According to different scholars, thehistory of anarchism either goes back to ancient and prehistoricideologies andsocial structures, or begins in the 19th century as a formal movement. As scholars and anarchist philosophers have held a range of views onwhat anarchism means, it is difficult to outline its history unambiguously. Some feel anarchism is a distinct, well-defined movement stemming from 19th-centuryclass conflict, while others identify anarchist traits long before the earliest civilisations existed.
Prehistoric society existed without formalhierarchies, which some anthropologists have described as similar toanarchism. The first traces of formal anarchist thought can be found inancient Greece andChina, where numerous philosophers questioned the necessity of thestate and declared the moral right of the individual to live free from coercion. During theMiddle Ages, somereligious sects espoused libertarian thought, and theAge of Enlightenment, and the attendant rise ofrationalism andscience, signalled the birth of the modern anarchist movement.
AlongsideMarxism, modern anarchism was a significant part of theworkers' movement at the end of the 19th century. Modernism, industrialisation, reaction to capitalism and mass migration helped anarchism to flourish and to spread around the globe. Majoranarchist schools of thought sprouted up as anarchism grew as a social movement, particularlyanarcho-collectivism,anarcho-communism,anarcho-syndicalism, andindividualist anarchism. As the workers' movement grew, the divide between anarchists and Marxists grew as well. The two currents formally split at the fifth congress of theFirst International in 1872. Anarchists participated enthusiastically in theRussian Revolution, but as soon as theBolsheviks established their authority, anarchist movements, most notably theMakhnovshchina and theKronstadt rebellion, were harshly suppressed.
Anarchism played a historically prominent role during theSpanish Civil War, when an anarchist territory was established in Catalonia.Revolutionary Catalonia was organised along anarcho-syndicalist lines, with powerfullabor unions in the cities and collectivised agriculture in the country, but ended in the defeat of the anarchists.
In the 1960s, anarchism re-emerged as a global political and cultural force. In association with theNew Left andPost-left tendencies, anarchism has influenced social movements that espouse personal autonomy and direct democracy. It has also played major roles in theanti-globalization movement,Zapatista revolution, andRojava revolution.
Τhere has been some controversy over thedefinition of anarchism and hence its history.[1] One group of scholars considersanarchism strictly associated withclass struggle. Others feel this perspective is far too narrow.[2][3] While the former group examines anarchism as a phenomenon that occurred during the 19th century, the latter group looks to ancient history to trace anarchism's roots.[4] Anarchist philosopherMurray Bookchin describes the continuation of the "legacy of freedom" of humankind (i.e. the revolutionary moments) that existed throughout history, in contrast with the "legacy of domination" which consists of states, capitalism and other organisational forms.[5]
The three most common forms of defining anarchism are the "etymological" (an-archei, without a ruler, but anarchism is not merely a negation); the "anti-statism" (while this seems to be pivotal, it certainly does not describe the essence of anarchism); and the "anti-authoritarian" definition (denial of every kind of authority, which over-simplifies anarchism).[6][7] Along with the definition debates, the question of whether it is a philosophy, a theory or a series of actions complicates the issue.[8] Philosophy professor Alejandro de Agosta proposes that anarchism is "a decentralized federation of philosophies as well as practices and ways of life, forged in different communities and affirming diverse geohistories".[9]
Many scholars of anarchism, including anthropologistsHarold Barclay andDavid Graeber, claim that some form ofanarchy dates back to prehistory. The longest period of human existence, that before the recorded history of human society, was without a separate class of established authority or formal political institutions.[10][11] Long before anarchism emerged as a distinct perspective, humans lived for thousands of years in self-governing societies without a special ruling or political class.[12] It was only after the rise of hierarchical societies that anarchist ideas were formulated as a critical response to, and a rejection of, coercive political institutions and hierarchical social relationships.[13]
Taoism, which developed inancient China, has been linked to anarchist thought by some scholars. Taoist sagesLao Tzu andZhuang Zhou, whose principles were grounded in an "anti-polity" stance and a rejection of any kind of involvement in political movements or organisations, developed a philosophy of "non-rule" in theTao Te Ching and theZhuangzi. Taoists were trying to live in harmony with nature according to the precepts of their religion by doing this.[14][15] There is an ongoing debate whether exhorting rulers not to rule is somehow an anarchist objective.[16] A new generation of Taoist thinkers with anarchic leanings appeared during the chaoticWei-Jin period. Taoism andneo-Taoism had principles more akin to a philosophical anarchism—an attempt to delegitimise the state and question its morality—and werepacifist schools of thought, in contrast with their Western counterparts some centuries later.[17] Formerprofessor emeritus of history atCalifornia State University Milton W. Meyer has stated that in his opinion, early Taoists were "early anarchists" who believed in concepts often found instates such asanti-intellectualism and "laissez-faire".[18] Taoist anarchists did not believe in religious traditions such asrituals and the concepts ofmorality and good and evil.[18]
Some convictions and ideas deeply held by modern anarchists were first expressed inancient Greece.[19][20] The first known political usage of the wordanarchy (Ancient Greek:ἀναρχία) appeared in plays byAeschylus andSophocles in the fifth century BC.[21] Ancient Greece also saw the first Western instance of anarchy as a philosophical ideal mainly, but not only, by theCynics andStoics. The CynicsDiogenes of Sinope andCrates of Thebes are both supposed to have advocated for anarchistic forms of society, although little remains of their writings. Their most significant contribution was the radical approach ofnomos (law) andphysis (nature). Contrary to the rest of Greek philosophy, aiming to blendnomos andphysis in harmony, Cynics dismissednomos (and in consequence: the authorities, hierarchies, establishments and moral code ofpolis) while promoting a way of life, based solely onphysis.[22][23]Zeno of Citium, the founder ofStoicism, who was much influenced by the Cynics, described his vision of an egalitarianutopian society around 300 BC.[24] Zeno'sRepublic advocates a form of anarchic society where there is no need for state structures. He argued that although the necessary instinct ofself-preservation leads humans toegotism, nature has supplied a corrective to it by providing man with another instinct, namelysociability. Like many modern anarchists, he believed that if people follow their instincts, they will have no need of lawcourts or police, no temples and no publicworship, and use no money—free gifts taking the place of monetary exchanges.[10][25]
Socrates expressed some views appropriate to anarchism. He constantly questioned authority and at the centre of his philosophy stood every man's right to freedom of consciousness.[26]Aristippus, a pupil of Socrates and founder of theHedonistic school, claimed that he did not wish either to rule or be ruled. He saw the State as a danger to personal autonomy.[22] Not all ancient Greeks had anarchic tendencies. Other philosophers such asPlato andAristotle used the term anarchy negatively in association withdemocracy which they mistrusted as inherently vulnerable and prone to deteriorate intotyranny.[27]
Among the ancient precursors of anarchism are often ignored movements within ancientJudaism andEarly Christianity. As more contemporary literature shows, anti-state and anti-hierarchy positions can be found in theTanakh as well as inNew Testament texts.[28]
In Persia during the Middle Ages aZoroastrian prophet namedMazdak, now considered a proto-socialist, called for the abolition of private property, free love and overthrowing the king. He and his thousands of followers were massacred in 582 CE, but his teaching influenced Islamic sects in the following centuries.[29] A theological predecessor to anarchism developed inBasra andBaghdad amongMu'tazilite ascetics andNajdiyya Khirijites. This form of revolutionary Islam was not communist or egalitarian. It did not resemble current concepts of anarchism, but preached the State was harmful, illegitimate, immoral and unnecessary.[30]
In Europe, Christianity was overshadowing all aspects of life. TheBrethren of the Free Spirit was the most notable example of heretic belief that had some vague anarchistic tendencies. They held anticleric sentiments and believed in total freedom. Even though most of their ideas were individualistic, the movement had a social impact, instigating riots and rebellions in Europe for many years.[31] Other anarchistic religious movements in Europe during theMiddle Ages included theHussites andAdamites.[32]
20th-century historianJames Joll described anarchism as two opposing sides. In the Middle Ages, zealotic and ascetic religious movements emerged, which rejected institutions, laws and the established order. In the 18th century another anarchist stream emerged based on rationalism and logic. These two currents of anarchism later blended to form a contradictory movement that resonated with a very broad audience.[33]
With the spread of theRenaissance across Europe, anti-authoritarian and secular ideas re-emerged. The most prominent thinkers advocating for liberty, mainly French, were employingutopia in their works to bypass strict state censorship. InGargantua and Pantagruel (1532–1552),François Rabelais wrote of the Abby ofThelema (fromKoine Greek:θέλημα; meaning "will" or "wish"), an imaginary utopia whose motto was "Do as Thou Will". Around the same time, French law studentEtienne de la Boetie wrote hisDiscourse on Voluntary Servitude where he argued that tyranny resulted from voluntary submission and could be abolished by the people refusing to obey the authorities above them. Later still in France,Gabriel de Foigny perceived a utopia with freedom-loving people without government and no need of religion, as he wrote inThe Southern Land, Known. For this, Geneva authorities jailed de Foigny.François Fénelon also used utopia to project his political views in the bookLes Aventures de Télémaque that infuriatedLouis XIV.[34]
SomeReformation currents (like theradical reformist movement ofAnabaptists) are sometimes credited as the religious forerunners of modern anarchism. Even though the Reformation was a religious movement and strengthened the state, it also opened the way for the humanistic values of theFrench Revolution.[35] During theEnglish Civil War,Christian anarchism found one of its most articulate exponents inGerrard Winstanley, who was part of theDiggers movement. He published a pamphlet,The New Law of Righteousness, calling forcommunal ownership and social and economic organisation in small agrarian communities. Drawing on the Bible, he argued that "the blessings of the earth" should "be common to all" and "none Lord over others".[10]William Blake has also been said to have espoused an anarchistic political position.[27]
In theNew World, the first to use the term "anarchy" to mean something other than chaos wasLouis-Armand, Baron de Lahontan in hisNouveaux voyages dans l'Amérique septentrionale, 1703 (New Voyages in Northern America). He describedindigenous American society as having no state, laws, prisons, priests or private property as being in anarchy.[36]
TheQuaker sect, mostly because of theirahierarchical governance and social relations, based on their beliefs of the divine spirit universally within all people and humanity's absolute equality, had some anarchistic tendencies; such values must have influencedBenjamin Tucker the editor and publisher of the individualist anarchist periodicalLiberty.[37][38]
Modern anarchism grew from the secular and humanistic thought of theEnlightenment. The scientific discoveries that preceded the Enlightenment gave thinkers of the time confidence that humans can reason for themselves. When nature was tamed through science, society could be set free. The development of anarchism was strongly influenced by the works ofJean Meslier,Baron d'Holbach, whosematerialistic worldview later resonated with anarchists, andJean-Jacques Rousseau, especially in hisDiscourse on Inequality and arguments for the moral centrality of freedom. Rousseau affirmed the goodness in the nature of men and viewed the state as fundamentally oppressive.Denis Diderot'sSupplément au voyage de Bougainville (The Supplement to the Voyage of Bougainville) was also influential.[39][40]
TheFrench Revolution stands as a landmark in the history of anarchism. The use of revolutionary violence by masses would captivate anarchists of later centuries, with such events as theWomen's March on Versailles, theStorming of the Bastille and theRéveillon riots seen as the revolutionary archetype.[41] Anarchists came to identify with theEnragés (lit. '"enraged ones"') who expressed the demands of thesans-culottes (lit. '"without breeches"'; commoners) who opposed revolutionary government as a contradiction in terms. Denouncing theJacobin dictatorship,Jean Varlet wrote in 1794 that "government and revolution are incompatible, unless the people wish to set its constituted authorities in permanent insurrection against itself".[10][42] In hisManifeste des Égaux (Manifesto of the Equals) of 1801,Sylvain Maréchal looked forward to the disappearance, once and for all, of "the revolting distinction between rich and poor, of great and small, of masters and valets, of governors and governed".[10] The French Revolution came to depict in the minds of anarchists that as soon as rebels seize power they become the new tyrants, as evidenced by the state-orchestrated violence of theReign of Terror. The proto-anarchist groups ofEnragés andsans-culottes were ultimately executed by guillotine.[43]
The debate over the effects of the French Revolution on the anarchist cause continues to this day. To anarchist historianMax Nettlau, the French revolution was a turning point in anarchistic thought, as it promoted the ideals of "Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality". Yet he felt that the outcome did nothing more than re-shape and modernise the militaristic state.[44] Russian revolutionary and anarchist thinkerPeter Kropotkin, however, traced the origins of the anarchist movement further back, linking it to struggles against authority in feudal societies and earlier revolutionary traditions.[45] In a more moderate approach, independent scholar Sean Sheehan points out that the French Revolution proved that even the strongest political establishments can be overthrown.[46]
William Godwin in England was the first to develop an expression ofmodern anarchist thought.[47][48] He is generally regarded as the founder of the school of thought known asphilosophical anarchism.[49] He argued inPolitical Justice (1793) that government has an inherently malevolent influence on society, and that it perpetuates dependency and ignorance. He thought the spread of the use of reason to the masses would eventually cause the government to wither away as an unnecessary force. Although he did not accord the state with moral legitimacy, he was against the use of revolutionary tactics for removing a government from power. Rather, he advocated for its replacement through a process of peaceful evolution.[50][51] His aversion to the imposition of a rules-based society led him to denounce, as a manifestation of the people's "mental enslavement", the foundations of law,property rights and even the institution of marriage. He considered the basic foundations of society as constraining the natural development of individuals to use their powers of reasoning to arrive at a mutually beneficial method of social organisation. In each case, government and its institutions are shown to constrain the development of one's capacity to live wholly in accordance with the full and free exercise of private judgement.[52]
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FrenchmanPierre-Joseph Proudhon is regarded as the founder of modern anarchism, a label he adopted in his groundbreaking workWhat is Property? Or, an Inquiry into the Principle of Right and Government (French:Qu'est-ce que la propriété? Recherche sur le principe du droit et du gouvernement) published in 1840. In it he asks "What is property?", a question that he answers with the famous accusation "Property is theft".[53] Proudhon's theory ofmutualism rejects the state, capitalism, and communism.[54] It calls for a co-operative society in which thefree associations of individuals are linked in a decentralised federation based on a "Bank of the People" that supplies workers withfree credit.[55][56] He contrasted this with what he called "possession", or limited ownership of resources and goods only while in more or less continuous use. Later, Proudhon also added that "Property is liberty" and argued that it was a bulwark against state power.[57]
Mutualists would later play an important role in theFirst International, especially at the first twoCongresses held in Geneva and Lausanne, but diminished in European influence with the rise of anarcho-communism. Instead, Mutualism would find fertile ground amongAmerican individualists in the late 19th century.[56]
In Spain,Ramón de la Sagra established the anarchist journalEl Porvenir in La Coruña in 1845 which was inspired by Proudhon's ideas.[58]Catalan politicianFrancesc Pi i Margall became the principal translator of Proudhon's works into Spanish.[59] He would later briefly become president of Spain in 1873 while leader of the Democratic Republican Federal Party,[59] where he tried to implement some of Proudhon's ideas.[58]
An influential form ofindividualist anarchism called egoism oregoist anarchism, was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, German philosopherMax Stirner.[60][61] Stirner'sThe Ego and Its Own (German:Der Einzige und sein Eigentum; also translated asThe Individual and his Property orThe Unique and His Property), published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy.[61] Stirner was critical of capitalism as it creates class warfare where the rich will exploit the poor, using the state as its tool.[62] He also rejected religions, communism and liberalism, as all of them subordinate individuals to God, a collective, or the state.[63] According to Stirner the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire, without regard for God, state, or morality.[64] He held that society does not exist, but "the individuals are its reality".[65] Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresawunions of egoists, non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will, which proposed as a form of organisation in place of thestate.[66][67] Egoist anarchists claimed that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals.[68] Stirner was proposing an individual rebellion, which would not seek to establish new institutions nor anything resembling a state.[63]
Europe was shocked by anotherrevolutionary wave in 1848 which started once again in Paris. The new government, consisting mostly of Jacobins, was backed by the working class but failed to implement meaningful reforms.Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Russian revolutionaryMikhail Bakunin were involved in the events of 1848. The failure of the revolution shaped Proudhon's views. He became convinced that a revolution should aim to destroy authority, not grasp power. He sawcapitalism as the root of social problems and government, using political tools only, as incapable of confronting the real issues.[69] The course of events of 1848, radicalised Bakunin who, due to the failure of the revolutions, lost his confidence in any kind of reform.[70]
Other anarchists active in the 1848 Revolution in France includeAnselme Bellegarrigue,Ernest Coeurderoy and the early anarcho-communistJoseph Déjacque, who was the first person to call himself a libertarian.[71] Unlike Proudhon, Déjacque argued that "it is not the product of his or her labour that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature".[72] Déjacque was also a critic of Proudhon's mutualist theory and anti-feminist views.[10] Returning to New York, he was able to serialise his book in his periodicalLe Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement social.[73] The French anarchist movement, though self-described as "mutualists", started gaining pace during 1860s as workers' associations began to form.[74]
The decades of the late 19th and the early 20th centuries constitute thebelle époque of anarchist history.[75] In this "classical" era, roughly defined as the period between theParis Commune of 1871 and theSpanish Civil War of 1936 to 1939[76] (or the 1840s[77]/1860s[1][78] through 1939[79]), anarchism played a prominent role inworking-class struggles (alongsideMarxism) in Europe as well as in the Americas, Asia, and Oceania.[75][80] Modernism, mass migration, railroads and access to printing all helped anarchists to advance their causes.[81]
In 1864, the creation of theInternational Workingmen's Association (IWA, also called the "First International") united diverse revolutionary currents - including socialist Marxists, trade unionists, communists and anarchists.[84][85]Karl Marx, a leading figure of the International, became a member of its General Council.[86][87]
Four years later, in 1868,Mikhail Bakunin joined the First International with hiscollectivist anarchist associates. They advocated thecollectivisation of property and the revolutionary overthrow of the state.[88] Bakunin corresponded with other members of the International, seeking to establish a loose brotherhood of revolutionaries who would ensure that the coming revolution would not take an authoritarian course, in sharp contrast with other currents that were seeking to get a firm grasp onstate power. Bakunin's energy and writings about a great variety of subjects, such as education and gender equality, helped to increase his influence within the IWA. His main line was that the International should try to promote a revolution without aiming to create a mere government of "experts". Workers should seek to emancipate their class with direct actions, using cooperatives, mutual credit, and strikes, but avoid participation in bourgeois politics.[89] At first, the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads.[90] Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas ascentralist. Because of this, he predicted that if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of theruling class they had fought against.[91] Followers of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, the mutualists, also opposed Marx'sstate socialism, advocating politicalabstentionism and small property holdings.[86][87]
Meanwhile, an uprising after theFranco-Prussian War of 1870 to 1871 led to the formation of theParis Commune in March 1871. Anarchists had a prominent role in the Commune,[92]next toBlanquists and - to a lesser extent - Marxists. The uprising was greatly influenced by anarchists and had a great impact on anarchist history.[93] Radical socialist views, like Proudhonian federalism, were implemented to a small extent. Most importantly, the workers proved they could run their own services and factories. After the defeat of the Commune, anarchists likeEugène Varlin,Louise Michel, andÉlisée Reclus were shot or imprisoned.[94] TheFrench Third Republic persecuted socialist supporters for a decade. Leading members of the International who survived the bloody suppression of the Commune fled to Switzerland, where theAnarchist St. Imier International would form in 1872.[93]
In 1872, the conflict between Marxists and anarchists climaxed. Marx had, since 1871, proposed the creation of a political party, which anarchists found to be an appalling and unacceptable prospect. Various groups (including Italian sections, the Belgian Federation and theJura Federation) rejected Marx's proposition at the1872 Hague Congress. They saw it as an attempt to create state socialism that would ultimately fail to emancipate humanity. In contrast, they proposed political struggle through social revolution.[95] Finally, anarchists were expelled from the First International. In response, the federalist sections formed their own International at theSt. Imier Congress, adopting a revolutionary anarchist programme.[72]
Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the 1789 French Revolution but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of theFirst International.[97][98] It was the convincing critique ofCarlo Cafiero andErrico Malatesta that paved the way for anarcho-communism to surpass collectivism; they argued that collectivism would inevitably end in competition and inequality.[99] Essayist Alain Pengam comments that between 1880 and 1890 the perspective of a revolution was thought to be closed. Anarcho-communists had anti-organisational tendencies, opposed political and trade-union struggles (such as the eight-hour day) as being overly reformist, and in some cases favoured acts of terrorism.[100] Finding themselves increasingly isolated, they opted to join the workers' movements after 1890.[100]
With the aid of Peter Kropotkin's optimism and persuasive writing, anarcho-communism became the major anarchist current in Europe and abroad—except in Spain where anarcho-syndicalism prevailed.[101] The theoretical work of Kropotkin and Malatesta grew in importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organisationalist andinsurrectionary anti-organisationalist sections.[100] Kropotkin elaborated on the theory behind the revolution of anarcho-communism saying, "it is the risen people who are the real agent and not the working class organised in the enterprise (the cells of thecapitalist mode of production) and seeking to assert itself aslabour power, as a more 'rational' industrial body or social brain (manager) than the employers".[100]
Due to a high influx of European immigrants, Chicago was the centre of the American anarchist movement during the 19th century. On1 May 1886, a general strike was called in several United States cities with the demand of aneight-hour work day, and anarchists allied themselves with the workers' movement despite seeing the objective asreformist.[102] On May 3, a fight broke out in Chicago whenstrikebreakers attempted to cross thepicket line. Two workers died when police opened fire on the crowd.[103] The next day anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square.[104] A bomb was thrown from a side alley.[105] In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other.[106] Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed.[107] Eight anarchists, directly and indirectly related to the organisers of the rally, were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officers. They became international political celebrities in the labour movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide before his execution. The incident became known as theHaymarket affair and was a setback for the movement and the struggle for the eight-hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organise for the eight-hour day was made. It had the secondary purpose of memorialising those workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair.[108] Although it had initially been conceived as a one-off event, by the following year the commemoration of International Workers' Day onMay Day had become firmly established as an international workers' holiday.[109]
Syndicalism saw its heights from 1894 to 1914, with roots reaching back to 19th century labour movements and thetrade unionists of theFirst International.[110][111] Subsequently,anarcho-syndicalism's main tenet that economic struggles come before political ones can be traced back toPierre-Joseph Proudhon, and was the same issue that led to the schism of the First International.[112][113] Anarcho-syndicalists advocated thatlabour syndicates should focus not only on the conditions and wages of workers but also on revolutionary objectives.[110]
The FrenchConfédération Générale du Travail (General Confederation of Labour) was one of Europe's most prominent syndicalist organisations and, while rejectingillegalism, was heavily influenced by anarchism.[114] As agrassroots organisation and lab for revolutionary ideas, its structure was exported to other like-minded European organisations. The organisation would later take a reformist path after 1914.[115]
In 1907, theInternational Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam gathered delegates from most European countries, the United States, Japan and Latin America.[116] A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and trade unionism.[117]Errico Malatesta andPierre Monatte strongly disagreed on this issue. Monatte thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would create the conditions for asocial revolution, while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient.[118][119] He thought the trade-union movement was reformist and even conservative, citing the phenomenon of professional union officials as essentially bourgeois and anti-worker. Malatesta warned that the syndicalist aims were of perpetuating syndicalism itself, whereas anarchists must always have anarchy as their end goal and consequently must refrain from committing to any particular method of achieving it.[120]
In Spain, syndicalism had grown significantly during the 1880s but the first anarchist related organisations didn't flourish. In 1910 however, theConfederación Nacional del Trabajo (National Confederation of Labour or CNT) was founded and gradually became entwined with anarchism.[121] The CNT was affiliated with theInternational Workers' Association, a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922.[122] The success of the CNT stimulated the spread of anarcho-syndicalism in Latin America. TheFederación Obrera Regional Argentina (Argentine Regional Workers' Federation) reached a quarter of a million members, surpassing social democratic unions.[123]
By the early 20th century, revolutionary syndicalism had spread across the world, from Latin America to Eastern Europe and Asia, with most of its activity then taking place outside of Western Europe.[124]
The use of revolutionarypolitical violence, known aspropaganda of the deed, was employed by a small but influential part of the anarchist movement over a roughly four decade period, beginning in the 1880s.[125] It was conceived as a form of insurrectionary action used to provoke and inspire the masses to revolution.[126] This was at a time when anarchists were persecuted and revolutionaries were becoming more isolated.[127][128] The dismemberment of the Frenchsocialist movement and, following the suppression of the 1871 Paris Commune, the execution or the exile of manycommunards topenal colonies favoured individualist political expression and acts.[129] But the prime factor in the rise of propaganda of the deed, as historian Constance Bantman outlines, was the writings of Russian revolutionaries between 1869 and 1891, namely ofMikhail Bakunin andSergei Nechaev who developed significant insurrectionary strategies.[130]
Paul Brousse, a medical doctor and active militant of violent insurrection, popularised the actions of propaganda of the deed.[131][74] In the United States,Johann Most advocated publicising violent acts of retaliation against counter-revolutionaries because "we preach not only action in and for itself, but also action as propaganda".[132] Russian anarchist-communists employed terrorism and illegal acts in their struggle.[133] Numerous heads of state were assassinated or attacked by members of the anarchist movement.[134] In 1901, thePolish-American anarchistLeon Czolgosz assassinated the president of the United States,William McKinley.Emma Goldman, who was erroneously suspected of being involved, expressed some sympathy for Czolgosz and incurred a great deal of negative publicity.[135] Goldman also supportedAlexander Berkman in his failed assassination attempt of steel industrialistHenry Frick in the wake of theHomestead Strike, and she wrote about how these small acts of violence were incomparable to the deluge of violence regularly committed by the state and capital.[136] In Europe, a wave ofillegalism (the embracement of a criminal way of life) spread throughout the anarchist movement, withMarius Jacob,Ravachol, intellectualÉmile Henry and theBonnot Gang being notable examples. The Bonnot Gang in particular justified illegal and violent behavior by claiming that they were "taking back" property that did not rightfully belong to capitalists.[137][138] In Russia,Narodnaya Volya ("People's Will" which was not an anarchist organisation but nevertheless drew inspiration from Bakunin's work), assassinatedTsar Alexander II in 1881 and gained some popular support. However, for the most part, the anarchist movement in Russia remained marginal in the following years.[139][140] In theOttoman Empire, theBoatmen of Thessaloniki were a Bulgarian anarchist revolutionary organisation active 1898-1903.
As early as 1887, important figures in the anarchist movement distanced themselves from both illegalism and propaganda of the deed. Peter Kropotkin, for example, wrote inLe Révolté that "a structure based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite".[141][142]State repression of the anarchist andlabour movements, including the infamous 1894 Frenchlois scélérates ("villainous laws"), following a number of successful bombings and assassinations may have contributed to the abandonment of these kinds of tactics, although state repression may have played an equal role in their adoption.[129] Early proponents of propaganda of the deed, like Alexander Berkman, started to question the legitimacy of violence as a tactic. A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favour of collective revolutionary action through the trade union movement.[143][144][145]
By the end of the 19th century, it became clear that propaganda of the deed was not going to spark a revolution. Though it was employed by only a minority of anarchists, it gave anarchism a violent reputation and it isolated anarchists from broader social movements.[146] It was abandoned by the majority of the anarchist movement in the early 20th century.[147]
Anarchists were involved in theStrandzha Commune andKrusevo Republic established inMacedonia inIlinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising of 1903, and in theMexican Revolution of 1910. Therevolutionary wave of 1917–23 saw varying degrees of active participation by anarchists.[139] Following the failed1905 Russian Revolution, anarchists participated again in both theFebruary andOctober revolutions of 1917 and were initially enthusiastic about theBolshevik cause.[148][149] Prior to the revolution,Lenin had won over anarchists and syndicalists with high praises in his 1917 workThe State and Revolution.[150] However, anarchist objections quickly arose. They opposed, for example, the slogan, "All power to the Soviet".[150] Thedictatorship of the proletariat was incompatible with the libertarian views of the anarchists, and co-operation shortly ended as the Bolsheviks soon turned against anarchists and other left-wing opposition.[151] After their grasp on power was stabilized, the Bolsheviks crushed the anarchists.[152] Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground, or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. Anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled toUkraine.[153] There, theMakhnovshchina established anautonomous region of four hundred square miles with a population of approximately seven million. Anarchists who had fought in theRussian Civil War at first against the anti-BolshevikWhite Army now also fought theRed Army,Ukrainian People's Army, and the German and Austrian forces who fought under theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk.[154] This conflict culminated in the 1921Kronstadt rebellion, a garrison inKronstadt whereBaltic Fleet sailors and citizens made demands for reforms. The new government suppressed the rebellion.[153] TheRevolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine, led byNestor Makhno, continued to fight until August 1921 when it was crushed by the state only months after the Kronstadt rebellion.[155][156]
Emma Goldman andAlexander Berkman, who had been deported from the U.S. in 1917, were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising. Both wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia, criticising the amount of state control the Bolsheviks exercised. For them,Mikhail Bakunin's predictions on the consequences of Marxist rule, that the leaders of the new socialist state would become the new ruling class, had proven true.[91] In 1920,Peter Kropotkin published aMessage to the Workers of the West explaining the false path of state socialism was doomed to fail.[157] Disappointed with the course of events, Goldman and Berkman fled the USSR in 1921, the same year Kropotkin died. By 1925, anarchism was banned under the Bolshevik regime.[158] The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw the Bolsheviks' success as setting an example, andcommunist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, for example, members of the major syndicalist movements of theConfédération Générale du Travail (General Confederation of Labour) andIndustrial Workers of the World left these organisations to join theCommunist International.[159]
From the collapse of anarchism in the newly formedSoviet Union, two anarchist trends arose. The first,platformism, was propagated in the anarchist journalDielo Truda by a group of Russian exiles, including Nestor Makhno. Their main objective, as proponent Piotr Arsinov wrote, was to create a non-hierarchical party that would offer "common organisation of our forces on a basis of collective responsibility and collective methods of action".[160][158] They considered that a lack of organisation was a basic reason of why anarchism had failed. Platformism had the purpose of providing a strategy for class struggle, as Bakunin and Kropotkin had suggested before.[161] The other trend emerged as an organisational alternative to platformism, since it had similarities to party structure. Anarchist intellectualVolin was one of the most notable opponents of platformism, and he pointed toward to what is today known assynthesis anarchism.[162]
During theGerman Revolution of 1918–1919, anarchistsGustav Landauer andErich Mühsam took important leadership positions within the revolutionarycouncilist structures of theBavarian Soviet Republic.[163] In Italy, the syndicalist trade unionUnione Sindacale Italiana (Italian Syndicalist Union), had half a million members. It played a prominent role in events known as theBiennio Rosso ("Two Red Years") andSettimana Rossa ("Red Week"). In the latter, the monarchy was almost overthrown.[164]
InMexico, theMexican Liberal Party was established and during the early 1910s it conducted a series of military offensives, leading to the conquest and occupation of certain towns and districts inBaja California. Under the leadership of anarcho-communistRicardo Flores Magón, its slogan wasTierra y Libertad ('Land and Liberty').[165] Magón's journalRegeneración ('Regeneration') had a significant circulation, and he helped urban workers turn to anarcho-syndicalism. He also influenced theZapata movement.[166]
Ferdinando Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, twoinsurrectionary anarchists and Italian migrants to the United States, were convicted of involvement in anarmed robbery and themurders of two people in 1920. After a controversial trial and a series of appeals they were sentenced to death and executed on 23 August 1927.[167] Following their deaths, critical opinion overwhelmingly held that the two men were convicted largely because of their anarchist political beliefs and wereunjustly executed.[168] After the Sacco and Vanzetti case, and despite worldwide protests and mainstream media headlines, the anarchist movement faded in the United States.[167][169]
Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists.Italian anarchists played a key role in theanti-fascist organisationArditi del Popolo (The People's Daring Ones or AdP), which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions. They achieved some success in their activism, such as repellingBlackshirts in the anarchist stronghold ofParma in August 1922.[170] AdP saw growth after theSocialist Party signed thepacification pact with the fascists.[171] AdP consisted of militant proletarians, anarchists, communists and even socialists. It numbered twenty-thousand members in 144 sections.[172] The veteran Italian anarchist,Luigi Fabbri, was one of the first critical theorists of fascism, describing it as "the preventive counter-revolution".[173] Italian anarchistsGino Lucetti andAnteo Zamboni narrowly failed an assassination attempt againstBenito Mussolini. Italian anarchists formed various partisan groups duringWorld War II.[174]
In France, where thefar-right leagues came close to insurrection in theFebruary 1934 riots, anarchists divided over aunited front policy. One tendency was for the creation of a pack with political parties while others objected.[175] In Spain, theConfederación Nacional del Trabajo (National Confederation of Labour or CNT) initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance. Abstention by their supporters led to a right-wing election victory. In 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing theSpanish Civil War (1936–1939).[176] In response to the army rebellion, ananarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control ofBarcelona and large areas of rural Spain where theycollectivised the land.[177] However, even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with theStalinists, who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from theSoviet Union. Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted bothdissident Marxists and anarchists.[178]
In Germany, the Nazis crushed anarchism upon seizing power.[163] Apart from Spain, nowhere else could the anarchist movement provide a solid resistance to various fascist regimes throughout Europe.[179]
TheSpanish Revolution of 1936 was the first and only time thatlibertarian socialism became an imminent reality. It stood on the ground of a strong anarchist movement in Spain that dated back to the 19th century. Anarchist groups enjoyed broad social support particularly in Barcelona, Aragon, Andalusia, Levante. Anarchism in Spain leaned towardssyndicalism and this yielded to the formation of the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) in 1910.[180] The CNT declared that its aim was a libertariancommunist society and was organising strikes all over Spain.[181] TheFederación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI) was founded later to keep CNT on apure anarchist path amidst dictatorMiguel Primo de Rivera's crackdown on labour movements.[180][182] TheSecond Spanish Republic was pronounced in 1931 and brought to power a Republican–Socialist alliance. But instead of the high hopes of the CNT (mostly amonggradualists) and others, the repression of the labour movement continued. FAI gained more control of CNT.[183]
In 1936, thePopular Front (an electoral alliance dominated by left-wingers) won the elections and months later the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing theSpanish Civil War (1936–1939).[176][184] In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of urban and large areas of rural Spain where theycollectivised the land.[185] Barcelona was the site of the most dramatic change, as workers broke bourgeois habits and even gender hierarchies. Newly formedanarcho-feminist groupMujeres Libres (Free Women) had an active role in the social transformation in Barcelona. This rebellious culture impressed visitors such asGeorge Orwell. Enterprises and farms were collectivised, and working conditions improved drastically. In rural Aragon money was abolished and the economy was collectivised.[186][187] Villages were run by popular assemblies in a direct democratic fashion, without coercing individuals to join.[188] Anarchist militia columns, fighting without martial discipline or military rank, despite shortages in military materials, made significant gains at the war front.[189]
Anarchists of CNT-FAI faced a major dilemma after the coup had failed in July 1936: either continue their fight against the state or join the anti-fascist left-wing parties and form a government. They opted for the latter and by November 1936, four members of CNT-FAI became ministers in the government of the former trade unionistFrancisco Largo Caballero. This was justified by CNT-FAI as a historical necessity since war was being waged, but other prominent anarchists disagreed, both on principle and as a tactical move.[190] In November 1936 the prominent anarcho-feministFederica Montseny was installed as minister of Health—the first woman in Spanish history to become a cabinet minister.[191]
During the course of the events of the Spanish Revolution, anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with theStalinists of theSpanish Communist Party, who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republicans received from the Soviet Union.[192] Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both dissident Marxists and anarchists.[178] The fight among anarchists and communists escalated during theMay Days, as the Soviet Union sought to control the Republicans.[192]
The 1939 defeat ofRepublican Spain marked the end of anarchism's classical period.[193][194] In light of continual anarchist defeats, one can argue about the naivety of 19th-century anarchist thinking—the establishment of state and capitalism was too strong to be destroyed. According to political philosophy professorRuth Kinna and lecturer Alex Prichard, it is uncertain whether these defeats were the result of a functional error within the anarchist theories, asNew Left intellectuals suggested some decades later, or the social context that prevented the anarchists from fulfilling their ambitions. What is certain, though, is that their critique of state and capitalism ultimately proved right, as the world was marching towards totalitarianism and fascism.[195]
As empires and capitalism were expanding at the turn of the century, so was anarchism which soon flourished in Latin America, East Asia, South Africa and Australia.[196]
Anarchism found fertile ground in Asia and was the most vibrant ideology among other socialist currents during the first decades of 20th century. The works of European philosophers, especially Kropotkin's, were popular among revolutionary youth. Intellectuals tried to link anarchism to earlier philosophical currents in Asia, like Taoism,Buddhism andneo-Confucianism. But the factor that contributed most to the rise of anarchism was industrialisation and the new capitalistic era that eastern Asia was entering.[197][198] Young Chinese anarchists in the early days of the 20th century voiced the cause of revolutionary anarcho-communism along with humanism, belief in science and universalism in the journalHsin Shih-chi. Anarchism was growing in influence until the mid-1920s when Bolshevik successes seemed to indicate the way to communism.[199] Likewise in Japan, anarcho-communists such asKōtoku Shūsui,Osugi Sakae andHatta Shuzo were inspired by the works of westerners philosophers and opposed capitalism and the state. Shuzo created the school of "pure anarchism". Because of the industrial growth, anarcho-syndicalism also arose for a brief period, before communists prevailed among workers.[200] Tokyo had been a hotspot for anarchist and revolutionary ideas which were circulating among Vietnamese, Korean and Chinese students who travelled to Japan to study. Socialists by then were enthusiastically supporting the idea of "social revolution" and anarchists were in full support of it.[201] In Korea, anarchism took a different course. Korea was underJapanese rule from 1910 to 1945 and in the early phases of that period, anarchists took part in national resistance, forming an anarchist zone inShinmin Manchuria from 1928 to 1931.Kim Chwa-chin was a prominent figure of the movement.[202][203] In India, anarchism did not thrive, partly because of its reputation for being violent. The fragile anarchist movement developed in India was more non-statist, rather thananti-statist.[204]
Anarchism travelled to theEastern Mediterranean along with other radical secular ideas in the cosmopolitanOttoman Empire. Under the spell of Errico Malatesta, a group ofEgyptian anarchists imported anarchism toAlexandria. It was in a transitional stage during that era, as industrialisation and urbanisation were transforming Egypt. Anarchist activity was spread along with other radical secular ideas within the Islamic Empire.[198] InAfrica, anarchism appeared from within the continent. A large part of African society, mainly rural, was founded onAfrican communalism which was mostlyegalitarian. It had some anarchist elements, without class divisions, formal hierarchies and access to the means of production by all members of the localities. African Communalism was far from being an ideal anarchist society. Gender privileges were apparent, feudalism and slavery did exist in a few areas but not on a mass scale.[205]
Anarchism travelled to Latin America through European immigrants. The most impressive presence was inBuenos Aires, butHavana,Lima,Montevideo,Rio de Janeiro,Santos,São Paulo as well saw the growth of anarchist pockets. Anarchists had a much larger impact on trade unions than their authoritarian left counterparts.[202][206] In Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil, a strong anarcho-syndicalist current was formed—partly because of the rapid industrialisation of these countries. In 1905, anarchists took control of the Argentine Regional Workers' Federation (FORA) in Argentina, overshadowing social democrats. Likewise, in Uruguay, FORU was created by anarchists in 1905. These syndicates organised a series of general strikes in the following years. After this the success of the Bolsheviks, anarchism gradually declined in these three countries which had been the strongholds of anarchism in Latin America.[207] It is worth noting that the notion of imported anarchism in Latin America has been challenged, as slave rebellions appeared in Latin America before the arrival of European anarchists.[208]
Anarchists became involved in the anti-colonial national-independence struggles of the early 20th century. Anarchism inspired anti-authoritarian and egalitarian ideals among national independence movements, challenging the nationalistic tendencies of many national liberation movements.[209]
American anarchism has its roots in religious groups that fled Europe to escapereligious persecution during the 17th century. It sprouted towards individual anarchism as distrust of government was widespread in North America during the next centuries. In sharp contrast with their European counterparts, according to the scholar Marshall, American anarchism was leaning towards individualism and was mainly pro-capitalist, hence described asright-wing libertarianism; however Marshall later stated that capitalism and anarchism are incompatible and American anarchists like Tucker and Spooner were left libertarians.[210] The scholar Martin stated the American anarchists weremutualist anarchists in support of thelabor theory of value.[211] American anarchist justified private property as the safeguard of personal autonomy.[212]Henry David Thoreau was an important early influence on individualist anarchist thought in the United States in the mid 19th century. He was skeptical towards government—in his workCivil Disobedience he declared that"That government is best which governs least". He has frequently been cited as an anarcho-individualist, even though he was never rebellious.[213][23]Josiah Warren was, at the late 19th century, a prominent advocate of a variant of mutualism called equitable commerce, a fair trade system where the price of a product is based on labor effort instead of the cost of manufacturing.[214][215]Benjamin Tucker, also influenced by Proudhon, was the editor of the prominent anarchist journalLiberty and a proponent of individualism.[216][215]
In the shade of individualism, there was also anarcho-Christianism as well as some socialist pockets, especially in Chicago.[217] It was after Chicago's bloody protests in 1886 when the anarchist movement became known nationwide. But anarchism quickly declined when it was associated with terrorist violence.[215][218]
An important concern for American individualist anarchism wasfree love. Free love particularly stressedwomen's rights since most sexual laws discriminated against women, for example, marriage laws andanti-birth control measures.[219] Openly bisexual radicalEdna St. Vincent Millay and lesbian anarchistMargaret Anderson were prominent among them. Discussion groups organised by the Villagers were frequented byEmma Goldman, among others.[220]
A heated debate among American individualist anarchists of that era was thenatural rights versus egoistic approaches. Proponents of naturals rights claimed that without them brutality would prevail, while egoists were proposing that there is no such right, it only restricted the individual. Benjamin Tucker, who tried to determine a scientific base for moral right or wrong, ultimately sided with the latter.[221]
TheModern Schools, also called Ferrer Schools, were schools established in the United States in the early 20th century. They were modelled after theEscuela Moderna ofFrancisco Ferrer, the Catalan educator and anarchist. They were an important part of the anarchist,free schooling,socialist, and labour movements in the United States intending to educate the working classes from asecular,class-conscious perspective. The Modern Schools imparted daytime academic classes for children and nighttime continuing-education lectures for adults. The first and most notable of the Modern Schools was opened in New York City in 1911. Commonly called the Ferrer Center, it was founded by notable anarchists—includingLeonard Abbott, Alexander Berkman,Voltairine de Cleyre and Emma Goldman.[222] The school usedMontessori methods and equipment, and emphasised academic freedom rather than fixed subjects, such as spelling and arithmetic.[223]
European individualist anarchism proceeded from the roots laid byWilliam Godwin andMax Stirner.[226] Many artists, poets and writers interested in freedom were exploring different aspects of anarchism.[227][228] Anarcho-individualists were more interested in personal development, challenging the social norms and demandingsexual freedom rather than engaging in social struggles.[229]
In France, anartistic and individualist trend in anarchism was shaping a newcultural movement at the turn of the century, with less of a social component and more of a personal rebellion against norms.[230]Impressionists andneo-Impressionist painters were attracted by anarchism, most notably FrenchCamille Pissarro.[231] Modernist writers having anarchist tendencies, such asHenrik Ibsen andJames Joyce, led to the impression that "modernism itself can be understood as the aesthetic realisation of anarchist politics".[232]Dadaism arose from individualists aiming to use art to achievetotal freedom. It influenced other currents such as surrealism, and proponents played a significant role in theBerlin rising of 1918.[233] One of the main individualist anarchist journals in France,L'Anarchie, was established in 1905.[234] A notable individualist wasStirneristÉmile Armand who was a defender ofpolyamory and homosexuality.[235]
Following the end of the Spanish Civil War and World War II, the anarchist movement was a "ghost" of its former self, as proclaimed by anarchist historianGeorge Woodcock.[236] In his workAnarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements published 1962, he wrote that after 1936 it was "a ghost that inspires neither fear among governments nor hope among peoples nor even interest among newspapermen".[237] Capitalism continued to grow throughout the post-war period despite predictions from Marxist scholars that it would soon collapse under its own contradictions, yet anarchism gained a surprising surge in popular interest during the 1960s. Reasons for this were believed to be the gradual demystification of the Soviet Union and tensions at the climax of theCold War.[238][239] The New Left, which arose in the 1950s, was a libertarian socialist movement that was closer to anarchism. Prominent thinkers such asHerbert Marcuse andWright Mills were critical of United States and Soviet Marxism.[240]
In France, a wave of protests and demonstrations confronted the right-wing government ofCharles de Gaulle inMay 1968. Even though the anarchists had a minimal role, the events of May had a significant impact on anarchism.[242][243] There were huge demonstrations with crowds in some places reaching one million participants. Strikes were called in many major cities and towns involving seven million workers—all grassroots, bottom-up and spontaneously organised.[244] Various committees were formed at universities, lyceums, and in neighbourhoods, mostly having anti-authoritarian tendencies.[245] Slogans that resonated with libertarian ideas were prominent such as: "I take my desires for reality, because I believe in the reality of my desires."[246] Even though the spirit of the events leaned mostly towards libertarian communism, some authors draw a connection to anarchism.[247] The wave of protests eased when a 10% pay raise was granted and national elections were proclaimed. The paving stones of Paris were only covering some reformist victories.[248] Nevertheless, the 1968 events inspired a new confidence in anarchism as workers' management, self-determination, grassroots democracy, antiauthoritarianism, and spontaneity became relevant once more. After decades of pessimism 1968 marked the revival of anarchism, either as a distinct ideology or as a part of other social movements.[249]
Originally founded in 1957, TheSituationist International rose to prominence during events of 1968 with the principal argument that life had turned into a "spectacle" because of the corrosive effect of capitalism.[250] They later dissolved in 1972.[251] The late 1960s saw the flourish ofanarcha-feminism. It attacked the state, capitalism and patriarchy and was organized in a decentralised manner.[252]Black anarchism began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from aEurocentric demographic.[253]
As the ecological crisis was becoming a greater threat to the planet,Murray Bookchin developed a new wave of anarchist thought. In hissocial ecology theory, he argues that certain social practices and priorities threaten life on Earth. He goes further to identify the cause of such practises as social oppressions. He proposedlibertarian municipalism, the involvement of people in political struggles in decentralized federated villages or towns.[254]
The anthropology of anarchism has changed in the contemporary era as the traditional lines or ideas of the 19th century have been abandoned. Most anarchists are now younger activists informed with feminist and ecological concerns. They are involved incounterculture,Black Power, creatingtemporary autonomous zones, and events such asCarnival Against Capital.[255][256] These movements are notanarchist, but ratheranarchistic.[256]
Mexico saw another uprising at the turn of the 21st century.Zapatistas took control of a large area inChiapas. They were organised in an autonomous, self-governing model that has many parallels to anarchism, inspiring many young anarchists in the West.[257] Another stateless region that has been associated with anarchism is the Kurdish area ofRojava in northern Syria. The conflict there emerged during theSyrian Civil War and Rojava's decentralized model is founded upon Bookchin's ideas of libertarian municipalism and social ecology within a secular framework and ethnic diversity.[258] Chiapas and Rojava share the same goal, to create a libertarian community despite being surrounded by state apparatus.[258]
Anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, andanti-globalisation movements.[259] Maia Ramnath described those social movements that employ the anarchist framework (leaderless, direct democracy) but do not call themselves anarchists as anarchists with a lowercasea while describing more traditional forms of anarchism with a capitalA.[260] Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against meetings such as theWorld Trade Organization in Seattle in 1999,Group of Eight in 2001 and theWorld Economic Forum, as part of anti-globalisation movement. Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property destruction, and violent confrontations with police. These actions were precipitated by ad hoc, leaderless, anonymous cadres known asblack blocs. Other organisational tactics pioneered during this period includesecurity culture,affinity groups and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet.[259][261]Occupy Wall Street movement had roots in anarchist philosophy.[262]
According to anarchist scholarSimon Critchley, "contemporary anarchism can be seen as a powerful critique of the pseudo-libertarianism of contemporaryneo-liberalism [...] One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility, whether sexual, ecological, or socio-economic; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality, impoverishment, and disenfranchisement that is so palpable locally and globally".[263] While having revolutionary aspirations, many contemporary forms of anarchism are not confrontational. Instead, they are trying to build an alternative way ofsocial organization (following the theories ofdual power), based onmutual interdependence and voluntary cooperation, for instance in groups such asFood Not Bombs and inself-managed social centers.[264] Scholar Carissa Honeywell takes the example ofFood Not Bombs group of collectives, to highlight some features of how contemporary anarchist groups work:direct action, working together and in solidarity with those left behind. While doing so, Food Not Bombs providesconsciousness raising about the rising rates of worldhunger and suggest policies to tackle hunger, ranging fromde-funding thearms industry to addressingMonsantoseed-saving policies andpatents, helpingfarmers, and resisting thecommodification of food and housing.[265] Honeywell also emphasizes that contemporary anarchists are interested in the flourishing not only ofhumans, butnon-humans and theenvironment as well.[266] Honeywell argues that their analysis of capitalism and governments results in anarchistsrejectingrepresentative democracy and the state as a whole.[267]
The Paris Commune of 1871 [...] involved the working class taking control of their city and driving out the French government. Free at last to pursue their dreams, socialists, communists, anarchists and radical Jacobins threw their energies into a social experiment on a huge scale.
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