiber. The first wool textiles show up in theLate Neolithic period.[52]\
Scraps of wool fabric from theBronze Age andIron Age have been found in the salt mines ofHallstatt Austria. The fabric scraps were residuals of rags used in the mines. The rags, in turn were scraps from worn out garments.
The Bronze age fabrics are relatively coarse in part due to the coarse wool available from the sheep at the time. The wool had a large amount ofkemp (guard hairs). The weaves, however, included both simpleplain weave (i.e., tabby weave) and more sophisticatedtwill weave. Twill woven fabrics have better drape than plain woven ones. The fabric colors were both natural and dyed.[52]
Iron age fabrics are finer than Bronze Age. The spun thread was very uniform and fine. Some iron age fabrics also had patterns of stripes woven in. The finer fabric has been attributed to the development of breeds of sheep with finer wool and less kemp.[52]
Other Iron Age fabrics from northwestern Europe have been found on bodies preserved by the anaerobic and acidic conditions ofpeat bogs. A Danish recreation of clothing found with such bodies indicates woven wool dresses, tunics and skirts.[53] These were largely unshaped and held in place with leather belts and metal brooches or pins. Garments were not always plain, but incorporated decoration with contrasting colours, particularly at the ends and edges of the garment. Men worebreeches, possibly with lower legs wrapped for protection, although Boucher states that long trousers have also been found.[54] Warmth came from woollen shawls and capes of animal skin, probably worn with the fur facing inwards for added comfort. Caps were worn, also made from skins, and there was an emphasis on hair arrangements, frombraids to elaborateSuebian knots.[55] Soft laced shoes made from leather protected the foot.
The history ofMedieval European clothing and textiles has inspired a good deal of scholarly interest in the 21st century. Elisabeth Crowfoot, Frances Pritchard, and Kay Staniland authoredTextiles and Clothing: Medieval Finds from Excavations in London, c.1150-c.1450 (Boydell Press, 2001). The topic is also the subject of an annual series,Medieval Clothing and Textiles (Boydell Press), edited by Robin Netherton andGale R. Owen-Crocker, Emeritus Professor of Anglo-Saxon Culture at theUniversity of Manchester.
TheByzantines made and exported very richly patterned cloth, woven and embroidered for the upper classes, andresist-dyed andprinted for the lower.[56] By Justinian's time the Roman toga had been replaced by thetunica, or longchiton, for both sexes, over which the upper classes wore various other garments, like adalmatica (dalmatic), a heavier and shorter type of tunica; short and longcloaks were fastened on the right shoulder.
Leggings and hose were often worn, but are not prominent in depictions of the wealthy; they were associated with barbarians, whether European or Persian.[57]
European dress changed gradually in the years 400 to 1100. People in many countries dressed differently depending on whether they identified with the old Romanised population, or the newinvading populations such asFranks,Anglo-Saxons, andVisigoths. Men of the invading peoples generally wore shorttunics, with belts, and visible trousers,hose or leggings. The Romanised populations, and the Church, remained faithful to the longer tunics of Roman formal costume.[58]
The elite imported silk cloth from the Byzantine, and later Muslim, worlds, and also probably cotton. They also could afford bleached linen and dyed and simply patterned wool woven in Europe itself. But embroidered decoration was probably very widespread, though not usually detectable in art. Lower classes wore local or homespun wool, often undyed, trimmed with bands of decoration, variouslyembroidery,tablet-woven bands, or colorful borders woven into the fabric in the loom.[59][60]
Clothing in 12th and 13th century Europe remained very simple for both men and women, and quite uniform across the subcontinent. The traditional combination of short tunic with hose for working-class men and long tunic with overdress for women and upper-class men remained the norm. Most clothing, especially outside the wealthier classes, remained little changed from three or four centuries earlier.[61]
The 13th century saw great progress in the dyeing and working of wool, which was by far the most important material for outerwear. Linen was increasingly used for clothing that was directly in contact with the skin. Unlike wool, linen could be laundered and bleached in the sun. Cotton, imported raw from Egypt and elsewhere, was used for padding and quilting, and cloths such asbuckram andfustian.
Crusaders returning from theLevant brought knowledge of its fine textiles, including light silks, to Western Europe. In Northern Europe, silk was an imported and very expensive luxury.[62] The well-off could afford wovenbrocades from Italy or even further afield. Fashionable Italian silks of this period featured repeating patterns of roundels and animals, deriving fromOttoman silk-weaving centres inBursa, and ultimately fromYuan Dynasty China via the Silk Road.[63]
Cultural and costume historians agree that the mid-14th century marks the emergence of recognizable "fashion" in Europe.[64][65] From this century onwards, Western fashion changed at a pace quite unknown to other civilizations, whether ancient or contemporary.[66] In most other cultures, only major political changes, such as theMuslim conquest of India, produced radical changes in clothing, and in China, Japan, and theOttoman Empire fashion changed only slightly over periods of several centuries.[67]
In this period, the draped garments and straight seams of previous centuries were replaced by curved seams and the beginnings of tailoring, which allowed clothing to more closely fit the human form, as did the use of lacing andbuttons.[68] A fashion formi-parti orparti-coloured garments made of two contrasting fabrics, one on each side, arose for men in mid-century,[69] and was especially popular at the English court. Sometimes just the hose would have different colours on each leg.
Wool remained the most popular fabric for all classes, followed by linen and hemp.[63] Wool fabrics were available in a wide range of qualities, from rough undyed cloth to fine, densebroadcloth with a velvety nap; high-value broadcloth was a backbone of the English economy and was exported throughout Europe.[70] Wool fabrics were dyed in rich colours, notably reds, greens, golds, and blues.[63]
Silk-weaving was well established around the Mediterranean by the beginning of the 15th century, and figured silks, often silkvelvets with silver-giltwefts, are increasingly seen in Italian dress and in the dress of the wealthy throughout Europe. Stately floral designs featuring apomegranate orartichoke motif had reached Europe from China in the previous century and became a dominant design in the Ottoman silk-producing cities ofIstanbul andBursa, and spread to silk weavers inFlorence,Genoa, Venice,Valencia andSeville in this period.[63][71]
As prosperity grew in the 15th century, the urban middle classes, including skilled workers, began to wear more complex clothes that followed, at a distance, the fashions set by the elites. National variations in clothing increased over the century.[72]
By the first half of the 16th century, the clothing of the Low Countries, German states, and Scandinavia had developed in a different direction than that of England, France, and Italy, although all absorbed the sobering and formal influence of Spanish dress after the mid-1520s.[73]
Elaborate slashing was popular, especially in Germany. Black was increasingly worn for the most formal occasions.Bobbin lace arose frompassementerie in the mid-16th century, probably inFlanders.[74] This century also saw the rise of theruff, which grew from a mere ruffle at the neckline of the shirt or chemise to immense cartwheel shapes. At their most extravagant, ruffs required wire supports.
By the turn of the 17th century, a sharp distinction could be seen between the sober fashions favored by Protestants in England and the Netherlands, which still showed heavy Spanish influence, and the light, revealing fashions of the French and Italian courts.
The great flowering ofneedlelace occurred in this period. Geometric reticella deriving from cutwork was elaborated into true needlelace orpunto in aria (called in England "point lace"), which reflected the scrolling floral designs popular for embroidery. Lacemaking centers were established in France to reduce the outflow of cash to Italy.[74][75][76]
According to Wolf D. Fuhrig, "By the second half of the 17th century, Silesia had become an important economic pillar of the Habsburg monarchy, largely on the strength of its textile industry."[77]
Mughal India (16th to 18th centuries) was the most important center ofmanufacturing ininternational trade up until the 18th century.[78] Up until 1750, India produced about 25% of the world'sindustrial output.[79] The largest manufacturing industry in Mughal India wastextile manufacturing, particularlycottontextile manufacturing, which included the production ofpiece goods,calicos, andmuslins, available unbleached and in a variety of colours. The cottontextile industry was responsible for a large part of India's international trade.[80] India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century.[81] Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from theAmericas toJapan.[78] The most important center of cotton production was theBengal Subah province, particularly around its capital city ofDhaka.[82]
Bengal accounted for more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia,[83] Bengali silk and cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan,[84] andBengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold inCentral Asia, where they were known as "daka" textiles.[82] Indian textiles dominated theIndian Ocean trade for centuries, were sold in theAtlantic Ocean trade, and had a 38% share of theWest African trade in the early 18th century, while Indian calicos were major force in Europe, and Indian textiles accounted for 20% of total English trade withSouthern Europe in the early 18th century.[79]
Inearly modern Europe, there was significant demand for textiles from Mughal India, includingcotton textiles andsilk products.[80]European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Mughal India accounted for 95% ofBritish imports fromAsia.[83]
Emphasis was placed on the adornment[85] of women. Even though the purdah was made compulsory for the Mughal women, we see that this did not stop themselves from experimenting in style and attire. Abul Fazal mentions that there were sixteen components that adorned a woman. These not only included clothing but also other aspects like that of oiling the body and iqtar. Mughal women wore long loose jamas with full sleeves and in winters it was accompanied by a Qaba or a Kashmir shawl used as a coat. Women were very fond of their perfumes and scents. Jewellery in the Mughal tradition signified not only religious values but also style statements.
Across North America, native people constructed clothing using natural fibers such as cotton and agave as well as leather skins from animals such as deer or beavers. When traders and colonists came from Europe, they brought with them sheep and travelers highly valued the beaver pelts in particular for their warmth. Beaver pelt trade was one of the first commercial endeavors of colonial North America and a cause of theBeaver Wars.
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During the 18th century, distinction was made betweenfull dress worn at Court and for formal occasions, andundress or everyday, daytime clothes. As the decades progressed, fewer and fewer occasions called for full dress which had all but disappeared by the end of the century. Full dress followed the styles of the French court, where rich silks and elaborate embroidery reigned. Men continued to wear thecoat,waistcoat andbreeches for both full dress and undress; these were now sometimes made of the same fabric and trim, signalling the birth of the three-piecesuit.
Women'ssilhouettes featured small, domedhoops in the 1730s and early 1740s, which were displaced for formal court wear by side hoops orpanniers which later widened to as much as three feet to either side at the court ofMarie Antoinette. Fashion reached heights of fantasy andabundant ornamentation, before new enthusiasms for outdoor sports and country pursuits and a long-simmering movement toward simplicity and democratization of dress under the influence ofJean-Jacques Rousseau and theAmerican Revolution led to an entirely new mode and the triumph of British woollen tailoring following theFrench Revolution.
For women's dresses, Indian cottons, especially printedchintzes, were imported to Europe in large numbers, and towards the end of the period simple whitemuslin dresses were in fashion.
TheGreat Male Renunciation (French:Grande Renonciation masculine) is the historical phenomenon at the end of the 18th century in which wealthy Western men stopped using bright colors, elaborate shapes and variety in their dress, which were left to women's clothing. Instead, men concentrated on minute differences of cut, and the quality of the plain cloth.[86]
Coined by British psychologistJohn Flügel in 1930, it is considered a major turning point in the history of clothing, in which the men relinquished their claim to adornment and beauty.[87]
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During theIndustrial Revolution, fabric production wasmechanised with machines powered bywaterwheels andsteam-engines. Production shifted from small cottage based production to mass production based on assembly line organisation. Clothing production, on the other hand, continued to be made by hand.
Sewing machines emerged in the 19th century[88] streamlining clothing production.
Textiles were not only made in factories. Before this, they were made in local and national markets. Dramatic change in transportation throughout the nation is one source that encouraged the use of factories. New advances such as steamboats, canals, and railroads lowered shipping costs which caused people to buy cheap goods that were produced in other places instead of more expensive goods that were produced locally. Between 1810 and 1840, the development of a national market prompted manufacturing which tripled the output's worth. This increase in production created a change in industrial methods, such as the use of factories instead of handmade woven materials that families usually made.[89]
The vast majority of the people who worked in the factories were women.[where?] Women went to work in textile factories for a number of reasons. Some women left home to live on their own because of crowding at home; or to save for future marriage portions. The work enabled them to see more of the world, to earn something in anticipation of marriage, and to ease the crowding within the home. They also did it to make money for family back home. The money they sent home was to help out with the trouble some of the farmers were having. They also worked in the millhouses because they could gain a sense of independence and growth as a personal goal.[90]
Female fashion in the 1850s through the 1880s accented largecrinolines, cumbersomebustles, and padded busts with tiny waists laced into 'steam-moulded corsetry'.[91] 'Tight-lacing' became part of thecorset controversy: dress reformists claimed that the corset was prompted by vanity and foolishness, and harmful to health. The reported health risks included damaged and rearranged internal organs, compromised fertility; weakness and general depletion of health. Those who were pro-corset argued that it was required for stylish dress and had its own unique pleasures; dress historian David Kunzle theorized that some enthusiastic fans of tightlacing may have experienced sexual pleasure when tightlacing, or byrubbing against the front of the corset, which contributed to the moral outrage against the practice.[92] Doctors such asAlice Bunker Stockham counseled patients against them, particularly during maternity; reformist and activistCatharine Beecher was one of the few to defy propriety norms and discuss the gynecological issues resulting from lifelong corset usage, in particularuterine prolapse.[93][94] Feminist historian Leigh Summers theorized that some moral panic derived from the common but unspeakable idea that tightlacing could be used to induce anabortion.[95]
American women active in theanti-slavery andtemperance movements, having experience in public speaking and political agitation, demanded sensible clothing that would not restrict their movement.[96] While supporters of fashionable dress contended that corsets maintained an upright, 'good figure', as a necessary physical structure for moral and well-ordered society, these dress reformists contested that women's fashions were not only physically detrimental, but "the results of male conspiracy to make women subservient by cultivating them in slave psychology."[91][97] They believed a change in fashions could change the whole position of women, allowing for greater social mobility, independence from men and marriage, the ability to work for wages, as well as physical movement and comfort.[98]
Thedress reform movement had its greatest success in the reform of women'sundergarments, which could be modified without exposing the wearer to social ridicule. Dress reformers were also influential in persuading women to adopt simplified garments for athletic activities such as bicycling or swimming. The movement was much less concerned with men's clothing, although it initiated the widespread adoption of knitted woolunion suits orlong johns.
The 20th century is marked by new applications for textiles as well as inventions in synthetic fibers and computerized manufacturing control systems.
In the early 20th century, workers in the clothing and textile industries becameunionized in the United States.
In the 20th century, the industry had expanded to such a degree that such educational institutions as UC Davis established a Division of Textiles and Clothing,[99] TheUniversity of Nebraska–Lincoln also created a Department of Textiles, Clothing and Design that offers a Masters of Arts in Textile History,[100] andIowa State University established a Department of Textiles and Clothing that features a History of costume collection, 1865–1948.[101] TheSmith College Historic Clothing Collection, maintained by the college's theater department, houses 3000 items, everyday type clothing often overlooked by collections that focus on items that are considered unique or otherwise of interest.[102]
Even high school libraries have collections on the history of clothing and textiles.[103]
The changing lifestyles, activities, and demands of the 20th century favored clothing producers who could more effectively make their products have desired properties, such as increased strength, elasticity, or durability. These properties may be implemented through mechanical solutions such as different weaving and knitting patterns, by modifications to the fibers, or by finishing (textiles) of the textiles. Since the 1960s, it has been possible to finish textiles to resist stains, flames, wrinkles, and microbial life. Advancement in dye technology allowed for coloring of previously difficult-to-dye natural fibers and synthetic fibers.[104]
Following the invention of plastics by petroleum and chemical corporations, fibers could now be made synthetically. Advancements in fiber spinning actuators and control systems allow control over fiber diameter and shape, sosynthetic fiber may be engineered with more precision than natural fibers. Fibers invented between 1930 and 1970 include nylon, PTFE, polyester, Spandex, and Kevlar. Clothing producers soon adopted synthetic fibers, often using blends of different fibers for optimized properties.[104]Synthetic fibers can be knit and woven similarly to natural fibers. Synthetic fibers are made by humans through chemical synthesis as opposed to natural fibers.
The early 20th century continued the advances of the Industrial Revolution. In The procedural loops required for mechanized textile knitting and weaving already used logic were encoded in punch-cards and tapes. Since the machines were already computers, the invention of small-scale electronics and microcontrollers did not immediately change the possible functions of these machines. In the 1960s, existing machines became outfitted with computerized numeric control (CNC) systems, enabling more accurate and efficient actuation. In 1983, Bonas Machine Company Ltd. presented the first computer-controlled,electronic, Jacquard loom.[105] In 1988, the first US patent was awarded for a "pick and place" robot.[106] Advancements such as these changed the nature of work for machine operators, introducing computer literacy as a skill alongside machine literacy. Advances in sensing technology and data processing of the 20th century include the spectrophotometer for color matching and automaticinspection machines.
In January 2015,Google's presidentEric Schmidt cited the massive attention tothe dressJennifer Lopez wore to the2000 Grammy Awards as the motivation for the creation ofGoogle Images search.[107] In 2000,Google Search results were limited to simple pages of text with links, but the developers worked on developing this further, realizing that an image search was required to answer "the most popular search query" they had seen to date: Jennifer Lopez's green dress.[107][108] Designed byDonatella Versace, the dress has been described as "jungle green", "sea green" or "tropical" green, a green dress with touches of blue to give an exotic appearance. It is a see-through silk chiffon dress with a tropical leaf and bamboo pattern, with acitrine-studded crotch.[109] The dress "had a low-cut neck that extended several inches below [the] navel, where it was loosely fastened with a sparkly brooch and then opened out again," exposing Lopez's midriff and then cut along the front of the legs like a bath robe.[110] The dress then drooped behind her on the floor, open at the back.[110][111]
In the 2010s, the global textile industry came under fire for unsustainable practices. The textile industry is shown to have a negative environmental impact at most stages in the production process.[112]
Global trade of secondhand clothing shows promise for reducing landfill use, however international relations and challenges totextile recycling keep the market small compared to total clothing use.[113][114] Over consumption and waste generation in global fashion culture has led brands and retailers worldwide to embracetextile recycling, which has become a key focus of worldwide sustainability efforts.[115] Brands increasingly advertise products made from recycled materials in according with shifting consumer expectations.[116] From 2010, investments in textile recycling companies have boomed to scale recycling solutions to the global demand,[117] withInditex backing textile-to-textile recycling company Circ in July 2022[118] orGoldman Sachs leading an investment in mechanically recycled cotton companyRecover Textile Systems.[119]
Advancements in textile treatment, coating, and dyes have unclear effects in human health, and textilecontact dermatitis is increasing in prevalence among textile workers, and regular people.[120][121]
Scholars have identified an increase in the rate at which western consumers purchase new clothing, as well as a decrease in the lifespan of clothing.Fast fashion has been suggested to contribute to increased levels of textile waste.[122]
The worldwide market for textiles and apparel exports in 2013 according toUnited Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database stood at $772 billion.[123]
In 2016, the largestapparel exporting nations wereChina ($161 billion),Bangladesh ($28 billion),Vietnam ($25 billion),India ($18 billion),Hong Kong ($16 billion),Turkey ($15 billion) andIndonesia ($7 billion).[124]
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link):0 was invoked but never defined (see thehelp page).Timeline of clothing and fashion | ||
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| Middle Ages | ||
| 1500s–1820s Western fashion | ||
| 1830s–1910s Western fashion | ||
| 1920s–1950s Western fashion | ||
| 1960s–1990s fashion | ||
| 2000–present fashion | ||
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| Underwear andlingerie |
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| Glossaries | ||
