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Shinto is a religion native to Japan with a centuries'-long history tied to various influences in origin.[1]
Although historians debate[citation needed] the point at which it is suitable to begin referring to Shinto as a distinct religion,kami veneration has been traced back to Japan'sYayoi period (300 BCE to CE 300).Buddhism entered Japan at the end of theKofun period (CE 300 to 538) and spread rapidly.Religious syncretization madekami worship and Buddhism functionally inseparable, a process calledshinbutsu-shūgō. Thekami came to be viewed as part ofBuddhist cosmology and were increasingly depicted anthropomorphically[citation needed]. The earliest written tradition regardingkami worship was recorded in the 8th-centuryKojiki andNihon Shoki. In ensuing centuries,shinbutsu-shūgō was adopted by Japan's Imperial household. During theMeiji era (1868 to 1912), Japan'snationalist leadership expelled Buddhist influence fromkami worship and formedState Shinto, which some historians regard as the origin of Shinto as a distinct religion. Shrines came under growing government influence and citizens were encouraged to worship theemperor as akami. With the formation of theJapanese Empire in the early 20th century, Shinto was exported to other areas of East Asia. Following Japan's defeat inWorld War II, Shinto was formallyseparated from the state.
Even among experts, there is no definitive agreement on what Shinto is, what it encompasses, or even where the history of Shinto begins. Shinto scholar Shōji Okada argues the bedrock of Shinto was laid between theYayoi period and theKofun period but also lays out four possible points in history when organized Shinto came into being as a religion. These are as follows (with the primary scholar supporting that theory in parentheses):[2]
While there is no agreed-upon argument for when Shinto began as a religion, its foundations can be seen in ancient times. It begins with the development ofnature worship on the Japanese archipelago which saw nature as one withkami, a belief that developed along with the introduction of rice production in theJomon andYayoi periods. This faith was spread across the archipelago through state rituals conducted by theYamato Kingship in theKofun period. Rituals were held at early shrines such asMunakata Taisha andŌmiwa Shrine, forming a template for future Shinto. Upon entering theAsuka period, the establishment of theRitsuryō system led to a systemization of rituals, shrines, and ceremonies and the creation of theDepartment of Divinities which oversaw Ritsuyō rituals.Tang dynasty codes were used as reference for the regulations regarding the management and administration of rituals in this system. As theNara period began, Japanese myths and history were compiled in theKojiki andNihon Shoki, linking theimperial family to these rituals. As the Ritsuryō system was relaxed in theHeian period, the emperor and his attendants became directly involved in the rituals of regional shrines without going through the Department of Divinities.Buddhism then began to fuse with this faith inkami that had originated in ancient times in a process calledshinbutsu-shūgō, but it is also possible to see the opposite, ashinbutsu-bunri mindset, with a clear division being placed between Shinto rituals and Buddhism. TheShugendō andOnmyōdō faiths also developed in this period and had an influence on Shinto.
In the middle ages, there was a movement to create doctrine for Shinto and make it a societal norm among the people. In theKamakura period, theKamakura shogunate’s worship ofkami resulted in protections for shrines throughout the regions of Japan and the widespread worship ofkami such asKumano Gongen,Hachiman,Inari Ōkami,Amaterasu, andTenjin beyond the limited regions in which they had seen significant worship by the common people in ancient times. As this form of Shinto spread, the intelligentsia began experimenting with interpreting Shinto through Buddhist philosophy, a movement which began withRyōbu Shintō established bymikkyō monks, and supported thehonji suijaku theory which claimed thekami were manifestations ofBuddhas. As shrines began to feel threatened by this, they responded by creating systemized theories such as a version of thehonji suijaku theory which placedkami in a superior position in relation to the Buddhas with a foundation in a background belief of Japan as a divine land following Japan’s victory against theMongol invaders. They also createdIse Shinto based on theShintō Gōbusho (神道五部書; "Five Shinto Scriptures"). Later, when many ancient texts were lost in theŌnin War during theMuromachi period, the opportunity allowedYoshida Kanetomo to create false documents which he used to establishYoshida Shinto, the first Shinto theory that was independent from Buddhism but had its own unique doctrine, texts, and rituals. Yoshida Shinto quicky rose to prominence, helped by the societal instability of this period of war, resulting in widespread adoption among the upper class which made it the core form of Shinto at the time. Yoshida Shinto was also involved with the establishment of shrines dedicated to Sengoku Daimyō from theSengoku period to theAzuchi–Momoyama period.
Japan’s modern era primarily consists of theEdo period. During this period, theTokugawa shogunate reformed the administration of shrines, and the improved societal stability and transportation infrastructure of the time led to increased religious activity among the common people in the form of pilgrimages toIse Shrine and people-led festivals. In contrast, Buddhism, which had previously enjoyed a position as the state religion, had entered a period of philosophical stagnation. As this was happening, mainstream Shinto philosophies of the early Edo period become more closely linked with theCheng-Zhu school ofNeo-Confucianism as they became critical of Buddhism, leading to a shift from Buddhist Shinto toConfucian Shinto such asSuika Shinto. In the mid Edo period, there came a development of the academic field ofkokugaku which integrated Shinto into the empirical study of Japanese classics, such as the study of poetry and linguistics.Kokugaku engaged with Confucian Shinto and flourished in this period.Kokugaku scholarMotoori Norinaga strongly criticized the practice of interpreting Shinto through Buddhism or Confucianism, which had been transmitted from China, and was a proponent for the empirical research of Shinto texts. In the late Edo period,Hirata Atsutane’sFukko Shinto adopted these religious studies of Motoori, though modified some aspects. Fukko Shinto placed a strong emphasis on the afterlife after being influenced byChristianity and also claimed all the myths of the world, from China, India, and in Christianity, were variations on Japanese myth. It then became involved in the restoration of imperial rule. However, Motoori’s arguments faced criticism in theMito Domain for rejecting Confucianism. In this region, scholars fusedkokugaku with the Confucian ethics of loyalty and filial piety to createlate Mitogaku. By connecting Confucianism and Shinto, Late Mitogaku advocated for the imperial rule of Japan, becoming fertile grounds for the development ofshishi philosophies of the final years of the Edo period.
After the shogunate fell and Japan entered the modern era, the Decree for the Restoration of Imperial Rule tied Shinto to government in a move by the new government tounify ritual and rule. TheTaikyo Proclamation led to the spread of Shinto proselytization, while theShinbutsu Hanzen-rei (神仏判然令; "Order for Distinguishing Shinto and Buddhism") aimed to separate Shinto and Buddhism, resulting in an extreme form ofhaibutsu kishaku in which many Buddhist temples and statues were destroyed. TheMeiji government then formed a system forState Shinto, where the state administrated over shrines with the stance that the rituals of Shinto were state rituals. Afterwards, the faction supporting the union of government and religion were ousted by those seeking aseparation of church and state. This resulted in Shinto being defined as non-religious and the creation ofSecular Shrine Theory which provided shines with status as government organizations, and regional shrines were cut off from government funding. In response, theShinto priesthood formed theNational Association of Shinto Priests and began a movement to reinstate the Department of Divinities in order to receive public funds. Members of the Shinto priesthood who opposed the government as well as Shinto philosophers criticized the State Shinto system for defining Shinto as non-religious and for eliminating the teaching of Shinto philosophy, and private Shinto organizations were established in the form of the thirteen sects ofSect Shinto. After the end ofWorld War II, theSupreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) issued the Religious Corporations Order which identified State Shinto as a source of nationalistic ideology and changed shrines into religious corporations under the umbrella of theAssociation of Shinto Shrines. Shrines lost their status as government organizations, but gained the freedom to conduct religious activities, allowing some shrines to achieve a financial prosperity previously unattainable. Now, shrines play a steady role in annual events and ceremonies for life events.
As rice cultivation spread through theJapanese archipelago from the late Jomon into the Yayoi period, a type of nature worship based on the cultivation of rice also arose. This belief was based on the idea that nature and thekami were one, and that sacrifices and rituals prevented thekami from ravishing the land in the form of natural disasters.[3]
In the Yayoi period, several Shinto practices appeared that had clear similarities to those seen in theKojiki andNihon Shoki. Archeological finds supporting this include finds believed to be in a similar vein as shrines, such as a new style of square-shaped burial mounds (方形周溝墓,hōkei shūkōbo), bronze ritualistic items from archeological sites including theKōjindani Site, and large buildings with freestanding roof pillars (独立棟持柱,dokuritsu munamochi-bashira), an architectural feature in common with later shrines, an example of which is seen at theIkegami-Sone Site. Charred bones of deer and other animals used for divination have also been found in the vicinity of such sites, as well asgrave goods such as mirrors, swords, and beads.[4]
Around the3rd century, what would become theMakimuku ruins began to develop in theYamato Province nearMount Miwa, and early, large-scalezenpokoenfun began to emerge as well, such as theHashihakakofun. It is believed theYamato Kingship was established in this period. The 3rd century is also the estimated time of creation of the triangular-rimmedshinjūkyō passed down by theKagami-tsukurinimasu Amateru-mitama Jinja (鏡作坐天照御魂神社) shrine as well as the iron sword excavated atIsonokami Shrine. These objects resemble the holy sword and mirror described in theKojiki andNihon Shiki, and allowed for a clearer understanding of elements that would lead to the Shinto faith later.[5]
The first state Shinto rituals occurred in the 4th century. Large numbers of religious artifacts such as bronze mirrors and iron weapons with similarities to thekofun grave goods of the late 4th century in the Yamato region have been excavated fromMunakata Taisha onOkinoshima inMunakata, Fukuoka. This indicates that Yamato Kingship rituals began on Okinoshima prior to this.[6] Ritual objects such as small bronze mirrors have also been excavated at Mount Miwa which match those at Munakata Taisha, which lends credibility to the theory that rituals at Mount Miwa (home later to theŌmiwa Shrine) began at approximately the same time as those on Okinoshima.[7] It is believed that the 4th century, with the rituals held at the early shrines of Munaka Taisha and Ōmiwa Shrine, was when the base of the following Shinto faith developed.[8]
The 5th century sees the spreadsekisei mozōhin (石製模造品; small pieces of stone shaped like larger objects such as tools) across Japan. These were originally used in rituals in the Yamato region, and their spread suggests the Yamato Kingship expanded across the Japanese archipelago.[9] Of particular note are the manysekisei mozōhin ofhaji pottery,takatsuki tables, andmagatama beads discovered on the eastern side of the country at the Miyanaka Jōri Site Ōfunatsu ofKashima, Ibaraki or the Odaki Ryōgenji Site inMinamibōsō,Chiba, which indicates Yamato Kingship rituals were taking place in these locations.[10] It is believed the Imperial Court later valued the rituals in these regions which led to the establishment of the Kashima Shrine andAwa Shrine with defined holy precincts (神郡,shingun).[11]
Other religious objects of the 5th century include iron grave goods inkofun, as well assue pottery and cloth excavated from various sites including the Senzokudai Site in Chiba Prefecture and Shussaku Site in Ehime Prefecture, and, therefore, this era is believed to be when the precursors of modern Shinto religious offerings (幣帛,heihaku) developed.[12]
The 6th century brings changes inkofun funerary rituals and a shift from vertical stone burial chambers to horizontal. The exact nature of thesekofun funerary rituals was determined by researchinghaniwa clay figures depicting people using weapons or tools, gifted animals, and nobles riding horses. These figures give a concrete view at these rituals.[13] The shift from vertical to horizontal stone burial chambers suggests the development of beliefs about the nature of the soul in which the soul leaves the body after death. This can be seen in myths in theKojiki andNihon Shiki and is believed to have had an impact on the formation of belief inkami with humanlike aspects.[13]
In the 7th century, the establishment of theRitsuryō system began primarily during theTenmu period andJitō period, during which Shinto underwent a major transformation. The systemization of Shinto and the development of an institutional framework of its rituals progressed based on the faiths formed from the Kofun period onward while incorporating aspects from external beliefs, as ritual systems, shrines, and ceremonies developed.
The public ritual system of theritsuryō state was developed in accordance with theJingi Ryō (神祇令; lit. "Code of the Kami"). It is believed theJingo Ryō was established at the same stage as theAsuka Kiyomihara Code and that codes from theTang dynasty were used as reference.[14] While the regulations for the management and administration of the rituals did follow in accordance with this code, the nature of the rituals was almost entirely unique to Japan, meaning theJingiRyō can be thought of as a reformation of Japan-specific religious beliefs based on the Tang code.[15]
TheJingi Ryō established theDepartment of Divinities, the administrative department for overseeing rituals, as well as the director position thejingi-haku (神祇伯). It was under thisjingi-haku that 13 types of rituals were established as state rituals and regulated to occur in accordance with the seasons. These were theKinen-sai,Chinka-Sai (鎮花祭),Kanmiso-no-Matsuri (神衣祭),Saikusa-no-Matsuri (三枝祭),Ōimi-no-Matsuri (大忌祭),Tatsuta Matsuri (龍田祭),Hoshizume-no-Matsuri (鎮火祭),Michiae-no-Matsuri (道饗祭),Tsukinami-no-Matsuri (月次祭),Kannamesai Festival,Ainame-no-Matsuri (相嘗祭),Mitamashizume-no-Matsuri (鎮魂祭), andDaijō-sai (Niiname-no-Matsuri).[16] The Kinen-sai held in the second month of the lunar calendar as an advance celebration of good harvest. TheChinka-Sai held in the third month of the lunar calendar as flowers petals scatter is held to send off evil spirits. TheTatsuta Matsuri, a prayer to prevent wind damage from typhoons, and theOimi-no-Matsuri, a prayer to prevent water disasters, are both held in the fourth and eleventh months of the lunar calendar. And just as theNiiname-no-Matsuri held in the eleventh month of the lunar calendar was to show gratitude for freshly harvested grain, the Ritsuryō rituals were characterized by a strong link with the harvest, aligning with the change of the seasons to show gratitude for the blessings of nature which were needed for agriculture.[17] Regulations required the purification of a government official, and there are two types of purifications within the Ritsuryō rituals: thearaimi (荒忌), and themaimi (真忌).[18] Themaimi consists of the official abstaining entirely from their duties to undergo purification as they dedicate themselves to preparing for the ritual. Thearaimi only requires abstaining from therokujiki no kinki (六色の禁法; lit. "six types of taboos") while continuing their duties.[18] The six taboos are mourning, visiting the ill, consuming the meat of four-legged mammals, carrying out executions or sentencing criminals, playing music, and coming in contact with impurities. The government officials could be punished if they failed to conform to this requirement. The festivals were divided into major, medium, and minor rituals depending on the length of the time required for the purifications. For example, a major ritual (of which there is only theDaijō-sai) requires anaraimi of one month and amaimi of three days.[18]
Out of the several Ritsuryō state rituals, the Kinen-sai,Tsukinami-no-Matsuri, andOnie-matsuri included a ritual format unique to Japan calledheibu (班幣).[19] This involved the Department of Divinities calling an assembly of priests from every formally recognized shrine in the country, where theNakatomi clan performed ritual prayers and theInbe clan distributed religious offerings calledheihaku to the priests. The priests took theheihaku to offer to thekami of each of their shrines.[20] There were also regulations for theŌharae-shiki, in which the Nakatomi clan first offered anōnusa to the emperor, and theYamatonoaya clan and Kawachinohumi clan offered aharae-no-tachi (祓刀; sword used for purification) as well as performed the reading of ritual incantations. Then, a large group of male and female court officials gathered at theharaido (祓所; purified ritual location) in thesuzakumon where the Nakatomi clan read purification incantations and divinators of the imperial court performed the purification.[21]
Up until this point, many shrines had no actual buildings, but these buildings started to become established in this period, particularly at officially recognized shrines. Theshinkai ranking system was also established at this time, and shrines at which miracles occurred were assigned ajinpu (神封) (a shrine equivalent of afuko (封戸) which established the shrine as a partial tax recipient) and ashinkai rank, and particularly venerated shrines were given ashingun holy precinct.[22] Some shrines also received a type of citizen assigned to the shrine known askanbe (神戸) as well as shrine-owned farm fields calledkanda (神田) in which they worked to support the economic requirements of the shrine.[22] Regions without officially-recognized shrines continued without physical shrine buildings. Someone was selected to act as thehafuri (祝), a person in charge of rituals, and they conducted agriculture-related rituals in spring, when the rice was planted, and fall, at harvest, to thank thekami. However, as time went on, government officials began visiting these places where the rituals were held where they informed the locals of the country's laws, adding an official aspect to these rituals, and the establishment of physical shrines spread across the country.
The ritual system of theIse Shrine was also developed during this period, and, during the reign of Emperor Temmu, theyuki (悠紀) andsuki (主基) (regions to provide rice for the emperor's ascension ceremony) were selected through divination, and the emperor would dine withAmaterasu while facing the direction of Ise, which formed theDaijō-sai as it is known in its modern form. Thesaiō system also came to be in which an unmarried female member of the imperial family was sent to serve at the Ise Shrine, and the practice at the Ise Shrine ofshikinen-sengū (式年遷宮) began during the reign ofEmpress Jitō which is the practice of rebuilding all the shrines buildings at once every approximately 20 years.
Shinto had an influence on the compilation of national history, a duty which was formed during the reign of Emperor Temmu and developed further during the reign ofEmpress Genmei. TheKojiki andNihonshiki were compiled during the 8th century and contain Japanese myths in the form of tales from theAge of the Gods, as well as stories of Emperor Jimmu and how he established the country. The compilations were the basis of the imperial family's claim as the rightful rulers.[23] Efforts were made to link ancient rituals to thekami believed to be the progenitor of the imperial family, such as by assuming thekami ofMunakata Taisha (the Three Female Deities of Munakata) are the three goddesses birthed by Amaterasu, while the origins of the court ritual clans such as the Nakatomi clan, Inbe clan, and Sarume-no-kimi people were sought after in the world of myth.
The Ritsuryō ritual system transformed during the Heian period (794–1185) as the Ritsuryō system was relaxed.
In 798, it became impossible to maintain theheibu system of distributing religious offerings to all shrines in the country, resulting in the shrines being divided into two types: thekanpeisha (官幣社) which continued to receive their religious offerings from the Department of Divinities, andkokuheisha (国幣社) which received began to receive theirs from their provincial government. Shrines were further divided in greater and lesser shrines, as well as some shrines with particularly powerful miraculous powers classified asmyōjin taisha (名神大社). These classifications were outlined in theEngishiki Jinmyōchō of 927.[24]
As the imperial court expanded along with the relaxation of the Ritsuryō system, the emperor and their close advisors became directly involved in regular rituals of shrines that had particularly strong connections to the imperial court, rather than the Department of Divinities overseeing this duty, which led to the development ofkōsai (公祭; lit. "public festival"), officially recognized and officiated rituals, during the late Nara and early Heian periods. During the reign ofEmpress Kōken,Empress Kōmyō and others began changing the regular rituals of the manykasuga jinja (春日神社), shrines housing the patronkami of the Fujiwara clan, intokōsai rituals.[25] Special rituals also became more common as the emperor's authority grew. These were rituals for specifickami, and in addition to the regular rituals, in which the emperor themself dispatched the imperial representative. The first example of this was theKamo Rinjisai (賀茂臨時祭; lit. "Kamo special festival") held byEmperor Uda during his reign. The regular festival that developed after this retained the "special" name.[26]
The emperor and their close advisors became directly involved with even more rituals such as the emperor'sMaichōgai (毎朝御拝; lit. "every morning worship"), morning prayers sent to Ise Shrine, conducted at a platform within the palace called theIshibainodan (石灰壇) or theIchidai-Ichido no Daijinbō-Shi (一代一度の大神宝使), a tradition which began in this period in which a court messenger takes sacred relics to specific shrines at an emperor's ascension.[27] The practice ofgyōkō (行幸) first occurred duringEmperor Suzaku's reign.[28]Gyōkō is the practice of the emperor themself going to a shrine and dispatching the ritual official from there, while up until that point, the emperor would have stayed in the imperial court and dispatched the officials from there.[28]
At this time, the nobles became more interested inujigami rituals, and we see several collections of traditions written during this time. There is theKogo Shūi written by Inbe no Hironari which consisted of an orally transmitted history of the Inbe clan and also acted as a counter to the Nakatomi clan. There is also theSendai Kuji Hongi which contains a collection of histories about the different clans thought to have been compiled by the Mononobe clan, as well as theShinsen Shōjiroku containing the lineage and histories of the various clans which divided the clans into the branches of divine ancestry, imperial ancestry, foreign ancestry, and those of unknown ancestry.[29]
TheEngishiki, containing laws and customs, was completed in 927. Volumes one through ten contain laws regarding Shinto, and these ten volumes are collectively referred to as theJingishiki (神祇式). The contents of each volume are as follows: One and two, seasonal rituals. Three, special rituals. Four, the Ise Shrine. Five, position at the Ise Shrine. Six, the role ofsaiin priestesses. Seven,Daijō-sai. Eight,norito. Nine and ten, the upper and lowerkami.[30]
In addition, as it was no longer possible to maintain the practice of sending religious offerings to allmyōjin taisha shrines, it turned to a practice calledkinen kokuhouhei (祈年穀奉幣) which involved making offerings only to the most prominent of these shrines twice a year. This practice expanded to sixteen shrines later, then eventually toTwenty-Two Shrines, and this continued until 1449 (the first year of theHōtoku era) in the Late Middle Ages.[31]
In regards to local rituals,provincial officials were dispatched and ranked the shrines in that province, developing theIchinomiya system which ordered the shrines to be worshiped at.[32] These officials noted the shrines that saw worship in akokunai jinmyōchō (国内神名帳; lit. "domestic shrine register"), and, later, shrines of ninomiya rank or below were grouped together into asōja shrine.[32]
After the official introduction of Buddhism in the 6th century, Buddhism spread across Japan through the conflict between the Monobe clan and theSoga clan over the adoption of Buddhism. Early on in the adoption, however, Buddhism was not seen as different from Shinto and was taken up in the same way as local Shinto had been. Buddha was calledAdashikuni-no-kami (蕃神; lit. "kami of barbarians"), and some women, such as Shima, Datto Shiba's daughter, left home to maintain Buddhist statues similar to whatmiko did.[33] Later, in the 7th century, thekami were believed to reside indevaloka and thought to be seeking liberation just like humans.Jingū-ji were built within shrines as locations where Buddhist practices could occur such as reading Buddhist scriptures before thekami.[34] An early example of this is thejingū-ji atTado Shrine founded by the monk Mangan.[34] Buddhist temples also made attempts to move Shinto closer to Buddhism which resulted in the belief thatkami were alsoDefenders of the Justice, beings who protect dharma, and sojinjū-sha shrines were built into Buddhist temples.[35]
Several faiths appeared during the Heian period which contained elements of both Shinto and Buddhism such as belief inGoryō[36] and the Kumano faith which regards Kumano aPure land,[37] and the influence of Buddhism led to the creation of statues ofkami inspired by Buddhist statues.[38] Shinto-Buddhims syncretism continued as time went on, giving rise to thehonji suijaku theory which claimskami are the temporary forms of Buddhist deities manifested in Japan to save the people. There were also instances of using Buddhist deity terms such asbosatsu (菩薩; bodhisattva) andgongen when referring tokami, as well as the practice of carving buddhist images, the true forms of the deities, on the backs of mirrors, believed to be the house of thekami. These mirrors were calledmishōtai (御正体; lit. "honorable true form") because they depicted thekami's true form.[39]
At the same time, the desire to separate Shinto and Buddhism was seen in the imperial court and among the shrines. Regulations such as theJōgangishiki (貞観儀式) and theGishiki (儀式) forbade central officials and officials from theFive Provinces from conducting Buddhist services during the period of theDaijō-sai. Buddhist monks and nuns were also forbidden from attending medium rituals or minor rituals that occurred during purification of the imperial palace, and Buddhist services could not be held in the palace.[40] From the middle of the Heian period onwards, the emperor was also required to stop any Buddhist activities during the period of purification for rituals in which the emperor conducts the purification themself, such as for theNiiname-no-Matsuri, Tsukinami-no-Matsuri, and theKannamesai Festival, and other government officials were also meant to avoid Buddhist practices during this time.[40] At the Ise Shrine, some words were considered taboo. For Buddha (仏,hotoke) they usednakago (中子; lit. "center") and for Buddhist priest (僧侶,sōryo) they usedkaminaga (髪長; lit. "long hair"). These indirect terms were even used at thesaiō priestess's residence.[40] While Shinto and Buddhism had begun to blend as a faith, ritualistically, they remained two separate systems.
In ancient Japan, mountains were believed to be other worlds, such as the afterlife, and were rarely entered, but they became areas for ascetic practices during the Nara period under the influence of various factors such as esoteric Buddhism,Onmyōdō, andkami worship.[41] One figure in the early stages of this practice wasEn no Ozunu, andShugendō was formed as these ascetic mountain practices developed into an organization near the end of the Heian period, with Kinpu Mountain,Kumano Sanzan, theThree Mountains of Dewa, andMount Togakushi prominent examples of mountains of power.[41] This was followed by the establishment of variousShugendō schools such as theHonzanha (本山派) of theTendai school, theTōzanha (当山派) of theShingon school, theHaguroha (羽黒派) based at the Three Mountains of Dewa, and theHikosanha (英彦山派) based atMount Hiko.[41]
Onmyōdō was established during the Heian period by the imperial court. It developed independently in Japan based on influences from the philosophies ofyin and yang andwuxing which came over from China.[42]Onmyōdō's development also had an impact on Shinto, as some rituals such as theOharae-shiki andMichiae-no-Matsuri (道饗祭) which had been conducted by the Department of Divinities were later conducted by theOnmyōryō (陰陽寮), the department ofOnmyōdō. Additionally, the ritual text for theOharae-shiki, also known as theNakatomi Harae (中臣祓), changed into theNakatomi Saimon (中臣祭文; lit. "Nakatomi ritual text") and became used byOnmyōdō priests.[42] The change was that the original ritual incantation was in thesenmyōtai (宣命体) style, in which the words are directed to the ritual's attendees, while the newer incantation was in thesōjōtai (奏上体) style, in which the words are directed to thekami.[42] However, while Shinto rituals were affairs of the state,Onmyōdō rituals were conducted in an environment of heightened materialistic desires of the aristocrats to request personal success and the curing of illness.[43] Beginning in the 10th century, the department overseeingOnmyōdō was almost entirely led by successive generations of theAbe andKamo clans.[44]
The shrine system went under a reorganization under the shogunate with the establishment of theKamakura shogunate.Minamoto no Yoritomo, the founder of the shogunate, was a devout follower of Shinto and officially acknowledged theIse Grand Shrine's claim over its territory. Other particularly venerated shrines were theIzusan Shrine,Hakone Shrine, and Mishima Shrine, and it became custom for future Shoguns to visit Izu Hakone in January every year a practice calledNisho Gongen (二所権現) which may have been the origin of modern-dayHatsumōde.[45] TheMagistrate of Temples and Shrines was established in 1194. TheKamakura shogunate carried on the piety of Minamoto no Yoritomo, as seen in Article 1 of theGoseibai Shikimoku enacted in 1232 which called for the reformation of shrines which should focus solely on carrying out rituals.[46] Additionally, theKantō Shinsei (関東新制), a legal code released by the shogunate as opposed to the emperor, contained several regulations surrounding religion such as those relating to development of Shinto institutions and the prevention of the misconduct of Shinto priests.[47] Government positions such as thekitō bugyō (祈祷奉行) andshinji bugyō (神事奉行) were established which oversaw religious events rather than the administration of shrines. The Senjū clan began to inherit thekitō bugyō position during the Muromachi period.
Thejisha-densō (寺社伝奏) position had been established within the imperial court and was responsible for conveying requests from the shrines to the emperor. However, once the shogunate came into power, this shifted to reporting to the shogun then communicating the shogun's decisions back to the shrines.[47] The retired emperor also conducted more frequent pilgrimages to Kumano Taisha during this period, and the imperial court began to focus more on Shinto rituals as its authority declined as the shogunate rose.Emperor Juntoku wrote in theKinpishō (禁秘抄), "Shinto matters first, all other matters after."[48]
The faith of the common people also changed during the Middle Ages. During ancient times, the people's faith centered on rituals worshipping localujigami to pray for the prosperity of their community. In the Middle Ages, however,kami with mystical power were divided in a process calledbunrei and taken to other regions, leading to an increase in shrines calledkanjōgata-jinja (勧請型神社) housing these dividedkami where people prayed for individual prosperity.[49]
Particularly widely worshipped wereKumano Gongen (熊野権現),Hachiman,Inari Ōkami, andAmaterasu.[50] The region of Kumano was originally believed to be another world where the spirits of the dead went, but the syncretism with Buddhism led to the belief that Kumano was a manifestation of the Pure Land in the real world, withKumano Gongen atKumano Hongū Taisha believed to beAmitābha.[51] Many people went on pilgrimages in groups to Kumano to pray to pass on to the next world in death as well as to receive prosperity in this world, so much so that they became known as the "ants' pilgrimage to Kumano" as they resembled a line of ants.[51] Visits by the retired emperor became common during theInsei period as well. Hachiman was brought fromUsa Jingū as a dividedkami and protector ofEmperor Seiwa byIwashimizu Hachimangū, while also being worshiped as the guardiankami of theSeiwa Genji clan, whileMinamoto no Yoshiie also establishedTsurugaoka Hachimangū in Kamakura with the divided Hachiman.[52] WhenMinamoto no Yoritomo established the Kamakura Shogunate,Gokeijin throughout Japan who followed the Kamakura Shogunate also prayed to Hachiman in their own territories, and the Hachiman faith spread throughout the country.[52] Inari was originally the clan deity of theHata clan, but in the Heian period (794–1185), Inari was revered as the guardian deity ofToji, and was combined withDakini to spread throughout Japan as a deity of agriculture.[53] In theFushimi Inari-taisha, the first day of the first month of the lunar year, many common people would come to the shrine to pray. The first day of the first month of the lunar year is the time when the gods of the mountains descend to the villages to become the gods of the rice fields in theTanokami faith.[53]
Originally, it was forbidden for anyone but the emperor to make religious offerings or give prayers at the Ise Shrine, but it and other shrines lost their financial foundation in the Middle Ages under the Ritsuryō system which led to religious officials from the shrine, mostlyoshi (御師), actively gathering contributions and funds for building costs. They did this through proselytizing and conducting private prayers at manors across the country which spread the Ise faith first to lords and the warrior class, then to the common people.[54] The earlier Kumano faith also contributed to the spread of the Ise faith as pilgrims on the Kumano Pilgrimage had to pass through Ise Shrine along the Ise-Ji Route, resulting in many people beginning to worship thekami at Ise Shrine.[55] An account of the rebuilding of the outer shrines of Ise Shrine in 1287 in theKanchūki (勘仲記) from the Kamakura Period states, "The exact number of the thousands, tens of thousands of worshippers who attended is unknown," showing the large numbers of common people who traveled to the Ise Shrine.[56]
As worship at a main shrine increased, thekami of those main shrines were divided and brought to various villages[citation needed]. With the rise of theshōen manorial system as well, thekami of shrines of the manorial lords were divided and brought across Japan resulting in a third of all shrines of modern Japan being associated with one of the five faiths of Hachiman, Ise, Tenjin, Inari, or Kumano.[49]
Festivals for the commonfolk also spread within urban areas. The people began to host the Gion Festival every year after 863 when the Imperial Court held an opengoryōe (御霊会) at temple ofShinsenen in which the people of the city could participate. During thegoryōe, themikoshi was paraded around town from the ritual welcome of thekami at the beginning of the festival until the return to the shrine at the end which was thought to increase the spiritual power of thekami.[57] The residents of Kyoto prepared theotabisho resting places for themikoshi as well as prepared for and conducted the rites, meaning the Imperial Court had little involvement in the public aspects, resulting in a public festival with a strong local feel and identity.[57] Other festivals established by the middle of the Heian period were the Kitano Goryōe, Matsuo Festival, Imamiya Festival, and Inari Festival.[58]
Furthermore, as the villages of the manors became more autonomous and as the self-governing communalsō (惣) villages were established, administrative village organizations overseeing faith activities calledmiyaza (宮座) gained attention as organizers of festivals. Themiyaza were led by elders known asotona (オトナ; lit. "adult") ortoshiyori (年寄; lit. "elder") while younger members were responsible for conducting the rituals. Shrines became a spiritual center for the villagers as they recited oaths to thekami there when the village made decisions, as well as conducted vow ceremonies (一味神水,ichimijinsui) when forming a group such as anikki (一揆). The villagers would visit the shrine even during their daily lives as farmers, and the head of the shrine was selected for a year-long term from among the villagers.[50]
A movement spread through the intellectual class to develop a doctrine for and incorporate the religion of Shinto into their ideals. The first attempt was theRyōbu Shintō (両部神道) Theory developed around the mid-Heian period by esoteric Buddhist monks using esoteric terminology. An early example of this is seen inShingon Fuhō San'yō-shō (真言付法纂要抄; Collected Essentials on Shingon Dharma) written by Shingon Buddhist monk Seison in the 11th century in which he depictsAmaterasu as the same being asVairocana and argues Japan is well suited to the spread of esoteric Buddhism. The most important Shinto theories of the Middle Ages were derived from this theory.[59]
Following this, Buddhist monks began to frequent the Ise Great Shrine, includingChōgen in 1186, with manyRyōbu Shintō texts written in monk residences located within the Ise Great Shrine's territory. TheMitsuno-gashiwa Denki (三角柏伝記) and theNakatomi no Harae Kunge (中臣祓訓解) are believed to be early examples of such texts. These texts place the shrine's Inner Shrine as theWomb Realm and the Outer Shrine as theDiamond Realm of esoteric Buddhism, and both together are seen as a manifestation in this world of amandala.[60] Additionally, Amaterasu is said to beBrahmā asSurya, whileToyouke-hime is said to be Brahmā asChandra. TheReikiki (麗気記) was compiled afterwards as a collection of secret theories based in Shingon Buddhism and became a representative text ofRyōbu Shintō.[61]
As Shinto manuscripts and writings were developed at temples,Ryōbu Shintō-style schools were established to pass down the writings, along with the establishment of several other factions includingSanbōin-ryū (三宝院流) founded by Imperial Prince-Monk Shukaku Hosshinō andMiwa-ryū (三輪流) which developed atByōdō-ji Temple nearMount Miwa.[62] TheseRyōbu Shintō schools passed down their secrets while conductingabhisheka and initiations in a similar way to esoteric Buddhism in a practice known as Shinto Abhesheka (神道灌頂,Shintō kanjō).[63]
Shinto theories developed not only fromShingon Buddhism, but also from ideals based on Buddhist-Shinto syncretism from the view ofTiantai Buddhism. The foundation of this was an explanation of the significance of thekami ofHiyoshi Taisha, the guardiankami ofMount Hiei, through the lens ofTendai Buddhist philosophy. This was calledSannō Shintō.[64]
TheYōtenki (耀天記) was written in the 13th century, and it was said the Buddha manifested as Ōnamuchi of the main shrine, Nishi Hongū, of Hiyoshi Taisha to save the people of Japan, a small country in theDegenerate Age of Dharma.[65] Additionally, the monk Gigen (義源) wrote theSange Yōryakki (山家要略記) in the 14th century in which he asserted not just Ōnamuchi but allkami of Hiyoshi Taisha were manifestations of buddhas.[66] Afterwards, Gigen's disciple, Kōshō (光宗), wrote theKeiran Shūyōshū (渓嵐拾葉集) in which he systemized the doctrine by linking all Tendai Buddhism to Hiyoshi Taishakami. He also claimed the Hiyoshi Taishakami innately resided within people's hearts.[67] As the belief oforiginal enlightenment spread, the idea that people are already enlightened regardless of their religious practices, these writings began to claim thekami, as beings more familiar to the Japanese people, were in fact the true form and buddhas were a manifestation of thekami in what was known as the inverted honji suijaku theory (反本地垂迹説,han-honji suijaku).[67] Shinto theory in the Tendai school was primarily developed by a group of monks known askike (記家; lit. "chroniclers").[68]
Sansha Takusen (三社託宣) hanging scrolls began to appear in the late Kamakura period inTōdai-ji or the ancient region of Nara. These were the words of the threekami Amaterasu, Hachiman, and Kasuga Daimyojin, expressing the tenets of honesty, purity, and mercy inkanbun style.[69] These threekami in particular become the object of this worship because it was said they, Amaterasu, the ancestor deity of the imperial family, Hachiman, the patron deity of the samurai class (Seiwa Genji), and Kasuga Daimyojin, the patron deity of the noble class (theFujiwara clan), entered into a divine pact with each other in the Age of the Gods, resulting in the belief that it was in the Age of the Gods that those three classes were bound to work in coordination as they rule.[70]
As Buddhist-Shinto syncretism spread during the Middle Ages, various shrines began to createengi (縁起), writings and illustrations of religious histories, particularly of the religious institutions themselves. Prominent examples include theKasuga Gongen Genki-e (春日権現験記絵), theKita no Tenjin Engi (北野天神縁起), and theHachiman Gudōkun (八幡愚童訓), as well as theShintōshū (神道集), a collection of such texts created in the 14th century. It is believed these texts and illustrations were created by the religious institutions to receive reliable patronage from the samurai class as the Imperial Court declined at the outset of the Middle Ages.[71] This period also saw the spread of Middle Ages Mythology, a body of Shinto myths reinterpreted through a lens of Buddhist-Shinto syncretism.
TheHonji Suijaku theory was incorporated intoShin Buddhism which rapidly grew during the Kamakura period. One Buddhist monk of the school,Zonkaku, authored theShoshin Honkaishū (諸神本懐集) in which he divided Japan's shrines intogonsha (権社), shrines which housed a manifestation of a buddha, andjissha (実社), shrines which did not, and argued that only thekami ofgonsha should be worshipped.[72] Even in theNichiren school of Buddhism, the monkNichiren himself actively incorporated Shinto into the school, which his discipleNichizō systemized into Hokke Shinto.[73] Their belief was that if the true dharma as based on the Lotus Sutra was correctly conducted, then the Thirty Guardian Deities (三十番神,Sanjū Banshin) withAtsuta no Ōkami at their head would protect Japan, each one protecting for a day in a rotation.[74] Other schools to take up theHonji Suijaku theory with varying approaches were theJishū school, the Rinzai school, and theSōtō school.[75]
As that was occurring within the Buddhist faith, Shinto institutions were also receiving influence from external religions such as Buddhism while movements to create doctrine for and internalize Shinto grew more actively. Invertedhonji suijaku theories which placed thekami above buddhas also developed in opposition to thehonji suijaku theory. The collapse of the Ritsuryō system produced a sense of crisis among the Shinto authorities as the foundation that supported their existence was shaken. Shinto authorities began creating writings for Shinto rituals in an attempt to gain religious authority and claim Shinto's place in resistance to Buddhism as Buddhist authorities were actively closing in on the world of thekami and attempting to reinterpret Shinto using Buddhist theories.[76] Also in the background during the creation of systemized Shinto theory was Japan's victory in theMongol invasions of Japan which resulted in a belief of Japan as a divine land protected by thekami, a belief which strengthened during this period along with the authority of the Ise Shrine through the increase throughout Japan ofjingu mikuriya (神宮御厨), territories belonging to the shrine originally for the production of offerings to thekami.[77]
The first school to do this was Ise Shinto, established in the mid-Kamakura period. Ise Shinto is a school of Shinto established primarily by the Watarai clan who were priests of the Outer Shrine with theShintō Gōbusho (神道五部書; Five Shinto Scriptures) as central texts. Of the five Scriptures, theYamatohime-no-Mikoto Seiki (倭姫命世記;Chronicle ofYamatohime-no-mikoto) andZō Ise Nisho Daijingū Hhōki Hongi (造伊勢二所太神宮宝基本記) were created relatively early. They referenced the Womb World-Diamond World theory of Ryōbu Shintō as they placed the Inner and Outer Shrines on the same level, continuing on with plans to place the Outer Shrine in a superior position.[78] These writings identified thekami of the Outer Shrine,Toyouke-hime, to beAme-no-Minakanushi, one of the originalkami, to increase her standing compared toAmaterasu, as well as defined the Inner Shrine as theWuxing agent of Fire and the Outer Shrine as the agent of Water in an attempt to raise the Outer Shrine's standing as Water regulates Fire. ThekamiTakuhadachiji-hime, mother ofNinigi-no-Mikoto, was also placed as a grandchild of Toyouke-hime, inserting Toyouke-hime into the imperial ancestral line.[79] Other movements in addition to thesekami theories included an emphasis on Japan as a divine land through preaching the eternal nature of the imperial line, the dignity of theThree Sacred Treasures, and the honor of the shrines, a spread of reason and morality based on the Two Great Virtues of Shinto, honesty and purity, and a focus on the diligent practice of, cleansing prior to, and purification through Shinto rituals.[80]
Ise Shinto further developed as a result of what is known as the imperial character controversy (皇字論争) which revolved around the addition of the character meaning "divine" or "imperial"(皇) was added to the Outer Shrine's name in 1296. Center of the Outer Shrine at the timeYukitada Watarai referenced the first two of theShintō Gobusho as evidence of the Outer Shrine's legitimacy, authored the further three of the five,Amaterashimasu Ise Nisho Kōtaijingū Gochinza Shidaiki (天照坐伊勢二所皇太神宮御鎮座次第記),Ise Nisho Kōutaijin Gochinza Denki (伊勢二所皇太神御鎮座伝記), andToyōke Kōtaijin Gochinza Hongi (豊受皇太神御鎮座本記), then spread those writings of Ise Shinto throughout society.[81]
Ieyuki Watarai followed Yukitada Watarai as center of the Outer Shrine and established Ise Shinto. In addition to penning theRuijū Jingi Hongen (類聚神祇本源) and systemizing Ise Shinto while references various other writings fromNeo-Confucianism,Taoism, and Buddhism, he also presentedkizen-ron (機前論), a theory unique to Shinto doctrine. According to this theory, the chaotic state that existed prior to the world's formation was calledkizen (機前), that thiskizen was the source of consciousness, as well as the essence of thekami.[82] He further preached maintaining purity was how one useskizen.[83]
Later,Tsuneyoshi Watarai claimed the Inner and Outer Shrines were of equal standing as the Watarai Clan served the Inner Shrine before the Outer Shrine was established and that the view of Toyouke-hime as akami of Water allowed a comparison of the twokami to the Sun and the Moon. Just as the Sun and the Moon together light the heavens, so do Amaterasu and Toyouke-hime stand together.[77]
At the opening of theNanboku-chō period,Kitabatake Chikafusa wrote theJinnō Shōtōki (神皇正統記; "Chronicles of the Authentic Lineages of the Divine Emperors") and theGengenshū (元元集) while influenced by Ise Shinto in which he noted the imperial line remained unbroken since the Age of Gods and argued Japan was superior due to being a divine land. He also argued the emperor is required to have Confucian virtues and must not abandon the various teachings of religion.[84] It was also during this period that Tendai monk Jihen also received influence from Ise Shinto and wroteKuji Hongi Genki (旧事本紀玄義) in which he presented a depiction of the emperor as sovereign and established political discourse within Shinto.[85] Court nobleIchijō Kaneyoshi wrote theNihon Shoki Sanso (日本書紀纂疏) in which he conducts a philosophical analysis of the scrolls on the Age of Gods of theNihon Shoki, forming Shinto thought.Inobe-no-Masamichi wrote theJindai Kankuketsu (神代巻口訣) which discussed Shinto theology through commentary of those same scrolls.
The destruction of Kyoto during theŌnin War in theŌnin period affected many temples and shrines and resulted in the cessation of rituals, including the Daijōsai and crowning ceremonies. One Shinto priest most affected by the turmoil was Yoshida Kanemoto. Kanemoto had served at theYoshida Shrine which was lost in the fires of war, along with tens of lives of the residents living in the area around the shrine. In his turmoil, he fled into the wilds.[86] However, the loss of many ancient texts in the war became an opportunity for new Shinto doctrine to develop in the form of Yoshida Shinto.[87]
The Yoshida family's original name was Urabe, of the Urabe Clan. As Shinto priests, they specialized in tortoise-shell divination and long inherited the position of Senior Assistant Director of Divinities (神祇大副,Jingi Taifu), the second-highest position in the Department of Divinities. In the Middle Ages, Urabe no Kanekata was an expert of research into Japanese texts, as seen in theShaku Nihongi (釈日本紀) he authored, earning the Yoshida family the monicker of "House of Japanese Chronicles".[88]
Kanemoto went on to write theShintō Taii (神道大意) and theYuiitsu Shintō Myōhō Yōshū (唯一神道名法要集) in which he compiled Shinto philosophy from the Middle Ages while incorporating discourse from several other religions to present a new Shinto theory in the form of Yoshida Shinto. In his writings, Kanemoto divided Shinto into three varieties:Honjaku-engi Shintō (本迹縁起神道) (the histories passed down by shrines),Ryōbu-shūgō Shintō (両部習合神道), andGempon-sōgen Shintō (元本宗源神道). He further claimed theGempon-sōgen Shintō passed down by his own family was the only true Shinto transmitted since the very origin of the country. He also placed thekami as the peak of all things, and Shinto as the origin of all things.[89] In regard to the relationship between Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism, he strongly purported a root-leaf-fruit theory which claimed Shinto was the roots, Confucianism was the leaves that grew in China, and Buddhism was the fruit which blossomed in India. This argued that while the three religions were one, Shinto was the true religion.[90]
Additionally, he claimed Shinto had three aspects: the body, its true essence, the appearance, how it manifests, and the purpose, how it affects the world. These three aspects govern the sun and the moon, the warmth and the cold, nature, and all other phenomena. Ultimately, his Shinto theory was a type of pantheism in that he claimed thekami resided within all things in existence, permeating the entire universe.[91] In addition to his theories of Shinto, Kanemoto developed many rituals. He began by building theDaigengū Saijōsho (大元宮斎場所) at Yoshida Shrine. This enshrined thekami of Ise Shrine, the Hasshinden, and the more than 3,000kami of the Engishiki shrines. He then declared the Daigengū to be the root of all religion in Japan from the time of its founding, as well as the main shrine for all shrines throughout the country.[92] Furthermore, with influence from esoteric Buddhism, he created three rituals known collectively as the Three Dais Rituals (三壇行事,San Dan Gyōji). These included the Eighteen Shinto Rituals (十八神道行事,Jūhachi Shintō Gyōji), the Sōgen Shinto Ritual (宗源神道行事,Sōgen Shintō Gyōji), and ahoma ritual which consisted of lighting a fire in the octagonal dais in the center of the hearth then praying as grains and rice porridge were cast into the fire.[93]
These Shinto theories were purported to have been developed based on a collection of three writings known as the Three Sacred Scriptures (三部の神経) which includeTengen Shinpen Shinmyō-kei (天元神変神妙経),Jimoto Jintsū Shinmyō-kei (地元神通神妙経), andJingen Jinryoku Shinmyō-kei (人元神力神妙経).[94] These scriptures are said to contain the teachings ofAme-no-Koyane, however, they are considered fictitious as there is no evidence they were ever created.[95] Kanemoto himself fabricated writings resembling these scriptures under the names of other authors, such asFujiwara no Kamatari.[96] He also fabricated the history of the Daigengū Saijōsho.[97]
Yoshida Shinto also established the ceremony for Shinto funerals in which people are worshipped askami. There had been little engagement with funerals prior to this as Shinto viewed death asimpure, and it was only when appeasing vengeful spirits through worship such as in the case ofgoryō orTenjin that people could be consideredkami. Yoshida Shinto, however, held a belief in a close relationship between people andkami and thus actively conducted funerals. In fact, the Kamitatsu Shrine (神龍社) was constructed above Kanemoto's remains and became a shrine housing him as akami.[98]
Yoshida Shinto became an emerging force, with its rise perhaps contributed to by the societal unrest caused by the warring of the period. The sect spread widely, particularly among the upper class withHino Tomiko's patronage of the Daigengū upon its construction as well as an imperial sanction in 1473,[99] allowing it to become central to the Shinto sphere in the modern era.[100] However, it also received strong resistance, such as from the priests of both the Inner and Outer Shrines of Ise Shrine.[101]
Yoshida Shinto is the first Shinto theory to have its own doctrines, scriptures, and rituals independent of Buddhism while amalgamating Shinto from the Middle Ages and reaching across religious lines to incorporate discourse from various religions.[101] Several scholars consider the establishment of Yoshida Shinto a turning point in the religion's history, such as Shinto scholar Shōji Okada who called it a transitional period for Shinto,[102] and historianToshio Kuroda who claims the creation of Yoshida Shinto was the creation of Shinto itself.[103]
Having established Shinto funerals, Yoshida Shinto went on in theSengoku period to become involved with the founding of shrines which worshipped thedaimyo of the time askami, including the founding of theToyokuni Shrine in Kyoto, in which Toyotomi Hideyoshi was enshrined as akami. Additionally, Bonshun of the Yoshida family recited Shinto prayers forTokugawa Ieyasu and conducted Ieyasu's Shinto funeral upon his death in accordance with his will.[104]
The administration of shrines was restructured once theEdo period began after the end of the wartime of theSengoku period. TheShogunate officially recognized the territory controlled at the time by each shrine and granted them the right to refuse entry toshugo and their officials. Those regions that received this directly from the Shogun were referred to as red-seal lands (朱印地,shuin-chi) while those who received it from the regional lord were called black-seal lands (黒印状,kokuin-chi). However, being acknowledged in this way meant the shrine's right to profit and to own land was given to the Shogunate.[105] The Shogunate also established theJisha Bugyō (寺社奉行; lit. "temple and shrine commissioner") position which was placed at the top of the three Tokugawabugyō positions underRōjū authority (the other twobugyō it was above being theMachi Bugyō andKanjō bugyō).[106] TheShintō-kata (神道方) position was also established as an advisory role to the Jisha Bugyō who they reported to. They were responsible for researching ancient Shinto practices and ceremony documents. This position became hereditary within the Yoshikawa family following Yoshikawa Kikkawa's service in the position.[107] Specialbugyō positions were also assigned to select shrines such as theYamada Bugyō (山田奉行) which oversawIse Shrine and theNikkō Bugyō (日光奉行) which oversawNikkō Tōshō-gū.[108]
In 1665, the Shogunate enacted the Regulations Governing Shintō Shrines, Senior Priests and Other Shrine Functionaries (諸社禰宜神主法度,Shosha negi kannushi hatto) which gave the Yoshida family almost complete control over all clergy members including requiring general clergy members without a court rank to receive aShintō Sai Kyojō (神道裁許状; lit. "Shinto Function Certificate") from the Yoshida family before wearingkiriginu (狩衣) orikan (衣冠).[109] However, shrines which received court status previously from the Imperial Court such as Ise Shrine, theKamo shrines,Kasuga-taisha,Usa Jingū,Izumo-taisha, andFushimi Inari-taisha were allowed to operate through theShaji Tensō (寺社伝奏; lit. "Imperial Liaison for Temples and Shrines") as they had in the past rather than through the Yoshida family.[110] This law also instated a punishment for neglect of duties for those in the clergy, prohibited the buying and selling of shrine territory, and stipulated a duty to maintain the shrines.
With the creation of theShūmon Ninbetsuaratame-chō (宗門人別改帳; lit. "Denomination Census Ledger"), the Shogunate required all funerals to be held at the family's registered temple in what was known as thedanka system (檀家制度,danka seido), essentially requiring all common people to have Buddhist funerals.[111] Some people, such as the Yoshida family and family of hereditary priest lines at influential temples, were allowed Shinto funerals with approval of the Jisha Bugyō. This restriction was relaxed in the mid-Edo period as the anti-danka movement developed, allowing those who had agreed with their registered temple to receive aShintō-sai Kyojō (神道裁許状; lit. "Shinto Rite Approval Certificate") and have a Shinto funeral. When this happened, the shrine rather than the temple confirmed the person was not Christian and issued what was called a Shinto certificate (神道請,Shintō-uke) rather than a temple certificate (寺請,tera-uke) of affiliation.[111]
The Shogunate also provided financial support for the partial revival of imperial rites which had been suspended during the warring period. TheDaijōsai—which had been suspended for 222 years ever since the ascension ofEmperor Go-Tsuchimikado—was revived forEmperor Higashiyama and then made permanent at the ascension ofEmperor Sakuramachi.[112] TheNiinamesai was also revived in 1688, the year following the year the Daijōsai was restored.[112] The practice of sendingheihaku ritual offerings from the emperor to select shrines also restarted during this time withheihaku delivered to theUpper Seven Shrines,Usa Jingū,Kashii-gū in 1744.[112]Reihei (例幣) offerings which were sent from the imperial court for theKannamesai were also reinstated in 1647 by order ofEmperor Go-Kōmyō. Ise Shrine's ritual rebuilding process called theShikinen Sengū had also been discontinued but was also revived during theAzuchi–Momoyama period through the combined efforts of Buddhist nuns Seijun and Shūyō of Keikō-in Temple. While theDepartment of Divinities, which was burned in the warring period, was not restored, the Hasshinden in the Saijōsho ofYoshida Shrine did take its place.[113]
The Shogunate also instated regulations in regards toShugendō with the enactment of the Regulations Governing Shugendō (修験道法度,Shugendō Happa) in 1613 forbidding any not affiliated with either the Tōzan Sect or the Honzan Sect from mountain ascetic practices.[114] This caused Shugendō practitioners to split into two groups: those who resided in the mountains, and those who resided in settlements practicing what was calledsato-shugen (里修験; lit. "villageshugen"). It was these latter Shugendō practitioners who filled a role of guiding the common people in their folk beliefs, such as in the practice ofKōshin.[114]
Following the early modern period, the Shinto faith spread more throughout the common class due to the recovery of societal stability and improvements in travel, such as with the construction of thekaidō road system and establishment ofshukuba station towns along them. Throughout the land, people formed associations calledkō (講). Particularly widespread weredaisan-kō (代参講) in which the association gathered a modest sum of money from the members every year and selected one member by lottery to travel to the shrine where they collected each member'sofuda from the shrine. Other associations spread across the country which traveled to specific prominent shrines such as theIse-kō (伊勢講) which went toIse Shrine, the Fujisan-kō which went toFujisan Hongū Sengen Taisha, Konbira-kō, Inari-kō, and Akiha-kō.[115] Each association formed a relationship with anoshi (御師) or asendatsu (先達) guide who would arrange lodging for when the pilgrim(s) came for prayers or to visit the shrine.[115]
Faith in Ise Shinto in particular saw a strong surge during this period.Oshi of Ise Shrine proselytized through traveling priests who visited one to three times a year by giving themJingū taima or copies of the Ise calendar (伊勢暦,Ise koyomi) to give out, along with regional products such as a type of cosmetic calledIse oshiroi (伊勢おしろい) or Ise tea. Theoshi also invited visitors to their own homes and treated them tokagura performances, alcohol, Ise delicacies, and down quilts in addition to providing tours to the Inner and Outer Shrines of Ise or famous historical sites to allow visitors to fully experience the much-desired visit to Ise Shrine.[116] All of this led to increased following of the Ise Faith by the people, with theokagemairi (お蔭参り) occurring several times in the Edo period in which millions of visitors traveled to Ise Shrine at once. Over 90% of households across Japan had an Iseofuda in their home.[117]
Many guidebooks were published during this period as visits to shrines became more common among the people. Several were published that catalogued temples and shrines across the country and introduced them to the people such asEdo Meisho Zue (江戸名所図会; Guide to Famous Edo Sites) by Saitō Gesshin,Edoshinbutsu Gankake Chōhōki (江戸神仏願懸重宝記; Handy Guide to Shinto and Buddhist Worship in Edo) by Kobei Namiki, andEdo Meisho Hanagoyomi (江戸名所絵花暦; Illustrated Floral Calendar of Famous Edo Sites) by Sanchō Oka.[118] Furthermore, the popularity ofJippensha Ikku’sTōkaidōchū Hizakurige about a misadventure-filled journey to Ise Shrine influenced other works, leading to literature centered on stories of pilgrimages to Ise such as the genre of comedic novels (滑稽本,kokkeibon) calledhizakurigemono (膝栗毛もの), and this also contributed to the people's faith in Ise Shinto.[119]
In contrast, as non-religious visits to shrines and temples became more frequent, entertainment providers began to operate outside the temple or shrine, or even within its grounds, including licensed red-light districts (遊廓,yūkaku), unlicensed prostitutes, outdoor performances, and impersonation artists. Edo-period writer and critic Buyō Inshi wrote a critique of the state of temple and shrine visits in theSejiken Bunroku (世事見聞録), stating, "The area just outside the gates of temples and shrines has become a land of debauchery."[120]
In addition to this increase in visitors to shrines, festivals for urban commoners grew as non-locals attended festivals even if they were not worshippers of thatkami. Examples of festivals that saw expansion includeSannō Matsuri ofHie Shrine (one of the Three Edo Great Festivals (江戸三大祭り,Edo San Daimatsuri)), Nezu Festival ofNezu Shrine, andKanda Matsuri ofKanda Shrine. Spectators were drawn to the festivals to see the ornately crafted stalls and floats in competition with each other or parades costumed as Korean delegations or a daimyo's procession.[121] Festivals grew in many other cities as well, such as withGion Festival and Imamiya Matsuri of Kyoto,Tenjin Matsuri of Osaka, Hiyoshi Sannō Matsuri of Shiga,Chichibu Night Festival of Saitama, andTakayama Festival of Gifu. Some of these festivals had been passed down through the ages since before this period, but many of them were restarted thanks to the improved social stability of the early modern period.[121]
Urban festivals fell into two categories in terms of their financial sourcing: those financed primarily by the local lord, and those financed by the townsfolk. When financed by the lord, the lord would require townspeople to fill labor requirements such as in preparing the roads and breeding divine horses (神馬,shinme), as well as had them participate in the festival as float bearers.[121] When the people financed the festival, an organizer called atōya (頭屋) was selected and they would either bear the financial burden or share it with the town.[121] While the lords did issue expenditure regulations in these cases, they otherwise provided the people freedom in running the festival.[121]
As the number of Shinto followers increased amongst the common people, lecturers appeared that provided education to the common people through oral talks. Masuho Zankō of Asahi Shinmei-gū Shrine was one such people and delivered talks in a clever and humorous style. His was not an academic style of Shinto that sought its foundation in scriptures but rather drew freely from the three religions of Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism to apply Shinto to problems both spiritual and practical. He preached of a morality applicable to the commoner such as harmony between husband and wife and equality between men and women, and taught a fundamental principle of Shinto was that people should strive to live up to their standing, all of which were teachings commoners sought as they lived in a status-based society.[122]
The religious education activities of these lecturers influenced the Shinto followers of the next era. Masakane Inoue, a clergy member of Umeda Shinmei Shrine, established theMisogikyō sect of Shinto and taught the practice ofchōsoku (調息), proper breathing, and of reciting theSanju-no-Ōharae (三種祓) while leaving one's fate in the hands of thekami. He gained many followers this way, but the shogunate grew suspicious of him and he was banished toMiyakejima.[123]Kurozumikyō was another sect established by Kurozumi Munetada, a clergy member of Imamura-gū Shrine in which he taught all were one withAmaterasu regardless of social class, teachings which spread widely across the different social ranks.[123]
Additionally,Ishida Baigan, founder ofSekimon-shingaku which would become the largest sect among the populace in the early modern period, was influence by these Shinto lecturers in his youth, leading him to place an emphasis on the medieval Shinto virtue of honesty as he found harmony between the teachings of Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism to express concepts to the common people and merchant class.[124]
In the late Edo period,Ninomiya Sontoku preached hishōtoku shisō (報徳思想; gratitude mentality) which consisted of the four principles of sincerity, diligence, economy (living within one's means), and service (giving to others) as "the great path of genesis" and "the great path of Shinto" as Amaterasu had openedToyoashihara (豊葦原; the field of abundant reeds) in the form of the land ofMizuho. He described his own teachings as an amalgamation of Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism with a good helping of Shinto and dashes of Buddhism and Confucianism.[125]
During the Edo period, while Buddhism held a state religion-like status under theterauke system, it stagnated intellectually as a whole.[126] In the intellectual sphere, Confucianism, particularly theCheng–Zhu school, flourished greatly as it was effective as an ideology to support the shogun-daimyo system and preached ethics suitable for the secularism of the Edo period. Buddhism, with its rejection of worldly matters, faced much criticism from Confucianists who saw it as incompatible with secular ethics.[127]
In tandem with the rise of Cheng–Zhu Confucianism, mainstream Shinto theories shifted from Shinto-Buddhism syncretism to Confucian Shinto. While there were Shinto theories advocated for by theYangmingism faction, such as those fromNakae Tōju's Taikyo Shinto (太虚神道,Taikyo Shintō)], most of these Shinto theories were formed by those in the Cheng–Zhu school. Although Confucian thought was also incorporated into Shinto-Buddhism syncretised ideology, Confucian Shinto differed in that it explicitly criticized Buddhism and sought to break away from its influence. At the same time, Confucian Shinto's logical structure was heavily influenced by medieval esoteric traditions in such a way that the Buddhist theories of Shinto-Buddhism syncretism were replaced with Cheng–Zhu Confucianism theories such that it could be said this was a transition period between the Middle Ages and the early modern period.[128]
The forerunner of Confucian Shinto wasHayashi Razan. As Hayashi spread Cheng–Zhu Confucianism knowledge throughout Japan, he studied Shinto, wroteShintō Denshū (神道伝授; "The Transmission of Shinto") andHonchō Jinjakō (本朝神社考; "An Examination of the Shrines of our Realm"), and formed his own Shinto theory known asRitō Shinchi Shinto. According to his ideology, the Confucian concept ofLi was one in the same with Shinto'skami, and Li's ultimate manifestation was thekamiKuni-no-Tokotachi, which effectively merged Confucianism's Li with Shinto'skami.[129] Furthermore, Hayashi advocated for the idea of Japan as a divine land and criticized Buddhism with claims that pre-Buddhism Japan was superior and purer. Additionally, using a lens of Sinocentricism, he claimedEmperor Jimmu was a descendent ofTaibo and theThree Sacred Treasures were an expression of Confucianism's Three Vitues, and therefore Japan had long belonged to theSinosphere which was why Japan had such an advanced civilization.[129] He also claimed Shinto was in fact a political system given to the emperor byAmaterasu and handed down through the generations, called the rituals of the average shrine and festivals held by the people "Shinto of witchcraft and plays", and rejected those who practiced them as mere actors.[129]
Changes were seen in Yoshida Shinto as well. Yoshikawa Koretari (吉川惟足), a merchant at the time, joined the Yoshida family and was made the official successor by the head of the Yoshida family, Hagiwara Kaneyori. Yoshikawa removed Buddhist discourse from Yoshida Shinto and added in a significant amount of Confucian discourse, creatingYoshikawa Shinto. Beliefs of Yoshikawa Shinto included, foremost, that Shinto was the source of all things, as well as that Kuni-no-Tokotachi presided over the entire world, and that that world and humans within it were created by thekami, which were one in the same with the Confucian concept of Li. Because of this, the human body was certain to contain Li, making humans fundamentally one with thekami. However, humans’ divine wisdom was clouded by impurity, and they must return to their natural form through self-restraint.[130] Specific methods for which this was accomplished was purification of the self, both inside and out, demonstrations of sincerity through the conducting of rituals, and praying to thekami.[130] It was also believed that Confucianism's Five Great Relationships were a duty given to humanity by thekami, with the ruler-subjects relationship being of particular importance.[130]
EvenIse Shinto saw the rejection of Buddhist teachings and adoption of Confucian philosophy in the early Edo period through the priest Deguchi Nobuyoshi to form Late Ise Shinto (後期伊勢神道,Kōki Ise Shintō). Deguchi wrote several works on Shinto theory includingDaijingū Shintō Wakumon (太神宮神道或問; "Answering Questions of the Shinto of the Great Shrine") andYōbuku-ki (陽復記; "Record of the Winter Solstice") in which he stated the true nature of Shinto was a path that was only natural for the Japanese people to take for their daily lives, an everyday path for carrying out one's duty with an honest and pure heart. He argued one must keep thekami in mind during every moment of their daily lives, from moving their limbs to eating and drinking, and that it was wrong to think of Shinto as simply reciting prayers or holding atamagushi at a shrine's ritual.[131] While he did admit that, ultimately, all religions are a common and universal path which align with each other and that Shinto and Confucianism in particular had many aspects in common, he argued that the governmental systems and cultural practices of each country are different and the Japanese people should respect Japanese law and customs. Therefore, he argued it was wrong to use Confucianism and Buddhism for the purpose of creating a syncretized system. He claimed that while he did use Confucianism himself, it was only because it naturally had commonalities with Shinto. He was not attempting to force a merging of the two religions.[131] He also went on to say that there was nothing wrong with studying Confucianism or Buddhism so long as one's central focus was on Shinto, and that it was against the natural progression of things, and therefore unaligned with Shinto, to ban Confucianism or Buddhism or eliminate current customs with some claim they were harmful.[131]
These Confucian Shinto theories were compiled byYamazaki Ansai. After making a name for himself as a Confucianist, Yamazaki was employed byHoshina Masayuki, thedaimyō of theAizu Domain, where he met Yoshikawa Koretari, who was also a tutor for Hoshino, and learned Yoshikawa Shinto. This resulted in Yamazaki creating his own form of Shinto, Suika Shinto (垂加神道,Suika Shintō). Suika Shinto linked the Neo-Confucian school of Cheng-zhu to theKamiyo-nanayokami and identified Kuni-no-Tokotachi as the Confucian concept oftaiji. He also claimed the fivekami born after Kuni-no-Tokotachi were theFive Agents of wuxing, and the finalkami created of those,Izanami andIzanagi, brought together the Five Agents to create the earth, thekami, and humans. The spirits of thesekami that created humanity also reside within humans, and humans andkami together are united as one in the "sole way of heaven and man".[132] In addition, he stated Shinto was the way in which humans live in accordance with thekami, that humans must receive divine protection from thekami through prayer, and that they must be honest in that prayer. The most important thing for achieving that honesty was the Confucian concept ofjing. Similarly to Yoshikawa Shinto, there was a strong focus on the ruler-subjects relationship. The ruler-subjects relationship was not seen as one of opposition or power, but rather that rulers and subjects were one unified group, and a true ruler-subjects relationship in Shinto was the one which had long protected Japan through the two protecting each other.[132] The relationship between the sovereign and the vassal is not one of rivalry or power, but one of unity, and the sovereign and the vassal have protected the country through their mutual protection.[132] This had a significant impact on later attitudes of reverence towards the emperor.
After Yamazaki Ansai's death, his pupil Ōgimachi Kinmichi succeeded him, and Suika Shinto flourished, spreading across Japan from its focal points inEdo and Kyoto where it was widely taken up by the nobility, warrior class, and priesthood and became the greatest influence in the Shinto world.[133] After Ōgimachi's death, his pupil Tamaki Masahide succeeded him and systemized his one, two, three, and fourfold secret teachings which placed his writings in theJijushō (持授抄) as the ultimate great mystery. In addition to his systemization of Suika Shinto, he created his own Shinto theory,Kikke Shinto.[133] This move of transforming Suika Shinto thought into secret teachings was criticized by some, such as Kawabayashi Kyōsai, as they felt it obscured Yamazaki Ansai's original intentions.[134]
Forms of Shinto passed down by families were also influenced by Suika Shinto leading to a widespread move to create doctrines for and systemize them. Examples of Shinto influenced in this way include Kikke Shinto, as mentioned previously, as well as Hakke Shinto (伯家神道,Hakke Shintō) of the Shirakawa clan andTsuchimikado Shinto, a form of Onmyōdo Shinto.
One of Tamaki Masahide's pupils, Yoshimi Yukikazu, wrote theGōbusho Setsuben (五部書説弁; "An Explanation of the Gōbusho") and provided grounds to argue thatShintōGōbusho were fake writings of the Middle Ages while also criticizing Ise Shinto and Yoshida Shinto in addition to Suika Shinto, which used theShintō Gōbusho as its central texts. During this period, Yoshimi become a pupil ofKeichū.[133] This transition reflected a trend of the times in which mainstream Shinto theory shifted from Suika Shinto tokokugaku. In fact, Suika Shinto theory began to stagnate after Tamaki Masahide and was overtaken bykokugaku as the primary theory.[133]
In conjunction with this trend of anti-Buddhist ideology, a movement to separate Buddhism and Shinto spread through a portion of the daimyo.Tokugawa Mitsukuni of theMito Domain conducted an investigation into the history of those shrines with particularly significant signs of Shinto-Buddhist syncretism and consolidated or closed shrines in such a way as to eliminate these Buddhist aspects.Hoshina Masayuki of theAizu Domain also did similar consolidation.[135]Ikeda Mitsumasa of theOkayama Domain encouraged Buddhist monks from theFuju-fuse subsect ofNichiren and the combined schools ofTendai andShingon to renounce their vows, while at the same time reducing the number of temples and recommending Shinto funeral ceremonies over the standard Buddhist ones of the time.[135] In 1647, Matsudaira Naomasa, leader of theMatsue Domain, ledIzumo-taisha, a shrine which had been influenced by Suika Shinto, in eliminating all Buddhist element.
Thekokugaku field of academic thought began to flourish during the mid-Edo period in place of Confucian Shinto. While the origin ofkokugaku can be seen in the poems of Kinoshita Chōshōshi, Kise Sanshi, Toda Mosui, Shimokōbe Chōryū,Kitamura Kigin and other poets of the early-Edo period who rejected the Middle Ages-style poetry norms, it was the monkKeichū who disseminated and providedphilological annotations for this poetry.[136] Keichū travelled from temple to temple as he dedicated himself to the study of Japanese literature. His writings, includingMan'yō Daishōki (万葉代匠記) andWaji Shōranshō (和字正濫鈔), are achievements in the empirical study of poetry and the study of the use of hiragana, which established a method for researching Japanese classical texts empirically rather than through a lens of Buddhist or Confucian doctrine.[137]
Keichū was succeeded byKada no Azumamaro who was born into the Higashi-Hakura family who served as priests atFushimi Inari-taisha. He later moved to Edo to lecture. While Azumamaro did not officially become Keichū’s pupil, his collections of texts included many works written by Keichū such as hisMan'yō Daishōki. Azumamaro's own annotation work on theMan'yōshū, hisMan'yōshū Hekianshō (万葉集僻案抄), also imitates large sections of Keichū’s arguments, making it clear he was heavily influenced by Keichū’s work.[138] As can be seen in Azumamaro'sSōgakkōkei (創学校啓), he intended to systemize the study of history, theology, and customs of the ruling classes into one academic school he calledwagaku (和学). It was he that began to integrate Shinto and language research (through Keichū and other related scholars) into the school ofkokugaku.[136]
Kamo no Mabuchi was born into a branch of theKamo clan, the family which inherited the position as priests at theKamo shrines, and studied under Sugiura Kuniakira and other pupils of Azumamaro. He later travelled to Edo and studied directly under Azumamaro and became a prominentkokugaku scholar after Azumamaro's death where he became employed byTokugawa Munetake on recommendation of Kada no Arimaro. Mabuchi also studied the Man’yōshū, part of which included his research into ritual incantations callednorito, and wrote annotated texts such as hisManyō-kō (万葉考; "A Study of the Man'yōshū"),Kanji-kō (冠辞考; "A Study ofMakurakotoba"), andNorito-kō (祝詞考; "A Study of Norito"). Additionally, after presenting a systematic methodology for expanding from the study of ancient language to ancient ideals and ways in hisKokui-kō (国意考 ; "A Study of National Thought"),[139] Mabuchi added intokokugaku philosophy an anti-Confucian view that valued the Japan of old.[136] His philosophy argued that it was in fact because Confucianism preached morality that it caused strife, whereas ancient Japan had itsnaoki-kokoro (直き心; "honest heart") which was a convergence of reverence for the two great concepts of thekami and the emperor, which innately calms society without preaching on morality. To achieve this spirit of ancient Japan, one must study the poetry of the Man’yoshū and practice composing one's own poetry. The composition of poetry is itself the essence ofkokugaku.[140] However, Mabuchi only touched briefly on the contents of this ancient path, only in his comparisons between it and Confucian ethics.[141] He did speak of its similarities with Toaism, but he never directly drew a system of philosophy from ancient Japanese texts or developedkokugaku into a systemized theology.[136]
Mabuchi was followed byMotoori Norinaga who grewkokugaku. Norinaga was born into a merchant family and had an interest in studying Japanese classics and poetry alongside his study of medicine. He continued his dedicated study ofkokugaku while practicing medicine. He met Mabuchi and became his pupil when he was 34 where he would remain to study until Mabuchi's death. In addition to continuing the literary and linguistic studies began by Keichū, Norinaga significantly developed Shinto theology withinkokugaku. He argued that Confucianism with its preaching of morality was a false path created by Confucian sages to control the people, and when they claimed a country was difficult to rule due to improper customs, it was in fact an attempt to rule with force.[142] He also criticized Confucianism for Heaven always supporting the sages as well as theMandate of Heaven, which determines theSon of Heaven, for being simply a method for allowing one to justify oneself as the king of stolen lands.[143] In contrast, Japan had since ancient times never had teachings like Confucianism and Buddhism, yet the descendants ofAmaterasu had continued to rule over the country despite this lack of paltry wisdom, with the imperial line running unbroken with no chaos whatsoever. Evidence he gave in support of this was that Japan had never seen a change in dynasties, while China, which had the teachings of Confucianism, had seen the ruler killed and replaced several times.[144] He went on to criticize Confucian and Buddhist Shinto for their interpretations of Shinto through Buddhist or Confucian doctrine, arguing that scholars must not interpret Shinto texts with suchSinocentric philosophy and should instead conduct empirical research.[145]
Norinaga also argued that the philosophy of theCheng-Zhu school ofneo-Confucianism which stated the world is composed ofyin and yang, andli andqi was nothing more than an unfounded theory the sages created through mere speculation.[146] He also criticizedTaoism and its view that the universe exists "by itself and of itself",[147] instead saying that all phenomena of the universe are governed by thekami. The reason why bad things happen in a world governed by thekami is due to the work of the evilkami, Magatsuhi-no-kami. Additionally, he viewed myths as facts and claimed it was disrespecting thekami to attempt to explain existence's workings with logic such as in the theory of li and qi, and instead developed an agnostic theory which claimed these things were beyond the scope of human comprehension.[148]
Norinaga received criticism for his theology in which myths were seen as truth, even from his fellowkokugaku scholars. Fujitani Matsue criticized Norinaga's annotation of theKojiki, arguing that the words of myths and poems were not like every day language but were ratherkotodama, words of power, that represented something other than what they appeared to represent and therefore should be taken not as fact but understood as scripture.[149] His theology was also criticized by Tachibana Moribe and Murata Harumi.
After Norinaga, eachkokugaku scholar became more specialized in their field of study.[136] The linguistics and philology side of Norinaga's study was taken up by Ban Nobutomo,Motoori Ōhira, andMotoori Haruniwa, whereas Norinaga's "pupil after death"Hirata Atsutane focused primarily on his study of the ancient ways and theology.
Japan saw significant changes at the beginning of the late Edo period, such as in the repeated attacks from foreign ships, and a new Shinto philosophy was born in the midst of these changing social conditions.
In the 18th century and prior to that, "Shinto had moved away from its roots as a cult of nature worship to become intertwined with Buddhism and Confucianism."[150] In the 1730,Kada Azumamaro,Kamo Mabuchi, and their followers wanted to create a new Shinto that restored what they saw as traditional, indigenous Japanese practices and "ancient rites".[150]
Hirata Atsutane, who referred to himself as the “pupil after death” ofMotoori Norinaga after being visited by him in a dream, wrote several works includingTama no Mihashira (霊の真柱; "True Pillar of the Spirit"),Koshiden (古史伝; "Commentary on Ancient History"), andHonkyō Gaihen (本教外篇; "Outer Chapters of Our Doctrine") and organized a new type of Shinto calledFukko Shinto while adopting Norinaga’s theology though he was critical of some aspects. Atsutane stated that in order for one to cultivate aYamato spirit, one must know where the spirit goes, and his ideology placed an emphasis on the world after death, claiming that the current world we live in is a false world kept in existence byŌkuninushi in order to evaluate an individual’s virtue.[151] He believed the universe was formed of three aspects—heaven, earth, andyomi—and rejected the Shinto belief that people go toyomi after death. Instead, he claimed that upon death, one’s spirit travels to Ōkuninushi’syūmeikai (幽冥界; lit. "gloom world") located within the earth aspect, and Ōkuninushi would judge the person on their deeds in life there.[152]Yūmeikai was a land ruled over by Ōkuninushi, located alongside theKotoamatsukami, and was the counterpart to thekenmeikai (顕明界; lit. "bright world") ruled by the emperor.[153] As theyūmeikai was still in earth, the spirits of the dead who had gone there were able to watch over those still living. This was applying an explanation to long-held Japanese views on the nature of the soul and also provided a theoretical underpinning for Shinto funerals.[154] He also claimed the myths of all countries, from Chinese and Indian mythology, to even the story of Adam and Eve in Christianity were in fact altered versions of Japanese myths simply expressing the same truths in different words.[155] It is believed that Atsutane’s beliefs regarding the character of his ruling deity and his judgements after death were heavily influenced by Christianity.[156] In hisShūjōshōgo (出定笑語), Atsutane was harshly critical of Buddhism, while, though he was critical of Confucianism in hisTamadasuki (玉襷) for “babbling on about nothing more than Chinese philosophy without knowing the ancient ways,” he did agree with Confucianist ethics.[157] Unlike Norinaga who was critical of primarily Confucianism in his theories on the ancient ways, Atsutane who actualized the religious nature ofkokugaku saw not Confucianism but Buddhism as his primary adversary.[158]
In this way, Hirata Atsutane moved away from Norinaga’spositivist research and offered a Shinto theory integrated with many religious aspects. This resulted in criticism from otherkokugaku scholars of the period that had been pupils of Norinaga such asMotoori Ōhira and Ban Nobutomo. At the same time, his theology drew many to study beneath him including Ōkuni Takamasa, Yano Harumichi, Maruyama Sakura, Gonda Naosuke, and Fukuba Bisei who would become influential in the restoration of imperial rule and the formation of religious policies in the early Meiji period.[159]
Another force that emerged as the Shogunate was coming to an end was lateMitogaku. Mitogaku was a school of thought that emerged from theMito Domain and an academic field that originated whenTokugawa Mitsukuni began theDai Nihonshi. Early Mitogaku was a Confucianist school of thought characterized by its work on historical compilation and a view of history founded in the Cheng-Zhu-school-like concept of hierarchical distinction between rulers and vassals which developed up to the 18th century led primarily by Asaka Tanpaku, Sassa Munekiyo, Kuriyama Senpō, and Miyake Kanran.[160] In the beginning of the 19th century, Japan was beset with troubles both domestic and foreign, such as in the form of pressure from foreign powers and the decline of the Tokugawa shogunate, and the academic school built up by early Mitogaku merged withkokugaku which then began speaking on societal ideals and actively providing suggestions for politics based in reality rather than ideals.[161] This style of scholarship is called late Mitogaku which was led by Tachihara Suiken, student ofFujita Yūkoku who had been influenced byOgyū Sorai’s teachings, and was then further developed by Tachihara’s students,Fujita Tōko andAizawa Seishisai. In Tōko’sKōdōkan Kijutsugi (弘道館記述義), he traces the unbroken imperial line first described in Japanese myth and rejected the system of Chinese dynasties which saw assassinations and transfers of power, while also criticizing the dynasties ofXia,Shang, andZhou which had become viewed as divine eras in Confucianism.[162] At this point, Confucianism had lost its guaranteed position within Mitogaku.[162] However, Tōko also criticizedkokugaku, expressing disagreement with Norinaga’s position that Confucian ethics were in opposition to human nature, instead taking the view that Confucianism’s ethics were valuable as, ever since its creation, Japan inherently had the Confucian values of loyalty, filial piety, benevolence, and justice.[163] He was also harshly critical ofShinto-Buddhist syncretism, claiming that it would lead to the breakdown of the country but did praise Buddhism as an effective means for educating the people.[164]
Later, Aizawa Seishisai made his arguments public through hisShinron (新論; “New Theory”). To counter Christianity—which he considered a means for invasion from the outside—and maintain Japan’s independence, he outlined his views on the structure of the country, which included the view thatAmaterasu placed rule of Japan with the long line of emperors and that all people of Japan from all classes were involved in some way in the governance of Japan as they maintained the place in society of the rulers and the ruled.[165] He also integrated the Confucian values of loyalty and filial piety into his arguments, stating the people fulfil the value of loyalty by having served the emperor as his vassals through the generations, which is a manifestation of filial piety as people take on the work done by their ancestors.[165] He also argued theDaijōsai was a ceremony meant to affirm the unity of emperor and people[165] and applied Confucianism to the interpretation of Japanese myth by arguing that theTenjōmukyū no Shinchoku (天壌無窮の神勅; lit. "divine decree as eternal as heaven and earth") seen in theNihon Shoki in which Amaterasu commandsNinigi-no-Mikoto and his descendants to rule Japan is the beginning of loyalty in the ruler-subject relationship of the Five Relationships, and that theHōkyō Hōsai no Shinchoku (宝鏡奉斎の神勅; lit. "divine decree to enshrine the mirror") which commanded the people to worship theYata-no-Kagami as if it were Amaterasu herself was the beginning of the filial piety in the parent-child relationship.[166] In this way, he linked Shinto and Confucianism with the belief that this was proof that human morality had been established in Japan long ago.
Late Mitogaku became a nursing ground for imperialists of the late Edo period such asYoshida Shōin to develop their ideas.[167]
The Decree for the Restoration of Imperial Rule (王政復古の大号令,Ōsei Fukko no Daigō-rei) was issued in 1867. The decree was drafted bykokugaku scholar Tamamatsu Mahiro, advisor toIwakura Tomomi. The sloganJinmu Sōgyō (神武創業; "Jinmu’s founding") was used to invoke the first emperor, supporting the legitimacy of the emperor today. The government focused first on Shinto as a means to support its goals of uniting government with religion and putting direct rule with the emperor and as such reestablished theJingi-kan which was placed on the same level as theDaijō-kan.[168] A position calledsenkyō-shi (宣教使) was established within the Jingi-kan which was responsible for the promulgation of Shinto in accordance with theTaikyo Proclamation.[169] On 28 March 1868, theShinbutsu Hanzen-rei (神仏判然令; "Order for Distinguishing Shinto and Buddhism") was issued, along with a directive ordering Buddhist monks who had become involved in ceremonies at Shinto shrines such asbettō andshasō (社僧) to be stripped of their Buddhist monk status and made into Shinto priests. Buddhist titles and rankings forkami such asdaibosatsu (大菩薩) andgongen (権現) were abolished, and Buddhist paraphernalia within shrines such as statues andstupas were required to be relocated to a Buddhist temple outside the shrine’s grounds.[170] However, a loose interpretation by some of the Shinbutsu Hanzen-rei resulted in an extreme form ofhaibutsu kishaku, the rejection of Buddhism, which led to the destruction of Buddhist temples and statues by some lower-ranking government officials influenced by the anti-Buddhist ideals ofHirata Atsutane’s branch ofkokugaku, Shinto priests who remained resentful towards Buddhist temples which had been in a position of power during the Edo period due to the temple certificate system (寺請制,terauke-sei), and a subsection of the common people.[170] On 22 June 1868, the government released a notice stating, “the separation of Shinto and Buddhism does not mean the rejection of Buddhism,” in an attempt to curb thishaibutsu kishaku. TheKoki Kyūbutsu Hozon-kata (古器旧物保存方; "Plan for the Preservation of Ancient Artifacts") was enacted in 1871 and the destruction of Buddhist objects did subside. However, while thishaibutsu kishaku lasted for only a short period, its impact was extensive and resulted in the loss of many Buddhist works of art.[171]
Shugendō andOnmyōdō were also abolished. Onmyōdō was abolished in 1870 andonmyōshi (陰陽師; government officials of Onmyōdō) were released from government service to become private religious practitioners. Shugendō was abolished in 1872 and official practitioners left the government to become private practitioners or transferred into either theShingon orTendai Buddhist sects.[172]
Furthermore, a new system for ranking shrines based on the system from the period ofRitsuryō was introduced, called themodern system of ranked Shinto shrines (近代社格制度), giving shrines government-issued rankings.[173] Shrines were divided into two broad categories, those with these official rankings, calledkansha (官社), and those without, calledshosha (諸社). Thekansha were then further divided intokanpeisha (官幣社), which received theirheihaku from the national treasury for theKinen-sai,Niiname-sai, and regular important festivals, and those that received theirheihaku from their regional government. These were then further divided into major, mid, and minor shrines withIse Shrine placed in its own category above.[173]Shosha were divided intofusha (府社) andkensha (県社) where citizens of the prefectures worshipped, andgōsha (郷社) where residents of villages worshipped. There were also unranked shrines (無格社,mukakusha) which belonged to none of these categories. These and theshosha fell within the regional governors’ jurisdictions.[173]
In 1875, theShikibu-shō publishedJinja Saishiki (神社祭式; "Shinto Rituals"), standardizing ceremonies at shrines throughout the country for the first time.[174] This ordinance set the attendees and schedule of ceremonies at the various festivals held at the shrines, establishing set proceedings including a schedule for opening of the shrine, the offering of food, the offering of other goods, the reading ofnorito, the offering oftamagushi, the removal of offered goods, the removal of offered food, and closing of the shrine.[174] In 1907, theHome Ministry issued theJinja Saishiki Gyōji Sahō (神社祭式行事作法; "Shrine Ceremonies Event Etiquette") standardizing the etiquette for worshipping at shrines across the country.[174] In 1914,Taisho Imperial Ordinance No. 9Jingū Saishi-rei (神宮祭祀令; Ordinance on the Ceremonies of Ise Shrine) was issued which divided the festivals of Ise Shrine into major festivals (Kinen-sai, Niiname-sai, regularly scheduled festivals,relocation ceremonies, and unscheduled ritual offerings), mid festivals (Saitan-sai, Genshi-sai, Kigensetsu-sai, Tenchōsetsu-sai, Meijisetsu-sai, and other rituals with special history), and minor festivals (all other festivals).[174] At the same time, Taisho Imperial Ordinance No. 10Kankokuheisha-ika Jinja Saishi-rei (官国幣社以下神社祭祀令; Ordinance on the Ceremonies of Imperial and National Shrines and Below) was issued, doing the same to all nationally recognized shrines.[174] Ceremonies in the imperial palace were standardized in theKōshitsu Saishi-rei (皇室祭祀令 ; Imperial Household Rites Ordinance) and its supplements.[174] In addition, theTōkyoku-rei (登極令; Ascension Ordinance) andRiccho-rei (立儲令) formalized the ceremonies for the emperor’s ascension,Sokui-no-rei, theDaijosai, and the Investiture as Crown Prince.[175]
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In 1871, the issuing ofDajō-kan Proclamation (太政官布告,Dajō-kan Fukoku) 234 designated ceremonies at shrines as state rituals. This drastically changed the nature of shrines and Shinto that existed prior to this modern era, forming the system that would come to be known asState Shinto in which shrines were under state administration.
Kokugaku scholars of theHirata school formed the central core of the government and aimed to unify government and religion (saisei itchi) and establish Shinto as the state religion, but progressive, influential members of the government such asItō Hirobumi andIwakura Tomomi instead aimed for the separation of church and state. In 1870,Tamamatsu Masao left the government after a clash with Iwakura. In 1871, Shintoists of thesaisei itchi faction—Yano Harumichi,Gonda Naosuke,Tsunoda Tadayuki,Maruyama Sakura—were arrested for their involvement with theTwo Lords Incident and exiled.[176]
In 1875, thefreedom of religion became guaranteed by law, and a Cabinet notice in 1882 designated Shinto as non-religious. In a reversal of the government’s original aim of unifying state and religion cameSecular Shrine Theory which applied an official character to Shinto which was now outside the realm of religion. TheMeiji Constitution which was enacted in 1890 contained no mention of Shinto.[177] Now that Shinto had come to be seen as state “rituals”, the existing hereditary system of the priesthood was abolished under the reason that no one family should monopolize a position, and priests were instead trained and appointed in the same way as other public servants.[173] As shrines were now non-religious institutions, the priests of officially recognized shrines were forbidden from engaging in religious activities, preventing them from conducting Shinto funeral services or preaching Shinto doctrine.[178] This resulted in a sudden loss of power forshake Shinto sects that had existed until that point, such asYoshida Shinto andIse Shinto. In 1871, land owned by shrines and temples other than the direct grounds were seized by the government with the issuance of theShaji-ryō Jōchi-rei (社寺領上知令; Shrine and Temple Territory Seizure Order).[172]
In 1871, theDepartment of Divinities which had been formed at the outset of theMeiji Restoration was downgraded into theMinistry of Divinities and made into a branch of theDaijō-kan. In 1872, administration of shrines was merged into a new department called theMinistry of Religion which controlled all religious activities, and the Ministry of Divinities was abolished. In 1877, it was downgraded further into theBureau of Shrines which was nothing more than a bureau within theHome Ministry. Later in 1877, it was then merged with the administration of temples into theBureau of Shrines and Temples.[179] The Ministry of Religion had implemented a system of religious teachers calledkyodoshoku which involved a combined effort by Shinto priests and Buddhist monks to instil patriotism and love for the emperor in the people. However, this system quickly collapsed due to conflict between the Shinto and Buddhist sides.[180] Additionally, those who were working askyodo shoku were only allowed to spread the so-calledsanjō kyōsoku (三条教則; three teachings) which taught patriotism and respect for the emperor and were forbidden from preaching on the teachings or doctrines of Shinto or Buddhism.[181] After the dissolution of the Ministry of Religion, theBureau of Shinto Affairs was established by priests and others with connections to Shinto to carry on the activities of the Ministry of Religion. However, a debate developed around the Bureau over whether or notŌkuninushi should be added to the Bureau’s shrine.[178] In 1882, theKōten Kōkyūsho was established by taking over the dorms for the priests in study at the Bureau of Shinto Affairs. In 1890, theKokugakuin (國學院), an educational institution, was established within the Kōten Kōkyūsho which later expanded intoKokugakuin University, a university for Shinto education.[182] Similarly, theKōgakkan (皇學館) which would later become another Shinto university,Kogakkan University, was established in 1882 on order of the master of ceremonies ofIse Shrine in the shrine’s Hayashizaki Library.[183]
When the administration of shrines was merged into the Bureau of Shrines and Temples in 1877, shrines of the prefectural rank and below were deemed religious in the same way as temples, and Shinto priests lost their status as civil servants. Then, in 1879, these shrines no longer received public funds. Public funds had no longer been used for paying priest salaries as of 1873.[179] While priests of imperial and national shrines retained their status as civil servants, in 1887, the implementation of the system for the preservation of imperial and national shrines (官国幣社保存金制度,kankoku heisha hozonkin seido) which made it so that these priests would receive public funds for only the next ten years. These changes separating government and shrines was following a new policy of separation of church and state[184]
The aforementionedShaji-ryō Jōchi-rei (社寺領上知令; Shrine and Temple Territory Seizure Order) issued in 1871 damaged the financial state of shrines and temples, but shrines were hit particularly hard as the stance that shrines were non-religious had forbidden shrines from earning money through religious services such as funerals and now no longer received public funds either, while temples were expected to earn from their religious services.[172] This placed shrines in a difficult financial situation throughout theMeiji era.
Also at the beginning of the Meiji era, several shrines were built for the worship of those who contributed significantly to the country such asYasukuni Shrine which enshrines those who died in service to their country,Minatogawa Shrine which enshrinesKusunoki Masashige of theSouthern Court,Kamakura-gū which enshrinesPrince Morinaga, and the Kikuchi Shrines which enshrine members of the Kikuchi clan.[185]
In contrast, the Meiji government combined a large number of shrines. This occurred in tangent with the rural improvement movement (地方改良運動,chihō kairyō undo) and reorganizing primarily the shrines closely linked to their regions such as village shrines and unranked shrines, reducing the number of shrines from 190,000 to 130,000.[186] This process was criticized by several such as naturalistMinakata Kumagusu and folkloristKunio Yanagita.
With Shinto shrines cut off from public funding, theShinto priesthood established theNational Association of Shinto Priests, demanding that if Shinto was the country’s state religion, then the state had a responsibility to fund it, and led a movement to reestablish theDepartment of Divinities.[187] This resulted in 1894 in the issuance of the Imperial Ordinance Regarding the Priesthood of Prefectural Shrines and Below (府県社以下神社ノ神職ニ関スル件 ), which established all clergy of prefectural shrines and below as salaried government officials appointed to their position by their local governor.[187] In 1896, the Proposal to Reinstate the Department of Divinities was brought before theHouse of Representatives, but the proposal failed.[187] However, in 1900, theHome Ministry’sBureau of Shrines and Temples was split into theBureau of Shrines and theBureau of Religions, providing a clear, if superficial, division between the administration of Shinto and other religions.[187] In 1906, the system for the preservation of imperial and national shrines was abolished, and state and imperial shrines were provided with permanent government funding, while local governments were given permission to provide funds to shrines of the prefectural level and below to be used for both edible and non-edible offerings.[187]
However, the amount of funds allocated to a state or imperial shrine was required to stay within the framework of the now defunct preservation system, limiting yearly disbursements to 210,000 yen adjusted for inflation[when?] which was close to a tenth of the operating costs of a shrine as large as a state or imperial one.[188] And while local governments were allowed to provide an offering fee to a prefectural or lower shrine, they were not required to.[188] For these reasons, these changes did not significantly improve the economic situation of shrines.[188]
Additionally, the new Bureau of Shrines of the Home Ministry was passive in its administration of Shinto. The Bureau was firm in its stance that Shinto was not religious, endeavored to prohibit the transmission of religious ideology specific to Shinto, and strictly restricted the religious activities of the priesthood such as the performance of Shinto funerals and proselytization.[189] The Bureau also worked to limit conflict between Shinto and other religions, stating that those foreign religions had all been assimilated into the national ethos and therefore must not be challenged.[190] With this foundation, Shintoist Ashizu Uzuhiko argued that the Bureau of Shrines’s primary duty was to completely undo any attempts to form a Shinto ideology, to wipe clean the Shinto ethos, and to eliminate any expressions of a unique Shinto way of thinking, all while striving to find peaceful resolutions for conflicts between Shinto and all other legally recognized religions such as Buddhism and Christianity so that State Shinto could exist without contradicting the division of church and state.[191] The Bureau of Shrines was itself treated as a third-class bureau within the Home Ministry. The director general position of the Bureau was treated as nothing more than a place for people to receive an official posting before moving on to become prefectural governors or the heads of more influential bureaus, making it a sort of one- to two-year stop along a politician’s career path before moving on to their next assignment, and many would have never read anynorito or Shinto classical texts before receiving the post.[192]
At the start of 1940, the Bureau of Shrines was reformed into theInstitute of Divinities, but the Institute never implemented any significant policies and was then abolished after Japan's defeat duringWorld War II.[193]
ThisState Shinto system which had eliminated the expression of Shinto philosophy and wiped clean the Shinto ethos drew criticism from opposing Shinto priests and philosophers, some of whom laid out their own Shinto philosophy or created non-government Shinto organizations.
Of particularly great influence among these organizations were the thirteen sects ofSect Shinto. This usually refers toKurozumikyō,Shinto Shusei,Izumo-taishakyo,Fuso-kyo,Jikkō kyō,Shinshu-kyo,Shintō Taiseikyō,Ontake-kyō,Shintō Taikyō,Misogikyo,Shinrikyo,Konkokyo, andTenrikyo.Jingūkyō was originally included in this as well but was later restructured into the Jingū Hōsaikai (神宮奉斎会) and withdrew itself. These sects began emerging in the lateEdo period having laid their foundation with folk beliefs and the Shinto philosophies of the modern era and then expanded under the religious administration of theMeiji era.[194] In 1875, theMinistry of Religion abolished thekyōdo shōku position, and State Shinto separated itself from all religious aspects on the basis of theSecular Shrine Theory as discussed above. With priests now banned from proselytizing, these Shinto sects rapidly developed systems for proselytization as they became forces for spreading the Shinto religious philosophy. Over time, theBureau of Shinto Affairs publicly acknowledged the independence of these organizations as members of Sect Shinto, resulting in thirteen officially acknowledged sects.[194]
Tenrikyo in particular grew rapidly stronger from the mid-Meiji era onward, becoming the sect that was able to gain the greatest number of followers.[195] Tenrikyo has its origin in a divine revelationNakayama Miki was said to have received in 1838. She then took the words of thekami who spoke to her,Tenri-ō, and wrote them out aswaka poetry to create theOfudesaki, creating the sect’s religious philosophy.[196] The Ofudesaki preaches theJoyous Life ideal and places an emphasis on the relationship between husband and wife, but does not emphasise family or filial piety.[196] It has a unique creation myth which differs significantly from what is written in theKojiki andNihon Shoki in which Tsukihi Oyagami (月日親神) (another name for Tenri-ō) finds a fish with a human face namedIzanagi and a snake namedIzanami in a sea of mud and teaches them the ways of reproduction as husband and wife, resulting in the birth of humanity. Tsukihi Oyagami then charges tenkami, of which Izanagi and Izanami are included, in protecting humanity.[196]
Also of importance is the emergence of Oomoto which has its origins in 1892 when thekamiUshitora no Konjin is said to have spoken through FoundressNao Deguchi who then went on to record those words in writing.[197] In 1898, Deguchi met Kisaburō Ueda, who would becomeOnisaburo Deguchi, the Holy Teacher. In 1900, he married Nao Deguchi’s daughter and was adopted into the Deguchi family as amukoyōshi and began working with Nao Deguchi.[197] The structure of the Oomoto sect was created from a combination of the divine proclamations of Nao Deguchi and thereijutsu (霊術) of Onisaburo Deguchi. After Asano Wasaburō of the Imperial Japanese Naval Engineering College became a follower, he was joined by several members of the intelligentsia and military resulting in a rapid increase of power to the point it was deemed a societal problem.[197] Oomoto preaches the concept of human-God unity (神人一致,shinjin itchi) in which God is the being which has created all of existence, God’s Spirit permeates all of creation, humans are the leaders of everything God has created, and they have been given tremendous knowledge and power by God in order to create God’s ideal world. It is also believed that deep down humans understand God’s heart, and that they should work to create the ideal world for humanity by receiving God’s power and becoming one with God.[198] Oomoto has had a significant influence on Shinto-style religious organizations that followed it, giving rise to a series of new religions referred to as “Oomoto-based” religions, including having influenced the formation ofSeicho-No-Ie.[197]
One general characteristic common among Sect Shinto sects is that, on top of a foundation of traditionalkami-worship, they often also have a primary deity they worship and use traditional rites such asmajinai (まじない) or divine divination to spread their teachings.[194] And while Sect Shinto sects were officially recognized by the government, their ability to spread their individual teachings and gather followers resulted on several occasions in suppression by the government. Tenrikyo specifically was attacked with theHome Ministry’s Secret Directive (秘密訓令,Himitsu Kunrei) forcing them to change their rites and other aspects of the sect.[195] Oomoto as well saw suppression in the form of the First and Second Oomoto Incidents which resulted in the destruction of its headquarters, the dissolution of its entire organization, and the arrest of its leaders.[197]
Additionally, Sect Shinto sects had a large number of Shinto philosophers who developed their own individual Shinto philosophies, unlike other Shinto-related religious organizations. Shintoist Kawatsura Bonji for example expressed his individual Shinto philosophy based on the belief that all religions are fundamentally one and all gods are fundamentally the same, including his critical view of the Home Ministry’s administration of Shinto and his strong advocacy for the revival of a Shinto ethos primarily through the act ofmisogi.[199] Influenced by Kawatsura was Imaizumi Sadasuke who was another who expressed his personal Shinto philosophies and conducted the first positivist research into Shinto sinceMotoori Norinaga while learning religious practices under Kawatsura.[200] His beliefs were that it is a fundamental truth of the Universe that humans andkami are inherently one and that through the practice ofharae one could purify their mind and body and bring the spirit of the aggregatekami within them and enter a state of unity with thekami.[201] Imaizumi was critical of the government’s administration of Shinto and the military’s war policies and spoke against politicians to demand an end to war,[201] resulting in a ban on his writings and records of his lectures duringWorld War II.[202]
After Japan surrendered at the end ofWorld War II in 1945, theSupreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) enacted theShinto Directive as one part of the occupation policy, dismantling theState Shinto system. Having determined Shinto to be a source of nationalistic ideology, in February 1946, SCAP abolished all laws regarding the administration of Shinto from theMeiji era onwards as well as all administrative bodies of shrines from theInstitute of Divinities and below, a move that rejected the stance that shrines and their rites were state rituals.[203] In accordance with the Religious Corporations Order (宗教法人令,Shūkyō Hōjin-rei) issued in December of 1945, shrines were now treated asreligious corporations in the same way as other religious organizations, and theModern System of Ranked Shinto Shrines was abolished.[204] The Religious Corporations Order was repealed at the end of the occupation, and the Religious Corporations Act was enacted in its place in 1951.[205] The criteria for what constitutes a religious corporation are more strict in the Act than they had been in the Order, resulting in all shrines throughout Japan being classified as religious corporations.[205]
In January 1946, three organizations were abolished—theNational Association of Shinto Priests, theInstitute of Japanese Classics Research, and the Jingū Service Foundation—and theAssociation of Shinto Shrines was established in their place to act as an umbrella organization overseeing the Shinto shrines throughout the country that would continue to exist as religious corporations.[206]
Although shrines had lost their government standing, they attained an economic prosperity not seen before World War II as they were now able to conduct funerals and private prayer rituals which had been previously banned.[207] As the Japanese economy grew in theJapanese economic miracle, shrines were able to repair and expand their facilities beyond what they had been able to do pre-war.[207] However, increasingurbanization caused by the economic growth resulted in depopulation of rural areas, leading to other issues such as the loss ofujiko (the local worshippers of a shrine), and lack of successors for priest positions.[207] Problems were also seen at shrines in the cities as the development of the cities and the increased mobility of theujiko population worsened the shrine environment. There was also an increase in the number of people who were nominallyujiko but no longer took on the responsibilities of supporting the shrine thatujiko traditionally had.[207]
TheHeisei era began in 1989, and Japan saw an increase in interest inpower spots in the power spot boom beginning in the early 2000s, as well as an increase in interest in collectingshuin, red stamps given to visitors of shrines, in the 2010s. This resulted an increase in visitors to shrines, but also caused issues such as an increase in poor behavior and etiquette in shrine grounds and the reselling ofshuin for profit.[208] Additionally, the reduction inujiko and advancing depopulation of rural areas together further exacerbated shrines’ financial situations. A 2015 survey of approximately 6,000 shrines across the country by theAssociation of Shinto Shrines found that only 2% of shrines had an annual income of 100 million yen or more, while approximately 60% of shrines responded that they had an annual income of less than 3 million yen.[209] Particularly in rural areas, shrines had difficulties in securing revenue as the Japanese population aged and declined, resulting in a reduction inujiko, making it infeasible for them to continue operating. An estimated 300 shrines closed between 2008 and 2018.[209] Because of this, there have been several examples of shrines leasing portions of their grounds to be used for the construction of apartments and other such buildings as they had no other means to protect the continued survival of the shrine.[209] There have also been examples of shrines overcoming these operational difficulties using a variety of strategies such as designing uniqueema andshuin, hosting matchmaking parties, or opening cafes in order to make the shrine a place for people to relax.[209] Additionally, there are many shrines across Japan that have become popular sites for fans of anime and manga to visit in a trend calledseichi junrei in which fans visit the locations featured in these media, such as an increase in visitors seen atWashinomiya Shrine due to the 2007 animeLucky Star.[210]
In modern times, shrines also have a role in annual events for individuals and families as well as ceremonies for life events such asHatsumōde,Miyamairi,Shichi-Go-San, and weddings.[211] Shrines also play an important role in the preservation of cultural assets. As of 2009, there are thirty buildings at twenty-seven shrines designated as architecturalNational Treasures, several festivals and ceremonies such asGion Matsuri are designatedImportant Cultural Properties, and shrines also preserve many traditional arts such asyabusame,gagaku, andkagura.[212] Many shrines also play a role in preserving forests within urban areas, such asMeiji Shrine in metropolitan Tokyo which contains within its grounds 100 hectares of forest and approximately 3,000 species of living organisms.[213] There has also been an increase in shrines making statements for the benefit of the environment, and the Association of Shinto Shrines representing the Shinto religion attended an international event in 2009 which saw several religions come together for peace. There, the Association argued from a Shinto perspective how important it is for nature and humanity to coexist.[214]
During theCOVID-19 pandemic the 2021Hatsumode was calledSaisaki-mode and had special observances for it.
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