Tamil was thelingua franca for early maritime traders, with inscriptions found in places likeSri Lanka,Thailand, andEgypt. The language has a well-documented history with literary works likeSangam literature, consisting of over 2,000 poems. Tamil script evolved from Tamil Brahmi, and later, the vatteluttu script was used until the current script was standardized. The language has a distinct grammatical structure, with agglutinative morphology that allows for complex word formations.
The earliest extant Tamil literary works and their commentaries celebrate thePandiyan Kings for the organization of long-termTamil Sangams, which researched, developed and made amendments to the Tamil language. Although the name of the language which was developed by these Tamil Sangams is mentioned as Tamil, the period when the name "Tamil" came to be applied to the language is unclear, as is the precise etymology of the name. The earliest attested use of the name is found inTholkappiyam, which is dated as early as the 2nd century BCE.[20][21] TheHathigumpha inscription, inscribed around a similar period (150 BCE) byKharavela, the Jain king ofKalinga, also refers to aTamira Samghatta (Tamil confederacy)[22]
TheSamavayanga Sutra, dated to the 3rd century BCE contains a reference to a Tamil script named 'Damili'.[23]
Southworth suggests that the name comes fromtam-miḻ >tam-iḻ "self-speak", or "our own speech".[24]Kamil Zvelebil suggests an etymology oftam-iḻ, withtam meaning "self" or "one's self", and "-iḻ" having the connotation of "unfolding sound". Alternatively, he suggests a derivation oftamiḻ <tam-iḻ < *tav-iḻ < *tak-iḻ, meaning in origin "the proper process (of speaking)".[25] However, this is deemed unlikely by Southworth due to the contemporary use of the compound 'centamiḻ', which means refined speech in the earliest literature.[24]
The Tamil Lexicon of theUniversity of Madras defines the word "Tamil" as "sweetness".[26] S. V. Subramanian suggests the meaning "sweet sound", fromtam – "sweet" andil – "sound".[27]
David Shulman cites Cuntaramurti'sTevaram, in which he writes toShiva, "Do you know proper Tamil?" and ascribes it the meaning "Do you know how to behave properly as a male lover should? Can you understand the hints and implicit meaning that a proficient lover ought to be able to decipher?" He also states that at some point in history, Tamil meant something like "knowing how to love", in a poetic sense, and that to "know Tamil" could also mean "to be a civilized being".[28]
The closest major relative of Tamil isMalayalam; the two began diverging around the 9th century CE.[31] Although many of the differences between Tamil and Malayalam demonstrate a pre-historic divergence of the western dialect,[32] the process of separation into a distinct language, Malayalam, was not completed until sometime in the 13th or 14th century.[33]
Additionally Kannada is also relatively close to the Tamil language and shares the format of the formal ancient Tamil language. While there are some variations from the Tamil language, Kannada still preserves a lot from its roots. As part of the southern family of Indian languages and situated relatively close to the northern parts of India, Kannada also shares some Sanskrit words, similar to Malayalam. Many of the formerly used words in Tamil have been preserved with little change in Kannada. This shows a relative parallel to Tamil, even as Tamil has undergone some changes in modern ways of speaking.[34][page needed]
According to Hindu legend, Tamil or in personification formTamil Thāi (Mother Tamil) was created by LordShiva.Murugan, revered as the Tamil God, along with sageAgastya, brought it to the people.[39]
Historical origins
Tamil, like other Dravidian languages, ultimately descends from theProto-Dravidian language, which was most likely spoken around the third millennium BCE, possibly in the region around the lowerGodavari river basin. The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto-Dravidian were of the culture associated with theNeolithic complexes of South India,[40] but it has also been related to theHarappan civilization.
Scholars categorise the attested history of the language into three periods: Old Tamil (300 BCE–700 CE), Middle Tamil (700–1600) and Modern Tamil (1600–present).[41]
Brahmi script
About 60,000 of the approximately 100,000 inscriptions found by theArchaeological Survey of India in India are in Tamil Nadu. Of them, most are in Tamil, with only about 5 percent in other languages.[42]
In 2004, a number of skeletons were found buried in earthenwareurns dating from at least 696 BCE inAdichanallur. Some of these urns contained writing inTamil Brahmi script, and some contained skeletons of Tamil origin.[43] Between 2017 and 2018, 5,820 artifacts have been found inKeezhadi. These were sent to Beta Analytic inMiami,Florida, forAccelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating. One sample containingTamil-Brahmi inscriptions was claimed to be dated to around 580 BCE.[44][45]
John Guy states that Tamil was thelingua franca for early maritime traders from India.[46]Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered inSri Lanka and on trade goods in Thailand and Egypt.[47][48] In November 2007, an excavation at Quseir-al-Qadim revealed Egyptian pottery dating back to first century BCE with ancient Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.[47] There are a number of apparentTamil loanwords in Biblical Hebrew dating to before 500 BCE, the oldest attestation of the language.[49]
Old Tamil is the period of the Tamil language spanning the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The earliest records in Old Tamil are short inscriptions from 300 BCE to 700 CE. These inscriptions are written in a variant of theBrahmi script calledTamil-Brahmi.[50] The earliest long text in Old Tamil is theTolkāppiyam, an early work on Tamil grammar and poetics, whose oldest layers could be as old as the late 2nd century BCE.[41][21] Many literary works in Old Tamil have also survived. These include a corpus of 2,381 poems collectively known asSangam literature. These poems are usually dated to between the 1st century BCE and 5th century CE.[41][21]
The evolution ofOld Tamil intoMiddle Tamil, which is generally taken to have been completed by the 8th century,[41] was characterised by a number of phonological and grammatical changes. In phonological terms, the most important shifts were the virtual disappearance of the aytam (ஃ), an old phoneme,[51] the coalescence of the alveolar and dental nasals,[52] and the transformation of the alveolarplosive into arhotic.[53] In grammar, the most important change was the emergence of the present tense. The present tense evolved out of the verbkil (கில்), meaning "to be possible" or "to befall". In Old Tamil, this verb was used as anaspect marker to indicate that an action was micro-durative, non-sustained or non-lasting, usually in combination with a time marker such asṉ (ன்). In Middle Tamil, this usage evolved into a present tense marker –kiṉṟa (கின்ற) – which combined the old aspect and time markers.[54]
Modern Tamil
TheNannūl remains the standard normative grammar for modern literary Tamil, which therefore continues to be based on Middle Tamil of the 13th century rather than on Modern Tamil.[55] Colloquial spoken Tamil, in contrast, shows a number of changes. The negative conjugation of verbs, for example, has fallen out of use in Modern Tamil[56] – instead, negation is expressed either morphologically or syntactically.[57] Modern spoken Tamil also shows a number of sound changes, in particular, a tendency to lower high vowels in initial and medial positions,[58] and the disappearance of vowels between plosives and between a plosive and rhotic.[59]
Contact with European languages affected written and spoken Tamil. Changes in written Tamil include the use of European-style punctuation and the use of consonant clusters that were not permitted in Middle Tamil. The syntax of written Tamil has also changed, with the introduction of new aspectual auxiliaries and more complex sentence structures, and with the emergence of a more rigid word order that resembles thesyntactic argument structure of English.[60]
In 1578, Portuguese Christian missionaries published a Tamil prayer book in old Tamil script namedThambiran Vanakkam, thus making Tamil the first Indian language to be printed and published.[61] TheTamil Lexicon, published by theUniversity of Madras, was one of the earliest dictionaries published in Indian languages.[62]
A strong strain oflinguistic purism emerged in the early 20th century, culminating in thePure Tamil Movement which called for removal of all Sanskritic elements from Tamil.[63] It received some support fromDravidian parties.[64] This led to the replacement of a significant number ofSanskrit loanwords by Tamil equivalents, though many others remain.[65]
According to a 2001 survey, there were 1,863 newspapers published in Tamil, of which 353 were dailies.[66]
Tamil is theofficial language of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and one of the22 languages under schedule 8 of the constitution of India.[78] It is one of the official languages of the union territories ofPuducherry and theAndaman and Nicobar Islands.[79][80] Tamil is also one of the official languages ofSingapore. Tamil is one of the official and national languages of Sri Lanka, along withSinhala.[81] It was once given nominal official status in the Indian state ofHaryana, purportedly as a rebuff toPunjab, though there was no attested Tamil-speaking population in the state, and was later replaced byPunjabi, in 2010.[82] In Malaysia, 543 primary education government schools are available fully inTamil as the medium of instruction.[83] The establishment of Tamil-medium schools has been in process inMyanmar to provide education completely in Tamil language by the Tamils who settled there 200 years ago.[84] Tamil language is available as a course in some local school boards and major universities inCanada and the month of January has been declared "Tamil Heritage Month" by theParliament of Canada.[85][86] Tamil enjoys a special status of protection under Article 6(b), Chapter 1 of theConstitution of South Africa and is taught as a subject in schools inKwaZulu-Natal province.[87][88] Recently, it has been rolled out as a subject of study in schools in theFrench overseas department ofRéunion.[89]
In addition, with the creation in October 2004 of a legal status for classical languages by theGovernment of India and following a political campaign supported by several Tamil associations,[90][91] Tamil became the first legally recognisedClassical language of India. The recognition was announced by the contemporaneousPresident of India,Abdul Kalam, who was a Tamilian himself, in a joint sitting of both houses of theIndian Parliament on 6 June 2004.[92][93][94]
Thesocio-linguistic situation of Tamil is characterised bydiglossia: there are two separate registers varying bysocioeconomic status, a high register and a low one.[95][96] Tamil dialects are primarily differentiated from each other by the fact that they have undergone different phonological changes and sound shifts in evolving from Old Tamil. For example, the word for "here"—iṅku inCentamil (the classic variety)—has evolved intoiṅkū in the Kongu dialect ofCoimbatore,inga in the dialects ofThanjavur andPalakkad, andiṅkai in somedialects of Sri Lanka. Old Tamil'siṅkaṇ (wherekaṇ means place) is the source ofiṅkane in the dialect ofTirunelveli, Old Tamiliṅkiṭṭu is the source ofiṅkuṭṭu in the dialect ofMadurai, andiṅkaṭe in some northern dialects. Even now, in the Coimbatore area, it is common to hear "akkaṭṭa" meaning "that place". Although Tamil dialects do not differ significantly in their vocabulary, there are a few exceptions. The dialects spoken in Sri Lanka retain many words and grammatical forms that are not in everyday use in India,[41][97] and use many other words slightly differently.[98] Tamil dialects includeCentral Tamil dialect,Kongu Tamil,Madras Bashai,Madurai Tamil,Nellai Tamil, Kumari Tamil inIndia;Batticaloa Tamil dialect,Jaffna Tamil dialect,Negombo Tamil dialect in Sri Lanka; andMalaysian Tamil in Malaysia.Sankethi dialect in Karnataka has been heavily influenced byKannada.
The dialect of the district ofPalakkad in Kerala has manyMalayalam loanwords, has been influenced by Malayalam's syntax, and has a distinctive Malayalam accent. Similarly, Tamil spoken in Kanyakumari District has more unique words and phonetic style than Tamil spoken at other parts of Tamil Nadu. The words and phonetics are so different that a person fromKanyakumari district is easily identifiable by their spoken Tamil.Hebbar andMandyam dialects, spoken by groups of TamilVaishnavites who migrated toKarnataka in the 11th century, retain many features of theVaishnava paribasai, a special form of Tamil developed in the 9th and 10th centuries that reflect Vaishnavite religious and spiritual values.[99] Severalcastes have their ownsociolects which most members of that caste traditionally used regardless of where they come from. It is often possible to identify a person's caste by their speech.[100] For example,Tamil Brahmins tend to speak a variety of dialects that are all collectively known asBrahmin Tamil. These dialects tend to have softer consonants (with consonant deletion also common). These dialects also tend to have manySanskrit loanwords. Tamil in Sri Lanka incorporatesloan words fromPortuguese,Dutch, and English.
In addition to its dialects, Tamil exhibits different forms: a classical literary style modelled on the ancient language (sankattamiḻ), a modern literary and formal style (centamiḻ), and a moderncolloquial form (koṭuntamiḻ). These styles shade into each other, forming a stylistic continuum. For example, it is possible to writecentamiḻ with a vocabulary drawn fromcaṅkattamiḻ, or to use forms associated with one of the other variants while speakingkoṭuntamiḻ.[101]
In modern times,centamiḻ is generally used in formal writing and speech. For instance, it is the language of textbooks, of much ofTamil literature and of public speaking and debate. In recent times, however,koṭuntamiḻ has been making inroads into areas that have traditionally been considered the province ofcentamiḻ. Most contemporary cinema, theatre and popular entertainment on television and radio, for example, is inkoṭuntamiḻ, and many politicians use it to bring themselves closer to their audience. The increasing use ofkoṭuntamiḻ in modern times has led to the emergence of unofficial 'standard' spoken dialects. In India, the 'standard'koṭuntamiḻ, rather than on any one dialect,[102][clarification needed] but has been significantly influenced by the dialects ofThanjavur andMadurai. In Sri Lanka, the standard is based on the dialect ofJaffna.
AfterTamil Brahmi fell out of use, Tamil was written using a script calledvaṭṭeḻuttu amongst others such asGrantha andPallava. The currentTamil script consists of 12vowels, 18consonants and one special character, theāytam. The vowels and consonants combine to form 216 compound characters, giving a total of 247 characters (12 + 18 + 1 + (12 × 18)). All consonants have an inherent vowela, as with otherIndic scripts. This inherent vowel is removed by adding atittle called apuḷḷi, to the consonantal sign. For example,ன isṉa (with the inherenta) andன் isṉ (without a vowel). Many Indic scripts have a similar sign, generically calledvirama, but the Tamil script is somewhat different in that it nearly always uses a visiblepuḷḷi to indicate a 'dead consonant' (a consonant without a vowel). In other Indic scripts, it is generally preferred to use a ligature or a half form to write a syllable or a cluster containing a dead consonant, although writing it with a visible virama is also possible. The Tamil script does not differentiate voiced and unvoicedplosives. Instead, plosives are articulated with voice depending on their position in a word, in accordance with the rules ofTamil phonology.
In addition to the standard characters, six characters taken from theGrantha script, which was used in the Tamil region to write Sanskrit, are sometimes used to represent sounds not native to Tamil, that is, words adopted from Sanskrit,Prakrit, and other languages. The traditional system prescribed by classical grammars for writing loan-words, which involves respelling them in accordance with Tamil phonology, remains, but is not always consistently applied.[103]ISO 15919 is an international standard for thetransliteration of Tamil and otherIndic scripts into Latin characters. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set ofBrahmic consonants and vowels toLatin script, and thus the alphabets of various languages, including English.
Apart from the usual numerals, Tamil has numerals for 10, 100 and 1000. Symbols for day, month, year, debit, credit, as above, rupee, and numeral are present as well. Tamil also uses several historical fractional signs.
/h/,/x/,/f/,/z/,/ʂ/ and/ɕ/ are only found in loanwords and may be considered marginal phonemes, though they are traditionally not seen as fully phonemic.
Much of Tamil grammar is extensively described in the oldest known grammar book for Tamil, theTolkāppiyam. Modern Tamil writing is largely based on the 13th-century grammarNaṉṉūl which restated and clarified the rules of theTolkāppiyam, with some modifications. Traditional Tamil grammar consists of five parts, namelyeḻuttu,col,poruḷ,yāppu,aṇi. Of these, the last two are mostly applied in poetry.[108]
Tamil words consist of alexical root to which one or moreaffixes are attached. Most Tamil affixes aresuffixes. Tamil suffixes can bederivational suffixes, which either change the part of speech of the word or its meaning, orinflectional suffixes, which mark categories such asperson,number,mood,tense, etc. There is no absolute limit on the length and extent ofagglutination, which can lead to long words with many suffixes, which would require several words or a sentence in English. To give an example, the wordpōkamuṭiyātavarkaḷukkāka (போகமுடியாதவர்களுக்காக) means "for the sake of those who cannot go" and consists of the followingmorphemes:
Tamil nouns (and pronouns) are classified into two super-classes (tiṇai)—the "rational" (uyartiṇai), and the "irrational" (akṟiṇai)—which include a total of five classes (pāl, which literally means "gender"). Humans anddeities are classified as "rational", and all other nouns (animals, objects, abstract nouns) are classified as irrational. The "rational" nouns and pronouns belong to one of three classes (pāl)—masculine singular, feminine singular, and rational plural. The "irrational" nouns and pronouns belong to one of two classes: irrational singular and irrational plural. Thepāl is often indicated through suffixes. The plural form for rational nouns may be used as anhonorific, gender-neutral, singular form.[109]
Suffixes are used to perform the functions ofcases orpostpositions. Traditional grammarians tried to group the various suffixes into eight cases corresponding to the cases used inSanskrit. These were thenominative,accusative,dative,sociative,genitive,instrumental,locative, andablative. Modern grammarians argue that this classification is artificial,[111] and that Tamil usage is best understood if each suffix or combination of suffixes is seen as marking a separate case.[102] Tamil nouns can take one of fourprefixes:i,a,u, ande which are functionally equivalent to thedemonstratives in English. For example, the wordvazhi (வழி) meaning "way" can take these to produceivvazhi (இவ்வழி) "this way",avvazhi (அவ்வழி) "that way",uvvazhi (உவ்வழி) "the medial way" andevvazhi (எவ்வழி) "which way".
Tamil verbs are also inflected through the use of suffixes. A typical Tamil verb form will have a number ofsuffixes, which show person, number, mood, tense, and voice.
Person and number are indicated by suffixing theoblique case of the relevant pronoun. The suffixes to indicate tenses and voice are formed fromgrammatical particles, which are added to the stem.
Tamil has two voices. The first indicates that the subject of the sentenceundergoes oris the object of the action named by the verb stem, and the second indicates that the subject of the sentencedirects the action referred to by the verb stem.
Tamil has three simple tenses—past, present, and future—indicated by the suffixes, as well as a series of perfects indicated by compound suffixes. Mood is implicit in Tamil, and is normally reflected by the samemorphemes which mark tense categories. Tamil verbs also markevidentiality, through the addition of the hearsaycliticām.[112] Verb inflection is shown below using exampleaḻintukkoṇṭiruntēṉ; (அழிந்துக்கொண்டிருந்தேன்); "(I) was being destroyed".
அழி
ந்து
கொண்டு
இரு
ந்த்
ஏன்
aḻi
ntu
koṇṭu
iru
nt
ēn
root destroy
transitivity marker intransitive
aspect marker continuous
aspect marker continuous
tense marker past tense
person marker first person, singular
Traditional grammars of Tamil do not distinguish betweenadjectives andadverbs, including both of them under the categoryuriccol, although modern grammarians tend to distinguish between them on morphological and syntactical grounds.[113] Tamil has manyideophones that act as adverbs indicating the way the object in a given state "says" or "sounds".[114]
Tamil does not havearticles. Definiteness and indefiniteness are either indicated by special grammatical devices, such as using the number "one" as an indefinite article, or by the context.[115] In the first person plural, Tamil makes a distinction betweeninclusive pronounsநாம்nām (we),நமதுnamatu (our) that include the addressee and exclusive pronounsநாங்கள்nāṅkaḷ (we),எமதுematu (our) that do not.[115]
Syntax
Tamil is a consistentlyhead-final language. The verb comes at the end of the clause, with a typical word order ofsubject–object–verb (SOV).[116][117] However, word order in Tamil is also flexible, so that surface permutations of the SOV order are possible with differentpragmatic effects. Tamil haspostpositions rather thanprepositions. Demonstratives and modifiers precede the noun within the noun phrase. Subordinate clauses precede the verb of the matrix clause.
Tamil is anull-subject language. Not all Tamil sentences have subjects, verbs, and objects. It is possible to construct grammatically valid and meaningful sentences which lack one or more of the three. For example, a sentence may only have a verb—such asmuṭintuviṭṭatu ("completed")—or only a subject and object, without a verb such asatu eṉ vīṭu ("That [is] my house"). Tamil does not have acopula (a linking verb equivalent to the wordis). The word is included in the translations only to convey the meaning more easily.
Vocabulary
The vocabulary of Tamil is mainly Dravidian. A strong sense oflinguistic purism is found in Modern Tamil,[118] which opposes the use of foreign loanwords.[119] Nonetheless, a number of words used in classical and modern Tamil are loanwords from the languages of neighbouring groups, or with whom the Tamils had trading links, includingMalay (e.g.cavvarici "sago" from Malaysāgu), Chinese (for example,campān "skiff" from Chinese san-pan) and Greek (for example,ora from Greek ὥρα). In more modern times, Tamil has imported words fromUrdu andMarathi, reflecting groups that have influenced the Tamil area at times, and from neighbouring languages such asTelugu,Kannada, and Sinhala. During the modern period, words have also been adapted from European languages, such as Portuguese, French, and English.[120]
The strongest effect of purism in Tamil has been on words taken from Sanskrit. During its history, Tamil, along with other Dravidian languages likeTelugu,Kannada,Malayalam etc., was influenced bySanskrit in terms of vocabulary, grammar and literary styles,[121][122][123][124] reflecting the increased trend ofSanskritisation in the Tamil country.[125] Tamil vocabulary never became quite as heavily Sanskritised as that of the other Dravidian languages, and unlike in those languages, it was and remains possible to express complex ideas (including in science, art, religion and law) without the use of Sanskrit loan words.[126][127][128] In addition, Sanskritisation was actively resisted by a number of authors of the late medieval period,[129] culminating in the 20th century in a movement calledtaṉit tamiḻ iyakkam (meaning "pure Tamil movement"), led byParithimaar Kalaignar andMaraimalai Adigal, which sought to remove the accumulated influence of Sanskrit on Tamil.[130] As a result of this, Tamil in formal documents, literature and public speeches has seen a marked decline in the use Sanskrit loan words in the past few decades,[131] under some estimates having fallen from 40 to 50% to about 20%.[65] As a result, the Prakrit and Sanskrit loan words used in modern Tamil are, unlike in some other Dravidian languages, restricted mainly to some spiritual terminology andabstract nouns.[132]
In the 20th century, institutions and learned bodies have, with government support, generated technical dictionaries for Tamil containingneologisms and words derived from Tamil roots to replace loan words from English and other languages.[63] As of 2019,[update] the language had a listed vocabulary of over 470,000 unique words, including those from old literary sources. In November 2019, the state government issued an order to add 9,000 new words to the vocabulary.[133]
Words of Tamil origin occur in other languages. A notable example of a word in worldwide use with Dravidian (not specifically Tamil) etymology isorange, via Sanskritnāraṅga from a Dravidian predecessor of Tamilnārttaṅkāy 'fragrant fruit'. One suggestion as to the origin of the wordanaconda is the Tamilanaikkonda 'having killed an elephant'.[134]Examples in English includecheroot (curuṭṭu meaning 'rolled up'),[135]mango (frommāṅgāy),[135]mulligatawny (frommiḷaku taṇṇīr 'pepper water'),pariah (frompaṟaiyar),curry (fromkaṟi),[136]catamaran (fromkaṭṭu maram 'bundled logs'),[135] andcongee (fromkañji 'rice porridge' or 'gruel').[137]
Section1: Human beings all-of-them freely {are born}. They rights-in-and dignities-in-and equal-ones. They law-and conscience-and intrinsically possessed-ones. They among-one-another brotherly feeling share-in act must.
Article 1: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They possess conscience and reason. Therefore, everyone should act in a spirit of brotherhood towards each other.
^"Tamil, n. and adj".OED Online. Oxford University Press. Retrieved24 January 2023.
^Stein, B. (1977), "Circulation and the Historical Geography of Tamil Country",The Journal of Asian Studies,37 (1):7–26,doi:10.2307/2053325,JSTOR2053325,S2CID144599197. "Tamil is one of the two longest-surviving classical languages in India" (p. 7).
^Steever 1998, p. 6. "one of India's two classical languages, alongside the more widely known Indo-Aryan language Sanskrit".
^Zvelebil 1992, p. 12: "...the most acceptable periodisation which has so far been suggested for the development of Tamil writing seems to me to be that of A Chidambaranatha Chettiar (1907–1967): 1. Sangam Literature – 200BC to AD 200; 2. Post Sangam literature – AD 200 – AD 600; 3. Early Medieval literature – AD 600 to AD 1200; 4. Later Medieval literature – AD 1200 to AD 1800; 5. Pre-Modern literature – AD 1800 to 1900"
^Perumal, A. K. (2005)Manorama Yearbook (Tamil), pp. 302–318.
^Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World, Elsevier, 2010, p. 297
^Menon, A. G. (2009), "Some observations on the sub-group Tamil-Malayalam: Differential realizations of the cluster * ṉt",Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies,53: 87,doi:10.1017/S0041977X00021285,S2CID131480876
^Rajam, V. S. (1985), "The Duration of an Action-Real or Aspectual? The Evolution of the Present Tense in Tamil",Journal of the American Oriental Society,105 (2):277–291,doi:10.2307/601707,JSTOR601707 at pp. 284–285
^Kandiah, T. (1978), "Standard Language and Socio-Historical Parameters: Standard Lankan Tamil",International Journal of the Sociology of Language (16),doi:10.1515/ijsl.1978.16.59,S2CID143499414 at pp. 65–69
^Ramaswamy 1997: "Dravidianism, too, lent its support to the contestatory classicist project, motivated principally by the political imperative of countering (Sanskritic) Indian nationalism... It was not until the DMK came to power in 1967 that such demands were fulfilled, and the pure Tamil cause received a boost, although purification efforts are not particularly high on the agenda of either the Dravidian movement or the Dravidianist idiom of tamiḻppaṟṟu."
^India 2001: A Reference Annual 2001. Compiled and edited by Research, Reference and Training Division, Publications Division, New Delhi: Government of India, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
^Dutta, Sujan (28 September 2004),"Classic case of politics of language",The Telegraph,Kolkata, India, archived fromthe original on 3 February 2013, retrieved20 April 2007,Members of the committee felt that the pressure was being brought on it because of the compulsions of the Congress and the UPA government to appease its ally, M. Karunanidhi's DMK.
^Steever, S. B.; Britto, F. (1988), "Diglossia: A Study of the Theory, with Application to Tamil",Language,64 (1):152–155,doi:10.2307/414796,JSTOR414796
^Thiru. Mu (1978). Kovintācāriyar,Vāḻaiyaṭi vāḻai Lifco, Madras, pp. 26–39.
^Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2013)"Tamil dialects" inTamil language. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
^Schiffman, Harold (1997). "Diglossia as a Sociolinguistic Situation", in Florian Coulmas (ed.),The Handbook of Sociolinguistics. London: Basil Blackwell, Ltd. pp. 205 ff.
^Zvelebil, K. V. (April–June 1972), "Dravidian Case-Suffixes: Attempt at a Reconstruction",Journal of the American Oriental Society,92 (2):272–276,doi:10.2307/600654,JSTOR600654,The entire problem of the concept of "case" in Dravidian will be ignored in this paper. In fact, we might posit a great number of "cases" for perhaps any Dravidian language once we departed from the familiar types of paradigms forced upon us by traditional, indigenous and European grammars, especially of the literary languages. It is, for instance, sheer convention based on Tamil grammatical tradition (influenced no doubt by Sanskrit) that, as a rule, the number of cases in Tamil is given as eight.
^Steever, Sanford B. (2002), "Direct and indirect discourse in Tamil", in Güldemann, Tom; von Roncador, Manfred (eds.),Reported Discourse: A Meeting Ground for Different Linguistic Domains, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, p. 105,ISBN978-90-272-2958-8
^Lehmann, Thomas (1989),A Grammar of Modern Tamil, Pondicherry: Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture, pp. 9–11
^Swiderski, Richard M. (1996),The metamorphosis of English: versions of other languages, New York: Bergin & Garvey, p. 61,ISBN978-0-89789-468-5
^WALS – Tamil, Wals.info, retrieved13 September 2012
^Ramaswamy, S. (2009), "En/gendering Language: The Poetics of Tamil Identity",Comparative Studies in Society and History,35 (4): 683,doi:10.1017/S0010417500018673,S2CID145729544
^"Literature in all Dravidian languages owes a great deal to Sanskrit, the magic wand whose touch raised each of the languages from a level of patois to that of a literary idiom" (Sastri 1955, p. 309); Trautmann, Thomas R. (2006).Languages and nations: the Dravidian proof in colonial Madras. Berkeley: University of California Press. "The author endeavours to demonstrate that the entire Sangam poetic corpus follows the "Kavya" form of Sanskrit poetry" –Tieken 2001, p. 18.
^Vaidyanathan, S. (1967), "Indo-Aryan Loan Words in the Cīvakacintāmaṇi",Journal of the American Oriental Society,87 (4):430–434,doi:10.2307/597587,JSTOR597587
^Takahashi, Takanobu. (1995).Tamil love poetry and poetics. Brill's Indological Library, v. 9. Leiden: E. J. Brill, pp. 16, 18.ISBN90-04-10042-3.
^Pollock, Sheldon (1996). "The Sanskrit Cosmopolis 300–1300: Transculturation, vernacularisation and the question of ideology" in Jan E. M. Houben (ed.),The ideology and status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the history of the Sanskrit language. E. J. Brill, Leiden. pp. 209–217.ISBN90-04-10613-8.
^Ellis, F. W. (1820), "Note to the introduction" in Campbell, A.D.,A grammar of the Teloogoo language. Madras: College Press, pp. 29–30.
^See Ramaswamy's analysis of one such text, theTamiḻ viṭututu, inRamaswamy, S. (1998), "Language of the People in the World of Gods: Ideologies of Tamil before the Nation",The Journal of Asian Studies,57 (1):66–92,doi:10.2307/2659024,JSTOR2659024,S2CID162469583
^Varadarajan, M.A History of Tamil Literature, transl. from Tamil by E. Sa. Viswanathan, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 1988. p. 12: "Since then the movement has been popularly known as thetanittamil iyakkam or the Pure Tamil movement among the Tamil scholars."
^Ramaswamy 1997, "Laboring for language": "Nevertheless, even impressionistically speaking, the marked decline in the use of foreign words, especially of Sanskritic origin, in Tamil literary, scholarly, and even bureaucratic circles over the past half century is quite striking."
^Meenakshisundaram, T. P. (1982)A History of Tamil Language, Sarvodaya Ilakkiya Pannai. (translated) pp. 241–2
Kesavapany, K.; Mani, A; Ramasamy, Palanisamy (2008),Rising India and Indian Communities in East Asia, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies,ISBN978-981-230-799-6
Kuiper, F. B. J. (1958), "Two problems of old Tamil phonology I. The old Tamil āytam (with an appendix by K. Zvelebil)",Indo-Iranian Journal,2 (3):191–224,doi:10.1007/BF00162818 (inactive 2 November 2024),S2CID161402102{{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
Lehmann, Thomas (1998), "Old Tamil", in Steever, Sanford (ed.),The Dravidian Languages, London: Routledge, pp. 75–99,ISBN978-0-415-10023-6
Meenakshisundaran, T.P. (1965),A History of Tamil Language, Poona: Deccan College,OCLC246076230
Murthy, Srinivasa; Rao, Surendra; Veluthat, Kesavan; Bari, S.A. (1990),Essays on Indian History and culture: Felicitation volume in Honour of Professor B. Sheik Ali, New Delhi: Mittal,ISBN978-81-7099-211-0
Ramstedt, Martin (2004),Hinduism in modern Indonesia, London: Routledge,ISBN978-0-7007-1533-6
Rajam, VS (1992),A Reference Grammar of Classical Tamil Poetry, Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society,ISBN978-0-87169-199-6
Talbot, Cynthia (2001),Precolonial India in practice: Society, Region and Identity in Medieval Andhra, New York: Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-513661-6
Tieken, Herman (2001),Kavya in South India: Old Tamil Cankam Poetry, Gonda Indological Studies, Volume X, Groningen: Egbert Forsten Publishing,ISBN978-90-6980-134-6
Varadarajan, Mu. (1988),A History of Tamil Literature, translated by E.Sa. Viswanathan, New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi,OCLC20170197
Zvelebil, Kamil (1992),Companion studies to the history of Tamil literature, Leiden: Brill,ISBN978-90-04-09365-2
Further reading
Fabricius, Johann Philip (1933 and 1972),Tamil and English Dictionary. based on J.P. FabriciusMalabar-English Dictionary, 3rd and 4th Edition Revised and Enlarged by David Bexell. Evangelical Lutheran Mission Publishing House, Tranquebar; called Tranquebar Dictionary.
Freeman, Rich (February 1998), "Rubies and Coral: The Lapidary Crafting of Language in Kerala",The Journal of Asian Studies,57 (1):38–65,doi:10.2307/2659023,JSTOR2659023,S2CID162294036
Keane, Elinor (2004), "Tamil",Journal of the International Phonetic Association,34 (1):111–116,doi:10.1017/S0025100304001549
