Thehistory of Oxford in England dates back to its original settlement in theSaxon period. Originally of strategic significance due to its controlling location on the upper reaches of theRiver Thames at its junction with theRiver Cherwell. The town grew in national importance during theNorman period. TheUniversity of Oxford was established in the 12th century and would eventually dominate the activity within the town, this also resulted in severaltown and gown conflicts.[1] The city wasbesieged duringThe Anarchy in 1142 and Oxford Castle was attacked during theBarons War in the early 13th century.[2] Oxford was greatly affected during theEnglish Reformation, brought on byHenry VIII in hisdissolution of the monasteries. The town also played an important role in theEnglish Civil War, where it experienced another siege when it housed the court ofCharles I.[3]
Later in the 19th and 20th century, the town grew and underwent an industrial boom where major printing and car-manufacturing industries began establishing in the city. These industries later declined in the 1970s and 1980s, leaving behind a city that is now well known for its education and tourist industry.[4]
Oxford was first settled by theAnglo-Saxons and was initially known inOld English asOxnaford and inOld Norse asÖxnafurða.[5] The name comes from"oxen'sford", which literally meantoxen's shallow river crossing. Around 900, an important north-south route for cattle connecting the south of England to the Midlands needed to cross theRiver Thames.[6] At Oxford, the Thames splits into many channels, offering a relatively shallow and hence crossable location for people, goods and animals. Oxford thus became a heavily trafficked crossing point and the early Anglo-Saxon settlement developed around the location.[7] There is still speculation about the precise location of the ford that gave Oxford its name, though any approach to Oxford involved the use of several fords, and thus there were likely multiple fords in use throughout the history of the crossing. Most archeological evidence generally points to the south-west of Oxford where there are low elevations and branching streams that offer shallow crossings.[6][8]
The earliest notice of the City of Oxford was mentioned in AD 912 in theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle, where it states thatEdward, son ofAlfred the Great came into possession of "London and Oxford and all regions which owed obedience to these cities".[9]
In the 10th century, Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms ofMercia andWessex and was raided byDanes. The town was constructed on the northern bank of the river within Mercia, directly opposite the southern side within the territory of Wessex. In 1002, many Danes were killed in Oxford during theSt. Brice's Day massacre ordered byÆthelred the Unready.[10][11] The skeletons of more than 30 suspected victims were unearthed in 2008 during the course of building work atSt John's College.[12] The massacre was a contributing factor toKing Sweyn I of Denmark’s invasion of England in 1003 and the sacking of Oxford by the Danes in 1004.[13]
Oxford was heavily damaged during theNorman Invasion in 1066. Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor,Robert D'Oyly, who ordered the construction ofOxford Castle to confirmNorman authority over the area. Robert D'Oyly also ordered the construction of a stonecauseway, known asGrandpont for traffic, including Oxen and the carts that they drew, to cross over the flood plains.[14][15] D'Oyly set up a monastic community in the castle consisting of achapel and living quarters for monks (St George in the Castle). The community never grew large but it earned its place in history as one of Britain's oldest places of formal education. It was there that in 1139Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote hisHistory of the Kings of Britain, a compilation ofArthurian legends.[16]
The earliestwalls surrounding Oxford town were made of turf bank with a timberpalisade. This was then replaced by stone and a ditch was made outside the walls, at least on the north side. The four main gates into Oxford had existed by the Medieval period; the Saxon tower, which originally served as the north gate, remains intact and eventually became incorporated into the structure ofSt. Michael's church.[11]
During the period ofMiddle English, Oxford's pronunciation evolved to becomeOxenford, as written in"Clerkes Tale of Oxenford" in Chaucer'sThe Canterbury Tales.[17] In the 15th centuryOxenfordelided to becomeOxford, as it is known today.[18]
Additionally, there is evidence ofJews living in the city as early as 1141, and during the 12th century the Jewish community is estimated to have numbered about 80–100.[19] The city wasbesieged duringThe Anarchy in 1142.[20] In 1191, acity charter translated fromLatin wrote:[21]
"Be it known to all those present and future that we, the citizens of Oxford of the Commune of the City and of theMerchant Guild have given, and by this, our presentcharter, confirm the donation of the island of Midney with all those things pertaining to it, to the Church of St. Mary atOseney and to the canons serving God in that place. Since, every year, atMichaelmas the saidcanons render half amark of silver for their tenure at the time when we have ordered it as witnesses the legal deed of our ancestors which they made concerning the gift of this same island; and besides, because we have undertaken on our own part and on behalf of our heirs to guarantee the aforesaid island to the same canons wheresoever and against all men; they themselves, by this guarantee, will pay to us and our heirs each year atEaster another half mark which we have demanded; and we and our heirs faithfully will guarantee the aforesaid tenement to them for the service of the aforesaid mark annually for all matters and all services. We have made this concession and confirmation in the Common council of the City and we have confirmed it with our common seal. These are those who have made this concession and confirmation. (There follows a list of witnesses, ending with the phrase, "... and all the Commune of the City of Oxford.")
Oxford's prestige was enhanced by itscharter granted by KingHenry II, granting its citizens the same privileges and exemptions as those enjoyed by the capital of the kingdom; and various important religious houses were founded in or near the city. Oxford's status as aliberty obtained from this period until the 19th century.[22] A grandson ofKing John establishedRewley Abbey for theCistercian Order; andfriars of various orders (Dominicans,Franciscans,Carmelites,Augustinians andTrinitarians) all had houses of varying importance at Oxford. Parliaments were often held in the city during the 13th century. TheProvisions of Oxford were instigated by a group of barons led bySimon de Montfort; these documents are often regarded as England's first written constitution.Richard I (reigned 1189–1199) and King John (reigned 1199–1216) the sons of Henry II, were both born atBeaumont Palace in Oxford, on 8 September 1157 and 24 December 1166 respectively. A plaque inBeaumont Street commemorates these events.[23]
TheUniversity of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th-century records. Evidence points tomagistri teaching here around 1120. Scholars here provided monarchs with a pool of talented government employees, andbenefices from the endowments of colleges provided royal civil servants at no cost to the crown.[24] Of the hundreds ofaularian houses that sprang up across the city, onlySt Edmund Hall (c. 1225) remains. What put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges.Oxford's earliest colleges wereUniversity College (1249),Balliol (1263) andMerton (1264). These colleges were established at a time when Europeans were starting to translate the writings ofGreek philosophers. These writings challenged European ideology, inspiring scientific discoveries and advancements in the arts, as society began to see itself in a new way. These colleges at Oxford were supported by the Church in the hope of reconcilingGreek philosophy andChristian theology.
As a response to the killing of two students in 1209 by the local townspeople, a number of scholars left the town (some leaving toCambridge to form a sister university). To prevent further troubles, thePapal Legate drew up theOxford Ordinance in 1214 to grant special rights to scholars which placed them in a privileged position beyond the legal reach of the townspeople.[25] The relationship between "town and gown" has often been uneasy – as many as 93 students and townspeople were killed in theSt Scholastica Day Riot of 1355.[1]
Attracted to the intellectual life of the University town, a group of friars (includingAgnellus of Pisa) arrived in the early 13th century; the Greyfriars resided on the south part of the medieval town wall while the Blackfriars south of what is now Blue Boar Lane and then to a spot west ofSt Aldate's. It was here that several notable friars would emerge, such asRoger Bacon,Duns Scotus andWilliam of Ockham. As the town declined economically in the later Middle Ages, the University gained greater power over the town at the expense of the urban community. The University also expanded its landholings and became a powerful employer and consumer of goods and services.[26]
Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford is unique in combining a collegechapel and acathedral in one foundation. OriginallySt Frideswide's Priory, the building was extended and incorporated into the structure of theCardinal's College shortly before its refounding as Christ Church in 1546, since when it has functioned as the cathedral of theDiocese of Oxford.
Thesweating sickness epidemic in 1517 was particularly devastating to Oxford andCambridge where it killed half of both cities' populations, including many students and dons.[27]
Oxford was not spared the turmoil of theReformation, officials of the monarch threw out books relating toRoman Catholicism fromDuke Humfrey's Library.[26] TheOxford Martyrs were tried for heresy in 1555 and subsequently burnt at the stake, on what is nowBroad Street, for their religious beliefs and teachings. The three martyrs were the bishopsHugh Latimer andNicholas Ridley, and the archbishopThomas Cranmer.[28] TheMartyrs' Memorial stands nearby, round the corner to the north onSt Giles'.
During theEnglish Civil War, Oxford housed the court ofCharles I in 1642, after the king was expelled fromLondon.[3] In 1646, during theSiege of Oxford, the town eventually surrendered toParliamentarian forces commanded byGeneral Fairfax, and occupied by ColonelRichard Ingoldsby.[29] In the final period of the English Civil War in 1652, as news ofCharles II approaching the city, the Parliamentarians proceeded to pull down defenses in theOxford Castle where they were garrisoned and retreated toNew College, this resulted in great damage to the college in the process.[29] The city walls at this time was in very bad condition, the moat was rented as a fishpond, while the towers used as a space of residence. Therefore, a new set of ramparts had to be built to defend the town against any coming siege.[11]
It later housed the court of Charles II during theGreat Plague of London in 1665–1666. Although reluctant to do so, he was forced to evacuate when the plague got too close.[30] The city suffered two serious fires in 1644 and 1671.[31] The town underwent a radical makeover of its buildings during this period, with the most notable beingTom Tower in Christ Church, theSheldonian Theatre and theBotanic Gardens.
The mid-to-late 18th century saw other great new landmarks added to the city such as the Radcliffe Camera and theRadcliffe Observatory. While in 1785, a new prison complex was built on the site of the old dilapidated Oxford Castle after it was judged to be in a poor state byJohn Howard, as the castle had been used as the local prison after the civil war.[32]
In 1790, theOxford Canal connected the city withCoventry. TheDuke's Cut was completed by theDuke of Marlborough in 1789 to link the new canal with theRiver Thames; and, in 1796, the Oxford Canal company built its own link to the Thames, atIsis Lock. In 1844, theGreat Western Railway linked Oxford withLondon viaDidcot andReading,[33][34] and other rail routes soon followed. In the 19th century, the controversy surrounding theOxford Movement in theChurch of England drew attention to the city as a focus of theological thought. A permanent military presence was established in the city with the completion ofCowley Barracks in 1876.[35]
Oxford Town Hall was built byHenry T. Hare; the foundation stone was laid on 6 July 1893 and opened by the futureKing Edward VII on 12 May 1897. The site has been the seat of local government since theGuild Hall of 1292 and though Oxford is a city and a LordMayoralty, the building is still called by its traditional name of "Town Hall".
During theFirst World War, the population of Oxford changed. The number of University members was significantly reduced as students, fellows and staff enlisted. Some of their places in college accommodation were taken by soldiers in training. Another reminder of the ongoing war was found in the influx of wounded and disabled soldiers, who were treated in new hospitals housed in buildings such as the university's Examination School, thetown hall andSomerville College.[36] During theSecond World War, Oxford was largely ignored by the German air raids during theBlitz, primarily asHitler had plans to make Oxford the new capital city.[37][unreliable source] Also perhaps due to the lack of heavy industry such as steelworks or shipbuilding that would have made it a target, although it was still affected by the rationing and influx of refugees fleeingLondon and other cities.[38] The university's colleges served as temporary militarybarracks and training areas for soldiers before deployment.[39]
By the early 20th century, there was rapid industrial and population growth, with the printing and publishing industries becoming well established by the 1920s. Also during the 1920s, the economy and society of Oxford underwent a huge transformation asWilliam Morris establishedMorris Motors Limited to mass-produce cars in Cowley, on the south-eastern edge of the city. By the early 1970s over 20,000 people worked in Cowley at the huge Morris Motors andPressed Steel Fisher plants. Oxford was now a city of two halves: the university city to the west ofMagdalen Bridge and the car town to the east. This led to the witticism that "Oxford is the left bank of Cowley".
On 6 May 1954,Roger Bannister, a 25-year-old medical student, ran the first authenticated sub-four-minute mile at theIffley Roadrunning track in Oxford. Although he had previously studied atOxford University, Bannister was studying atSt Mary's Hospital Medical School inLondon at the time.[40] He later returned to Oxford University and becameMaster ofPembroke College. Oxford's second university,Oxford Brookes University, formerly the Oxford School of Art, then OxfordPolytechnic, based atHeadington Hill, was given itscharter in 1991 and for ten years has been voted the best new university in the UK.[41] It was named to honour the school's founding principal,John Henry Brookes.
Cowley suffered major job losses in the 1980s and 1990s during the decline ofBritish Leyland, but is now producing the successfulMini forBMW on a smaller site. Much of the original car factory atCowley was demolished in the 1990s, and is now the site of the Oxford Business Park.[42] The influx of migrant labour to thecar plants andhospitals, recent immigration fromSouth Asia, and a large student population, have given Oxford a notably cosmopolitan character, especially in theHeadington andCowley Road areas with their manybars, cafes, restaurants, clubs, Asian shops and fast food outlets and the annual Cowley RoadCarnival. Oxford is one of the most diverse small cities in Britain: the most recent population estimates for 2011[43] showed that 22% of the population were from black or minority ethnic groups, compared to 13% inEngland.[44]
Oxford was anancient borough. It was described as havingburgesses in 1086, and its earliest knownmunicipal charter was issued around 1155 byHenry II. From the early 13th century the borough corporation was headed by amayor.[45][46]
The early borough was entirely in Oxfordshire, but from the late 13th century the borough was extended to also include a small part ofBerkshire which lay north of the main channel of the Thames at the northern end of theGrandpont causeway (near the laterFolly Bridge). The borough then straddled the two counties until 1889. Throughout the middle ages there were occasional disputes regarding the location of the borough boundaries and also the extent to which the corporation's jurisdiction applied to the university.[45][22] Following the creation of theDiocese of Oxford in 1542 the borough also took oncity status.[47]
TheOxford constituency was enlarged in 1832 to take in an area south-east of the borough on the opposite side of theRiver Cherwell, including the growing suburbs aroundSt Clement's Church.[48] The borough was reformed to become amunicipal borough in 1836 under theMunicipal Corporations Act 1835, which standardised how most boroughs operated across the country. As part of the 1836 reforms, the municipal boundaries were enlarged to match the constituency.[49][22]
The corporation's powers were primarily judicial rather than providing public services. A separate body ofimprovement commissioners was established in 1771 to maintain the city's streets.[47] The commissioners were replaced in 1864 when alocal government district was established, administered by a local board which also had responsibility for sewers, water supply, public health and other local government functions. The local government district initially matched the borough, but was enlarged in 1865 to take in parts of the neighbouring parishes ofCowley andNorth Hinksey to the south of the city.[50] The district was further enlarged in 1875 to take in thetithing of Grandpont south of the Thames. The borough corporation and local board existed alongside each other with their differently defined areas and roles between 1864 and 1889.[22]
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By 1889, Oxford was one of only fourteen towns or cities in England which still had a separate borough corporation and local board. TheLocal Government Act 1888 directed thaturban sanitary districts which straddled county boundaries (as the Oxford local government district did) were to be placed entirely in the county which had the majority of the district's population. The 1888 Act also required the remaining cases where the borough corporation was not the urban sanitary authority to be resolved.[51] As such, the parts of the Oxford local government district in Berkshire (principally Grandpont) were transferred to Oxfordshire with effect from 1 April 1889, in order to bring the whole district into Oxfordshire. Seven months later, on 9 November 1889, the local board's functions were transferred to the borough council and the borough was enlarged to cover the whole of the old local government district plus additional areas includingNew Hinksey south of the city andSummertown north of the city. The county boundary with Berkshire was adjusted again so that the borough as enlarged was wholly in Oxfordshire. As thus enlarged the city was considered large enough for the city council to also provide county-level functions, and so it was made acounty borough, independent fromOxfordshire County Council.[52][22][53]
In 1929 the boundaries of the city were extended to include the suburbs ofHeadington,Cowley andIffley to the east, andWolvercote to the north. The boundaries were extended again in 1957 to take in theBlackbird Leys estate to the south-east of the city.[22][53] In 1962 the council was given the right to appoint aLord Mayor.[54]
In 1974, Oxford was made anon-metropolitan district under theLocal Government Act 1972. It retained the same boundaries as had last been reviewed in 1957, but became a lower-tier district council, with Oxfordshire County Council providing county-level services in the city.[55] Oxford'scity status and lord mayoralty were transferred to the new non-metropolitan district created in 1974.[56] The city boundaries were further enlarged in 1991 to take inLittlemore,Marston, andRisinghurst and Sandhills.[57]
