Palmyra Atoll (/pælˈmaɪrə/), orPalmyra Island, is a small, low-lying, uninhabitedatoll in the centralPacific Ocean, controlled by theUnited States. It is one of theNorthern Line Islands (southeast ofKingman Reef and north ofKiribati), and is located almost due south of theHawaiian Islands, roughly one-third of the way betweenHawaii andAmerican Samoa. North America is about 3,300 miles (5,300kilometers) northeast and New Zealand the same distance southwest, placing Palmyra Atoll at the approximate center of thePacific Ocean. The land area is 4.6 sq mi (12 km2), with about 9 miles (14 km) of sea-facing coastline and reef. There is one boatanchorage, known as West Lagoon, accessible from the sea by a narrow artificial channel and an old airstrip; during WW2, it was turned into aNaval Air Station for several years and used for training and refueling. It was shelled by a submarine in December 1941, days after theattack on Pearl Harbor, but was not the site of a major battle. Palmyra has, over time, had many of its islets merged together, so the actual amount of contiguous land depends on the tide and locations of sandbanks. For example, Strawn, Menge, and Cooper Islands are one contiguous island. Likewise, there are many shoals and coral heads on the atoll, which is ringed by a coral reef.
It is the second-northernmost of the Line Islands and one of three American islands in the archipelago, along withJarvis Island andKingman Reef. Palmyra Atoll is part of thePacific Islands Heritage Marine National Monument, the world's largestmarine protected area. Theatoll comprises submerged sand flats along with dry land andreefs. It comprises threelagoons separated bycoral reefs. The western reef terrace is one of the biggest shelf-reefs, with dimensions of 2 by 3 miles (3.2 by 4.8 km). Over 150 species ofcoral inhabit Palmyra Atoll, double the number recorded inHawaii.[2]
In 2000, most of the land on the atoll, excluding only the Home and possibly Sand islets, was bought by The Nature Conservancy for US$30 million (GBP 21 million) from the Fullard-Leo family.[6]
The atoll consists of an extensivereef, three shallowlagoons, and a number of sand and reef-rockislets and bars covered with vegetation—mostlycoconut palms,Scaevola, and tallPisonia trees.
Many of the islets are connected. Sand Island and the two Home Islets in the west; Quail, Whippoorwill, and Bunker Islands in the north; and Eastern, Fern, Bird, and Barren Islands in the east are not. The largest island is Cooper Island in the north, followed by Kaula Island in the south. The northern arch of islets is formed by Strawn Island, Cooper Island (or Cooper-Meng Island since the original Cooper and Meng Islands were joined in 1940), Aviation Island, Quail Island, Whippoorwill Island, Bunker Island, followed in the east by Eastern Island, Papala Island and Pelican Island, and in the south by Bird Island, Holei Island, Engineer Island, Tanager Island, Marine Island, Kaula Island, Paradise Island, the Home Islets, and Sand Island (clockwise).
InThe Insular Cases, theSupreme Court heldincorporated territories to be integral parts of the United States, as opposed to mere possessions. The incorporated Palmyra Atoll is thesouthernmost point of the incorporated United States, with its southernmost shore at 5°52'15" Nlatitude. U.S.-controlled territories such asAmerican Samoa (and the southernmost place,Rose Atoll) are farther south, but they are not incorporated territories.[7][8]
Average annual rainfall is approximately 175 in (4,400 mm) per year. Temperatures average 85 °F (29 °C) year round. The atoll has nearly the highest oceanicity index (i.e., the degree to which its climate is affected by the sea) and one of the lowest diurnal and annual temperature variations of any place on Earth.Nauru has more consistent nighttime temperatures with every month recording 77 °F (25 °C) average, as well as more evenly spread precipitation.
Although Palmyra is acoral atoll with severalislets, not a single island, it has been calledPalmyra Island since its discovery in 1802.[10] More recently it is for some purposes calledPalmyra Atoll. The name of thefederal territory retained byCongress since 1959 isPalmyra Island,[11] but the official name of theNational Wildlife Refuge within the territory isPalmyra Atoll, as is the corresponding division of thePacific Islands Heritage Marine National Monument.[12] Formal deeds, leases and federal orders for land there call itPalmyra Island.[13] Further, the islets on the atoll are also namedisland, such as Kaula Island, Cooper Island, and others.[14] The biggest single island is Cooper Island, located on the lagoon's north side.[15]
Palmyra Atoll – NOAA Nautical Chart (1:47,500), with many named features
The governance issue is generally a moot point since no permanent population lives there. Cooper Island and ten other land parcels in this atoll are owned byThe Nature Conservancy, which manages them as a nature reserve. The southwesternmost islets, including Home, are owned by descendants of former Palmyra ownerHenry Ernest Cooper and others. The rest of Palmyra is federal land and waters under the jurisdiction of theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.[18] Since Palmyra has no state or local government, it is administered directly fromHonolulu by theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, except for some submerged tracts administered by theOffice of Insular Affairs, both in theU.S. Department of the Interior. Palmyra is counted as one of theU.S. minor outlying islands for all other purposes. They are outside thecustoms territory of the United States and have no customs duties.[19][20]
The only current economic activity on Palmyra is paidecotourism visits by TNC donors. Most roads and causeways were built duringWorld WarII. Most of these are now unserviceable and overgrown, and most causeways and filled areas between islets have washed-away gaps. A 2,000-yard-long (1,800 m) unpavedairstrip on Cooper Island was built for the Palmyra Island Naval Air Station before and during World WarII.
Palmyra (Cooper) Airport (ICAO:PLPA,FAALID:P16) is an unattendedairport on Palmyra Atoll in thePacific Ocean. It is a private-use facility, originally built duringWorld WarII and now owned byThe Nature Conservancy. It has onerunway (6/24) measuring 5,000 ft × 150 ft (1,524 m × 46 m).[22] When built, the airport was calledPalmyra Atoll Airfield, and laterPalmyra Island Naval Air Station as it was a former Naval airfield on the Palmyra Atoll in theLine Islands of theCentral Pacific Area. The name for the airport comes fromHenry Ernest Cooper Sr. (1857–1929), who owned Palmyra from 1911 to 1922.[23]
Sand Island in the 21st century
Preliminary surveys were made by the U.S. Navy in 1938 for an airfield at this location. The first Navy group to begin construction sailed from Honolulu on November 14, 1939. The runway was made from crushed coral and expanded during World WarII. During World WarII, theU.S. Naval Construction Battalion dredged a channel so that ships could enter the protected lagoons and bulldozed coral rubble into a long, unpaved landing strip for refueling transpacific supply planes at the airbase. On January 16, 1942, sixBoeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers from Hawaii were stationed at the airbase, commanded by Lt. Col.Walter C. Sweeney Jr. as part of Hawaiian Air Force's Task Group 8. Marine CorpsVMF-211 pilots also used the airfield.[24] During World WarII, two other runways were built and used, one on Meng Island and another on Sand Island. These runways are now overgrown with plants and returning to the jungle. The U.S. Air Force maintained the main airfield until 1961.[25][26]
The airstrip still exists today but can be used only after prior permission has been obtained or in an emergency.[27]
The first known sighting of Palmyra came in 1798 aboard the Americansealing shipBetsy on a voyage to Asia, according to thememoir of CaptainEdmund Fanning ofStonington, Connecticut.[28] Fanning wrote that he had awakened three times during the night before, and after the third time took it as a premonition, orderingBetsy toheave to for the rest of the night. The next morning,Betsy resumed sailing, but only about anautical mile farther on, he believed he sighted the reef later known as Palmyra Island. It might have been wrecked if the ship continued on her course at night.[29] Captain Fanning's claim to have discovered Palmyra itself has been challenged, on the view that he had only reachedKingman Reef 34 miles (55 kilometers) away and could not possibly have seen Palmyra from that distance.[30] On page 3, the Baltimore newspaperThe Telegraphe and Daily Advertiser of July 29, 1803, appears to quote directly from Fanning's journal: "We supposed that we saw land from the masthead to the southward of the shoal (Kingman Reef) but it was so hazy we were not certain." This would stand in conflict with Fanning's book of 1833, in which he, while referring to Kingman Reef, wrote "I went aloft, and with the aid of the glass could plainly see the land over it, far in the south."[31]
On November 7, 1802, the shipPalmyra, under Captain Cornelius Sowle (sometimes spelled "Sawle"), was shipwrecked on the reef, which took the vessel's name.[32] Lacking a navigable boat passage through the reef from the sea, it had never been inhabited. A lack of archaeological surveys on the atoll leaves the question of habitation before European contact open. As a result, nomarae,basalt artifacts or evidence ofPolynesian,Micronesian or other pre-European native settlements before 1802 have been reported on Palmyra.[33] At the time of his discovery, Captain Sowle wrote:
There are no inhabitants on the island, nor was any fresh water found; but cocoanuts [sic] of a very large size, are in great abundance; and fish of various kinds and in large shoals surround the land.[34][10]
According to a survivor, seaman James Hines, theEsperanza was caught in a storm thatdismasted and damaged the ship. After that, it was attacked and boarded by pirates, who loaded the treasure and surviving crew onto their own ship. TheEsperanza sank, and the pirates and their captives sailed west across the Pacific bound forMacao.
After 43 days, the pirates' ship met a storm, lost course, and struck thecoral reef surrounding Palmyra Island, breaking the mast. The 90 men aboard pulled the ship closer to land, but it was not serviceable. They offloaded the treasure to the island, distributed some, and buried the rest. They repaired part of their boat, and most crew shipped away, not to be heard from again. The remaining ten men spent most of a year on Palmyra, living on dwindling stores and local food. They spent three months building a small escape boat, upon which six men left Palmyra. Of these, four were washed overboard in a storm, and the other two were rescued by an Americanwhaler bound forSan Francisco. One died en route. The survivor, James Hines, was put in a hospital, but he died 30 days later.
Before Hines died, he wrote letters describing the affair and the location of the treasure, which originally included 1.5 million Spanish gold pesos and an equal value in silver (possibly consisting ofprecolumbian artworks). Around 1903, over 95 years later, the letters were allegedly deposited for safekeeping with Capt. William R. Foster, theharbormaster ofHonolulu, by a sailor who was bound for theSolomon Islands but never returned. After holding the letters for 20 years in an iron chest, Foster revealed them to a reporter, who published the details.[36] A conflicting variant of the story was published by Capt. F. D. Walker of Honolulu in 1903[37] and in 1914.[38] In 1997, William A. Warren filed a federal salvage claim for a ship sunk off the atoll that he claimed had treasure from theEsperanza, but he abandoned his claim after legal objection from the Fullard-Leos, who owned most of Palmyra.[39]
The legend of theEsperanza andSanta Rosa (a ship rumored to have recovered theEsperanza treasure and sailed back to Honolulu) inspired aJack London story called "The Proud Goat of Aloysius Pankburn", which was published as part of London's David Grief stories in theSaturday Evening Post.[40][41]
The atoll was visited by theUSS Porpoise in 1842 as part of theUnited States Exploring Expedition, led byCharles Wilkes. This marked the first visit to Palmyra by a scientific expedition. Various live samples of native plants and animals were collected. In his 23rd volume recording the findings of theUSXX (United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–1842), Wilkes wrote of Palmyra, mentioning some unspecified inhabitants at that time:
This island is inhabited ... It is to be regretted that all these detached islands should not be visited by our national vessels, and friendly intercourse kept up with them. The benefit and assistance that any shipwrecked mariners might derive from their rude inhabitants, would repay the time, trouble, and expense such visits would occasion.[42]
In 1859, Palmyra Atoll was claimed for the United States both by Alfred Benson and by Dr.Gerrit P. Judd of the brigJosephine, under theGuano Islands Act of 1856, but noguano was there to be mined, so the claims were abandoned.[43]
On February 26, 1862, KingKamehameha IV ofHawaii commissioned Captain Zenas Bent and Johnson Beswick Wilkinson, both Hawaiian citizens, to take possession of the atoll. On April 15, 1862, it was formally annexed to the Kingdom of Hawaii, while Bent and Wilkinson became joint owners.[44]
Over the next century, ownership passed through various hands. Bent sold his rights to Wilkinson on December 25, 1862. Palmyra later passed to Kalama Wilkinson (Johnson's widow). In 1885, it was divided among her four heirs,[45] two of whom sold their rights to William Luther Wilcox who, in turn, sold them to the Pacific Navigation Company. In 1897, this company was liquidated, and its interests were sold first toWilliam Ansel Kinney and then to Fred Wundenberg, all residents of Honolulu.[46]
A further Wilkinson heir left her share to her son William Ringer Sr., who also bought his great-uncle's share, giving Ringer a one-third undivided share as atenant in common.[47]
Separately, in 1889, Commander Nichols ofHMS Cormorant claimed Palmyra for theUnited Kingdom, unaware of Hawaii's prior claim.[48]
In 1898, the United States by theNewlands Resolution annexed theRepublic of Hawaii, formerly theProvisional Government of Hawaii, and Palmyra with it. An Act of Congress made all of Hawaii, including Palmyra, into an "incorporated territory" of the United States. (Act of April 30, 1900, ch. 339, §§ 4–5.) On June 14, 1900, Palmyra became part of the new U.S.Territory of Hawaii.[44]
In 1912, Cooper bought the Ringer daughters' inherited rights from their legal guardian, and petitioned to registerTorrens title to all of Palmyra for himself. After a legal challenge, Cooper's ownership of the atoll was held by theSupreme Court of Hawaii to be subject to rights sold by Ringer's widow to Henry Maui and Joseph Clarke. Maui's and Clarke's interests, per theU.S. Supreme Court in 1947, had been divided, with one-third going to Bella Jones of Honolulu in 1912,[51] and the rest passing to their heirs.[47]
Cooper visited the island in July 1913 with scientistsCharles Montague Cooke Jr. andJoseph F. Rock, who wrote a scientific description of the atoll. Botanist Rock discovered unusualcoconut palms in 1913, which palms expertOdoardo Beccari identified asCocos nucifera palmyrensis (Becc.), thecoconut type with the largest, longest and most triangular (in cross-section) fruits in the world, existing only at Palmyra. (The closestCocos nucifera relative occurs only in the distantNicobar Islands in theIndian Ocean.)[14] The "mammoth coconuts" were put on display in Honolulu in 1914 along with paintings of Palmyra by Hawaiian artistD. Howard Hitchcock,[52] who had accompanied Cooper to the island.[53]
In September 1921, as part of a national push to better document the coastal and outlying areas owned by the United States, a small naval detachment was sent to Palmyra to conduct the first aerial surveys of the atoll. The events of that trip were recorded by a navalPharmacist Mate, M. L. Steele, who wrote:
During our visit the weather was delightful. The detachment remained at these islands two days and they were perfect for flying, affording an opportunity to take wonderful aerial pictures. The commanding officer and the aviators made a number of flights and the official photographer was in his element.
At the time, Palmyra was occupied by three Americans: Colonel William Meng, his wife, and Edwin Benner Jr.[54] While there, the USSEagle Boat 40, which had transported aircraft and photographic equipment to the islands, made a very rare exception to naval regulation and took aboard the wife, Mrs. Meng, to return her to Honolulu for medical aid, as she was not handling the isolation and trying physical conditions of Palmyra well.[55]
On August 19, 1922, Cooper sold his interest in the atoll, except for two minor islets, to Leslie and Ellen Fullard-Leo for $15,000 (equivalent to $281,779 in 2024). They established the Palmyra Copra Company to harvest thecoconuts growing on the atoll. Their three sons, including actorLeslie Vincent, continued as the owners afterward, subject to a period of military administration and construction by the Navy before and duringWorld WarII from 1939 through 1945. In 2000,The Nature Conservancy acquired the majority of Palmyra Atoll from the Fullard-Leo family for $30 million (equivalent to $54,776,812 in 2024).[56]
Palmyra was turned into a military base in the Pacific at the start of World WarII after some legal questions were resolved. The island was fortified when it found itself on the front lines of the Pacific due to the losses of U.S. territories to the west. It was shelled once early in the war, but due to U.S. military success, it was later used for refueling and training. After World WarII, it was returned to private ownership, and the naval base was mostly demolished.
Grumman JRF Goose is hoisted aboard USSLong Island (ACV-1) off Palmyra Island, April 19, 1943.
Several memoirs, reports, and unofficial documents in the decades since World WarII have stated Palmyra was placed under naval jurisdiction in 1934 as part ofExecutive Order 6935.[57] However, Palmyra is not mentioned in this order in any capacity. The first official mention of Palmyra under Naval Jurisdiction comes from a 1939 letter from theU.S. Attorney General, mentioned in a 1997 Insular Areas report, concluding "Palmyra was U.S. public land and that the Fullard-Leo claim was invalid. S. Rep. No. 83-886 at 37."[58] Soon after this determination,President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8616, officially, "Placing Palmyra Island, Territory of Hawaii, Under the Control and Jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Navy".[59]
Starting in 1937, the Fullard-Leo family began attempts to lease Palmyra to the U.S. Navy. During negotiations, the government filed aquiet title action against the Fullard-Leos andHenry Ernest Cooper's six surviving children, claiming property at Palmyra had never been privately owned under the Kingdom of Hawaii or later. The case reached the U.S. Supreme Court. The Insular Areas report states, "While the suit was pending during World WarII, the Navy occupied Palmyra and built a runway and several buildings." The Fullard-Leos and Coopers finally won their case inUnited States v. Fullard-Leo et al., 331 U.S. 256 (1947), which quieted good land title against the federal government in favor of private landowners. The opinion acknowledged certain of Henry Maui's and Joseph Clarke's interests (331 U.S. 256 at 278) but their heirs and their successor Mrs. Bella Jones were not made parties to the case.[60] As of 2007[update], descendants of Henry Cooper still owned two small Home islets in the southwestern tip that were not sold in 1922.[44]
In July 1938,Secretary of the InteriorHarold L. Ickes wrote a letter to President Roosevelt, imploring him not to turn Palmyra over to the U.S. Navy for use as a military base. Quoting his letter, he writes,
... the Navy Department has plans for the acquisition and development of the island as an air base. Our representatives have studied conditions at Palmyra and other islands in the south Pacific, and they report that use of this small land area as an air base for Navy Department purposes would undoubtedly destroy much, if not all, that makes the island one of our most scientifically and scenically unique possessions.
The letter was unsuccessful, and plans for the base proceeded.[61]
On February 14, 1941, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8682 to create naval defenses areas in the central Pacific territories. The proclamation established the "Palmyra Island Naval Defensive Sea Area", encompassing the territorial waters between the extreme high-water marks and the three-mile marine boundaries surrounding the atoll. "Palmyra Island Naval Airspace Reservation" was also established to restrict access to airspace in the area. Only U.S. government ships and aircraft were permitted to enter the naval defense areas at Palmyra Atoll unless authorized by theSecretary of the Navy. The Navy took over the atoll for use as thePalmyra Island Naval Air Station on August 15, 1941. From November 1939 through 1947, the atoll had resident federal government representatives and island commanders. The atoll wasshelled by a Japanese submarine in 1941, with no significant damage or injuries. The government made extensive alterations to the landforms. It blasted and dredged a ship channel from the open sea into the West Lagoon, which had been completely enclosed by islands and reefs and was non-navigable until the channel reached the lagoon on May 15, 1941. It joined islands with causeway roads, built new islands, and extended existing islands with dredged coral spoil, including the main runway on Cooper Island, an emergency landing strip called Sand Island joined by a causeway to Home Island and two artificial runway islands that were not completed. These alterations blocked the water flow through the atoll and are believed to have severely harmed the natural ecology of the lagoons.[62]
In December 1941, Palmyra found itself on the front lines of the Pacific War.
In December 1941, the Empire of Japan declared war on the United States and Great Britain. It launched attacks and invasions across Asia and the Pacific, plunging the United States intoWorld WarII.[63] In that context, theImperial Japanese Navy submarineI-75 bombarded the naval air station on December 24, 1941.[64][65] Opening fire at 04:55 GreenwichCivil Time, the submarine fired twelve 120-millimeter (4.7 in) rounds from thedeck gun, targeting the atoll's radio station, and hit the United States ArmyCorps of EngineersdredgeSacramento, which wasanchored in the lagoon, with one shell.[65] A 5-inch (127 mm)coastal artillerybattery on the atoll returned fire, forcingI-75 to submerge and withdraw.[65]
Although the U.S. lost control of thePhilippines,Guam, andWake, early in the war, the tide of the Pacific battle was slowly turned with such battles as theBattle of Midway andGuadalcanal. By 1944, much of the Southwest Pacific was in Allied control, and a combination of island hopping and strategic bombing led to the Japanese surrender in 1945.[66] During the war Palmyra base was used by the Navy for training and refueling.[67][68] The atoll was extensively developed which reduced the numbers of islets from 52 to 25.[68]
In the lobby of the "Transient Hotel" (built by theSeabees, and used by airmen on their way to thePacific Theater front), a mural was hung depicting a quiet island scene. It was painted byAcademy Award–nominatedart directorWilliam Glasgow, who served in the Army from 1943 to 1945. However, it is unclear when he painted it and how it ended up on Palmyra.[69]
In 1947, the base was returned to private ownership after a court case with the Federal government.[68]
After World War II, much of the Naval Air Station was demolished, with some of the materials piled up and burned on the atoll, dumped into the lagoon, or, in the case of unexploded ordnance on some islets, left in place.[70] Compared to other bases little is known about the operations at Palmyra during WW2. However, it is known that the island was extensively modified.[68]
When Hawaii was admitted to the United States in 1959, Palmyra was explicitly separated from the new state,[71] remaining a federalincorporated territory, to be administered by the secretary of the interior[44] under a presidentialexecutive order.[72]
A USGS employee does survey work at Palmyra in 2016.Wildlife at PalmyraIslet of Palmyra
In 1962, theDepartment of Defense used Palmyra as an observation site during several high-altitudenuclear weapons tests high aboveJohnston Atoll. A group of about ten men supported the observation posts during this series of tests, while about 40 people carried out the observations.[73]
Alby Mangels, the Australian adventurer and documentary filmmaker ofWorld Safari, visited the atoll during his six-year trip in the 1970s.[74]
In early 1979, the U.S. government began exploring the idea of storingnuclear waste on remote Pacific islands like Palmyra. Those who knew the island and the region saw no benefit to this idea, commenting on the devastating effects a leak of these storage tanks would create.[75] By 1982 a formal proposal had been written which "analyzes the proposal to store spent nuclear fuel on Palmyra Island, a U.S. territory nearly a thousand miles south ofHawaii. The proposal has military, political, social, and technical implications."[76] The idea was abandoned soon after the proposal, and no such storage facilities were built.
In 1974, Palmyra was the site of a murder, and possible double murder, of a wealthy San Diego couple, Malcolm "Mac" Graham and his wife, Eleanor "Muff" Graham.[77] The mysterious deaths, including the murder conviction of Duane ("Buck") Walker (a.k.a. Wesley G. Walker) for Eleanor Graham's murder, and the acquittal of his girlfriend, Stephanie Stearns, made headlines worldwide, and became the subject of atrue crime book,And the Sea Will Tell, written byBruce Henderson andVincent Bugliosi, Stearns's defense attorney. The book led to a CBS television miniseries of the same name, starringJames Brolin,Rachel Ward,Deidre Hall, andHart Bochner;Richard Crenna played lawyerBugliosi. The story was retold inThe FBI Files.
Walker and Stearns were arrested in Honolulu in 1974 after returning from Palmyra aboardSea Wind, the yacht stolen from the Grahams. Because no bodies were found at the time, Walker and Stearns were convicted only for the theft of the yacht. Six years later, a partially-buried, corroded chest was found in a lagoon at Palmyra, containing Eleanor Graham's remains. Walker and Stearns were arrested in Arizona for murder, and Walker was convicted in 1985. Stearns was acquitted in 1986 after her defense argued that Walker had committed the murders without Stearns's knowledge. Because no body or other evidence of Malcolm Graham's death has been discovered, his murder was never formally alleged.
Walker served 22 years in theUnited States Penitentiary, Victorville, California, before receiving parole in 2007. He wrote an 895-page book about his experiences and life on Palmyra Island, in which he denied killing Eleanor Graham. It states they had sexual relations; her husband Malcolm Graham caught them and shot at them in anger, inadvertently killing her. Walker said that the two men had a gunfight the next day and that Malcolm Graham consequently died from a rifle wound.
Walker accused author Vincent Bugliosi – Stearns' lawyer – ofvainglory and exploitingclass prejudice against him and wrote that his lawyer, Earle Partington, was incompetent. Walker did not implicate Stearns in any killing.[78] Walker died in a nursing home following a stroke on April 26, 2010.[77]
In the late 1990s, Rachel Lahela Kekoa Bolt, anative Hawaiian heir of Henry Maui, and some of her descendants filed federal lawsuits claiming her inherited interest in Palmyra and challenging the legality of theNewlands Resolution that annexed Hawaii. The lawsuitschallenged American sovereignty over both the State of Hawaii and the United States Territory of Palmyra Island.[79][80] On similar grounds, theyintervened in a federalmarine salvage claim for a sunkentreasure ship at Palmyra.[39] The cases were dismissed on procedural grounds before trial (that is, determined to have no intrinsic merit).
In December 2000,The Nature Conservancy (TNC) bought most of Palmyra Atoll from the three Fullard-Leo brothers[44] forcoral reefconservation and research. In 2003, a scientific study was published about fossilized coral washing up on Palmyra. This fossilized coral was examined for evidence of the behavior of the effect ofEl Niño on the tropicalPacific Ocean over the past 1,000 years.[81] The atoll was purchased for US$30 million; however, certain areas were later purchased by the United States government.[82] TNC,Island Conservation, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service manage the island, which is used for research. Major programs have been to eliminate rats and invasive palms.[82] One of the challenges has been understanding how the rich peaty soil that can be found on the island developed on the coral, and one of the overall goals is to maintain biodiversity globally in locations similar to Palmyra.[83]
On January 18, 2001, Secretary of the InteriorBruce Babbitt issued Secretary's Order No. 3224 designating Palmyra's tidal lands, submerged lands and surrounding waters out to 12 nautical miles (22 km) from the water's edge as a National Wildlife Refuge.[84] Subsequently, the Department of the Interior published a regulation providing for the management of the refuge. 66 Fed. Reg. 7660-01 (January 24, 2001). The pertinent part of the regulation states:
We will close the refuge tocommercial fishing but will permit a low level of compatible recreational fishing for bonefishing and deep water sportfishing under programs that we will carefully manage to ensure compatibility with refuge purposes. ... Management actions will include protection of the refuge waters and wildlife from commercial fishing activities.
In March 2003, TNC conveyed 416 acres (1.68 km2) of the emergent land of Palmyra to the United States to be included in the refuge. In 2005, it added 28 acres to the conveyance. TNC andHenry Ernest Cooper's descendants kept their remaining private land tracts.
Coral reef at Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge
The conveyance to TNC from the Fullard-Leos in 2000 was subject to a preexisting commercial fishing license. Then, in 2001, theSecretary of the Interior bannedcommercial fishing near Palmyra but allowedsport fishing, as quoted above. In January 2007, the commercial fishing licensees sued the United States in theCourt of Federal Claims alleging that, under theTakings Clause, the Interior Department regulation had "directly confiscated, taken, and rendered wholly and completely worthless" their purported property interests. The United States moved to dismiss the lawsuit, and the court granted the motion.[85] On April 9, 2009, the court's decision was affirmed by theCourt of Appeals for the Federal Circuit.[86]
In November 2005, TNC established a new research station on Palmyra to studyglobal warming, coral reefs,invasive species, and other environmental concerns.[87]
In 2011, Fish and Wildlife Service, TNC, andIsland Conservation began an extensive program to eradicate the horde of non-native rats that arrived on Palmyra during World WarII. As many as 30,000 rats once roamed the atoll, eating the eggs of native seabirds and destroying the seedlings of one of the largest remaining Pacific stands ofPisonia grandis trees. The rats were eliminated in 2012; however, 51 animal samples representing 15 species of birds, fish, reptiles, and invertebrates were collected for residue analysis during systematic searches or as nontarget mortalities.Brodifacoum residues (the toxicant employed during the project) were detected in most (84.3%) of the samples analyzed with unknown long-term and sublethal effects.[89][90][91] One side effect was the demise of the island's population ofAsian tiger mosquitoes. This was claimed to be the first time killing off one unwanted species, which resulted in removing a second. The other mosquito species on the island,Culex quinquefasciatus, prefers to feed on birds and was not affected by the elimination of rats.[92][93]
USGS scientists collect data on the lagoon and wildlife.NOAA diver swimming Palmyra reefs
Post-rat-eradication monitoring documented a notablerecruitment event forPisonia grandis, a dominant tree species that is important throughout the Pacific region.[94] However, by five years post-eradication, a 13-fold increase in recruitment of the range-expanding coconut palmCocos nucifera was found.[95]
Beginning in 2019, TNC worked in partnership withIsland Conservation and the Fish and Wildlife Service to restore the native rainforest at Palmyra Atoll by removing dominantC. nucifera coconut palms, which the conservancy says are the result of formercopra plantations and military activity. Other trees provide habitat for 11 seabird species, and the conservancy wrote that their re-establishment across the atoll would encourage coral growth and might lessen the local effects of a rise in sea-level. As of December 2019, half a million coconut sprouts had been removed, and tracking has begun of the ecosystem's response.[96]
Palmyra Atoll's location in the Pacific Ocean, where the southern and northern currents meet, litters its beaches with trash and debris. Plastic mooringbuoys and plastic bottles are plentiful.[97]
The atoll is dominated by thecoconut crab, the largest species of terrestrial invertebrate.[98]
To avoid introducing any new invasive species, visitors to the atoll freeze and disinfect their belongings.[99][100]
Tourists can visit Palmyra Atoll (unlike most of the U.S. minor outlying islands, which are closed to the public), though few do, due to the difficulty of accessing it. Visitors must obtain prior approval from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service orthe Nature Conservancy.[102] A statement by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service states as follows:
Public access to Palmyra Atoll is self-limiting due to the very high expense of traveling to such a remote destination. The Nature Conservancy owns and operates the only airplane runway on Palmyra, and by boat it's a 5–7 day sailing trip from Honolulu. There are four ways the public may gain access to the refuge: (1) Working for, contracting with, or volunteering for The Nature Conservancy or Fish and Wildlife Service; (2) Conducting scientific research via Fish and Wildlife Service Special Use Permits; (3) Invitation through The Nature Conservancy sponsored donor trip; (4) Visitation by private recreational sailboat or motorboat.[102]
Since the 1940s, Palmyra's most consistent visitors have been members ofdistance expedition (DX) teams, as the atoll is a popular spot for theseamateur radio operators. More than 25 expeditions have arrived. Once on the islands, the hams set up radios and antennas and make as many two-way radio contacts with other hams as possible. Former N. CaliforniaDX Club president Richard Malcolm Crouch became a Palmyra landowner.[103]
In June 1974, theKP6PA DXpedition team helped rescue a couple whose ship had run aground on the reefs. The man, Buck Walker, was later convicted of homicide in the much-publicizedSea Wind murder case.[104]
In 1980, two members of the visiting team were injured severely enough to need an airlift back to Honolulu. The first incident resulted from injuries sustained in a plane crash, as the pilot underestimated wind conditions and the poor state of the landing strip. The second injury, to a surgeon, happened when he fell and cut his hands on broken glass. The surgeon then sued the atoll's owners, as he could no longer practice surgery, and the atoll was closed to visitors for most of the 1980s while cleanup activities were undertaken.[105]
^Rauzon, Mark J. (2016).Isles of Amnesia: The History, Geography, and Restoration of America's Forgotten Pacific Islands. University of Hawaiʻi Press, Latitude 20. Pages 85–86.ISBN9780824846794.
^ab"Report".The Naval Chronicle. Vol. XII. 1804. pp. 464–465. Archived fromthe original on March 7, 2017. RetrievedMarch 7, 2017.
^ab"Public Law 86–624"(PDF). July 12, 1960. p. 424 (14). RetrievedJanuary 5, 2014.shall be exercised in such manner and through such agency or agencies as the President of the United States may direct or authorize.
^In the Matter of the Application of Henry E. Cooper to Register and Confirm Title to Palmyra Island, Application No. 223, Hawaii Court of Land Registration (1912).
^"Palmyra Atoll".Office of Insular Affairs web site. United States Department of Interior. Archived fromthe original on January 11, 2012. RetrievedAugust 12, 2010.
^Howay, F.W. (October 1933). "Captain Cornelius Sowle on the Pacific Ocean".The Washington Historical Quarterly.24 (4). University of Washington:243–249.JSTOR40475540.
^Rauzon, Mark J. (2016).Isles of Amnesia: The History, Geography, and Restoration of America's Forgotten Pacific Islands. University of Hawaiʻi Press, Latitude 20. Page 88.ISBN9780824846794.
^abcdef"Palmyra Atoll".Department of the Interior, Office of Insular Affairs. RetrievedJanuary 20, 2025.
^Estate of Kalama, Probate (Circuit Court, Honolulu 1878–1885).
^Collen, J. D.; Garton, D. W.; Gardner, J. P. A. (2000). "Shoreline Changes and Sediment Redistribution at Palmyra Atoll (Equatorial Pacific Ocean): 1874–Present".Journal of Coastal Research.25 (3):711–722.doi:10.2112/08-1007.1.S2CID129960273.
^76th Navy CMBU (1945)."Palmyra Island".76th Naval Construction Battalion Yearbook. p. 4. Archived fromthe original on August 28, 2017. RetrievedAugust 28, 2017 – via Palmyra Archive.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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